Tehran International Conference on Refractories , 4-6 May 2004 235

IMPORTANT FACTORS IN THE SELECTION OF STEEL LADLE LINING MATERIALS

John Harvey and Samantha Birch

Vesuvius Group, UK

1. INTRODUCTION
The selection of the most suitable refractory lining depends on a whole series of factors. Steel making
processes, steel quality, ladle availability, new refractory developments, plant logistics and of course,
cost of refractory per tonne of good quality steel produced. Value in use is the prime objective for both
the refractory supplier and the user. This paper will highlight the main issues in choosing the best lining
configuration. Choice of brick or monolithic, use of fired products or carbon containing systems will be
explained.

2. PROCESS AND STEEL TYPE

There are a number of steelmaking processes, but this paper will be confined to addressing five main
types; Stainless; Silicon killed (Si); Mixed Aluminium/Silicon killed (Al/Si); Aluminium killed (Al)
Ladle furnace and non-ladle furnace; and Engineering steels. The nature of the processes, continuous or
intermittent, will also have a direct bearing upon the type of refractory used, as a result of the mechanical
and thermal implications involved.
2.1. Refractory Selection
In addition to the steelmaking process, it is important to consider the wear mechanisms in a steel ladle,
depending upon its location, and the physical and chemical properties required of the refractories. For
discussion purposes, the ladle will be confined to the working lining; slagline; barrel; and bottom, but
with obvious appreciation for the safety lining. Fig. 1 illustrates the locations of these zones in the ladle.
The slagline is the region that comes into contact with various slag types and compositions, which can
produce aggressive behaviour in terms of chemical corrosion and erosion at the refractory interface.
There is also a potential for oxidation, depending upon the refractory type. The main feature of the
refractory material should be to offer good slag resistance.
The sidewalls undergo thermo-mechanical movement during operation, which can result in the reduction
of the structural integrity of the lining. The materials must therefore exhibit optimum physical proper-
ties.
The bottom tends to suffer from mechanical wear, due to steel impact during metal transfer and the
factors associated with it. Ideally, the materials should offer good impact and thermal shock resistance.
2.1.1. Stainless Steel
The type of slags generated in stainless steelmaking are typically 1:1 to 1:1.5 lime: silica ratio, which are
best suited to dolomitic refractories, provided the plant has good logistics and thermal management
procedures. Dolomite is a particularly low cost material, but inherently exhibits a large reversible ther-
mal expansion (RTE).
If a plant has an intermittent operation and or bad logistics, then alternative materials may be used.
Alumina-magnesia-graphite (AMG) or Magnesia-alumina-carbon (MAC) products are chemically com-
patible with the stainless steel slags, and may be used in the slagline and bottom locations. These types
of materials exhibit a permanent thermal expansion, which is advantageous in a cyclical operation, pre-
venting metal penetration. The cost of these products, however, is somewhat higher compared with
dolomite.
Unfired high alumina shaped products are compatible with stainless steels, and are used in the barrel.
They exhibit low and permanent RTE, which aids resistance to metal penetration, but again is more
expensive compared to dolomite.

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Fig. 1. Ladle Schematic

The case for dolomite is cost and performance driven, whilst the use of AMG, MAC and unfired high
alumina is performance driven and provides an option for overcoming plant logistics.
2.1.2. Si-Killed Rebar
The types of slags generated in this type of process can be similar to those generated in stainless
steelmaking, and therefore dolomite-based materials are suitable provided there is good ladle utilisation
and thermal management. It has been known, in certain circumstances, that dolomite can extend ladle
performance to over 100 heats!
If dolomite is used in an intermittent operating plant, this can then result in the lining cracking upon
cooling, creating the potential for metal penetration and excessive damage to the safety lining, thus
compromising ladle security.
Magnesia carbon is compatible for use in the slagline, barrel, and bottom, but may not perform as well as
it will not pick up a protective coating, which is a notable characteristic of dolomite (formation of di-
calcium silicate).
AMG products can be a suitable option where a plant has poor logistics or thermal management, due to
the positive, permanent RTE and subsequent prevention of lining cracking / metal penetration. The main
drawback of this material is cost, when compared to the dolomite option.
Alumina spinel and spinel-forming monolithic materials (cast / shotcrete) have been used successfully in
this application. They offer a good surface for repair and veneering due to minimal slag build-up. There
is an initial large capital outlay required, together with additional equipment for installation, and the
material requires a dry-out period, but in theory, this can be a cost-effective option with low refractory
waste product.
2.1.3. Mixed Operation Al/Si Killed
This type of process can produce extremely severe conditions, due to the nature of the slag compositions
involved. A typical slag may consist of 1.5:1 lime : silica, but with Mn and other constituents, which can
influence the physical and chemical characteristics of the slag.
Generally, magnesia carbon will be the most suitable material for the slagline, comprising of high purity
raw materials, including fused magnesia grain, carbon, and metallic additions, to withstand the demands
imposed to an acceptable level. This also applies to the barrel areas.
Alumina magnesia graphite (AMG) products can be used, featuring high specification materials to give
the required slag resistance in the sidewalls. Generally, they comprise high levels of fused alumina, min.
15% magnesia additions, 8% carbon, and an antioxidant package.

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AMG can be extended to the ladle bottom, similar to the brands used in the sidewall, but modified to give
stream impact and thermal shock resistance.
Monolithics have given good performance in ladle sidewalls and bottom for reasons given in Si-killed
applications, and will continue to provide a viable option for this process depending upon plant condi-
tions and equipment availability to install and maintain the lining.
2.1.4. Al Killed Non Ladle Furnace
Essentially flat products are manufactured using this route; strip, rolled coil, and plate, with slag compo-
sitions typically >2:1 CaO:SiO2 and at relatively low temperatures due to the chemical heating of the
steel (For example, iron levels +10 to 25% will reduce the melting point of the slag). Magnesia carbon
is compatible with the typical slag compositions. The quality of magnesia carbon product does not have
to be high purity, but it is important to pay attention to the slagline and barrel junction.
A recent new development product, fired alumina spinel, has been used successfully in ladle sidewall
applications. A high purity, high performance material, which does not contain carbon offers obvious
benefits to the ULC steelmaker. It is generally a dense, high fired product, which can be prone to spalling
and subsequent metal penetration. Therefore, good thermal management techniques are required.
Unfired and fired alumina types are also employed in the sidewall, and with the correct lime: alumina
ratio in the slag can form a protective coating on the refractory (refer to Fig.2), which can contribute to an
increase in performance.
When using bauxite-based AMG materials, optimum slag conditions have been known to give barrel
performances in excess of 300 heats, including the installation of two slaglines and intermittent shotcrete
repairs. The ladle lining configuration is illustrated in Fig. 3, and the average ladle life is tabulated in Fig
4. Such materials exhibit a positive thermal expansion in service, which means they can withstand a
degree of thermal abuse, or aid in the management of a large integrated ladle fleet.
Magnesia carbon can also be used in the ladle sidewall, but if there is a large ladle fleet, common to
integrated steelmaking, ineffective utilisation of the ladles can create problems with the ultimate per-
formance of this type of material in service.
In ladle bottom applications, conditions can be particularly arduous with the effects of direct steel stream
impact, and thermal cycling. Therefore, AMG materials are commonly employed in the impact region,
with the use of high purity synthetic alumina, high levels of magnesia, graphite and a metallic package.
Lower levels of magnesia and graphite products may be used in the bottom surround, as conditions do
not tend to be so demanding.
Alumina-spinel forming monolithics either cast in-situ or pre-cast can give excellent performance in this
application, but this depends upon the individual plant practice, conditions etc.
Magnesia carbon can be used, but high levels of metal antioxidant need to be added to give good impact
strength, and generally it does not perform as well as AMG or monolithic constructions.
Dolomite based materials are not suitable for this process, as the dolomite combines with alumina to
form calcium aluminate phases, which have a low melting point, thus causing dissolution of the lining.
Example of this can be seen in Fig.5, illustrating the difference in wear of the MgO-C and dolomite
material in a ladle barrel.
2.1.5. Al Killed Ladle Furnace
This type of process is predominantly used for the manufacture of ULC / VLC products, or where the
control of specific elements is required (eg. O2, C, H2, N2). This generally requires the use of secondary
treatments such as vacuum degassing, in the form of RH (and to a lesser extent DH) degassing, or tank
degassing. Ladle arc heating may also be employed to maintain the temperature of the steel.
The types of slag experienced in this type of process are calcium aluminate based, but with lower levels
of aluminium and iron (< 5%), resulting in a very refractory slag. Therefore, calcium aluminate and or
calcium fluoride is added to lower the melting point of the slag.
For the slagline quality, magnesia carbon is compatible with the slags generated, but in this type of

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Fig. 2. Protective Coating on Refractory Fig. 3. Ladle Lining Configuration

Fig. 4. Steel Ladle Average Lining Life

process, a 10-15% carbon product is common. Recently, with the increasing use of high purity fused
magnesia, there has been the move towards a higher quality magnesia carbon product.
For the sidewall material, fired alumina spinel is suitable for this application, but performance may be
lower than that seen in a non ladle furnace practice, due to the lower levels of Al in the slag, which
contributes to form a protective layer on the refractory.
Fired and unfired alumina products have been used in this environment, but performance is likely to be
less than 100 heats.
Magnesia carbon is commonly used, but it requires good thermal maintenance, and due to the inherent
properties of this material, there is the potential for heat loss and carbon pick-up.
AMG materials will generally perform better than fired or unfired alumina, and with the careful material
selection will perform as well as fired alumina spinel.
As with non-ladle furnace practice, generally the bottom may comprise of AMG, alumina-spinel
monolithics, or magnesia carbon, or a combination of these materials to maximise performance and
value in use.
2.1.6. Engineering Steels
Engineering steels cover a wide range of materials with a variety of compositions. Hence, conditions in
this type of process can be highly aggressive, with varying slag types. Therefore, the best solution for the
entire ladle is a good quality magnesia carbon, generally 10-15% carbon and with a high quality fused
magnesia addition.
High quality alumina-spinel monolithics are also used in this application, in the sidewall and bottom, but

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will not offer superior slag resistance compared with magnesia carbon in these areas. However, these
materials can be used effectively as a repair material in this environment. The surface of the refractory
can be cleaned of any residual slag to allow repair by either casting or shotcrete.
2.2. Ladle Design Construction
There are a number of ladle shapes in existence today, each with advantages and disadvantages, but their
use can also be determined by customer preference, historical practice and plant logistics.
There are three main types of brick shapes available, including: Semi-Universal Ladle Brick (SULB);
Minikey; and Side Arch. Fig. 6 illustrates the different brick shapes.
SULB bricks are generally available in 100mm course height with curved ends, making them suitable for
spiral build constructions. In this type of build, it is common to cast a starter ramp using a high alumina
castable, so as to provide a platform with which to form the spiral. Please refer to Fig. 7 for an example
of a starter ramp. This shape is popular due to the quick installation time, the ease and flexibility of the
build. There are fewer vertical joints, but it is not a tight build, which makes it suitable only for smaller
ladles. The construction can be mechanically unstable, particularly in big ladles, with a potential for
metal penetration and joint erosion. The lining can become unstable, with a loss of key in thin or worn
linings, and is susceptible to cracking in the middle of the brick due to hoop stresses induced in service.
Minikey or crown bricks may be described as a brick with a single taper where the width tapers along the
length of the brick, with a mean 150mm width dimension in the middle of the brick. The construction
will comprise of a combination of two or more taper bricks, generally a slow taper i.e. a small increase
or decrease around the 150mm dimension, and a sharp taper i.e. a larger increase or decrease, so as to
turn the ring or spiral. This is an easy and flexible build, offering good lining stability, which makes it
suitable for larger ladles and oval shells. There is consistent course height, with less potential for metal
penetration and joint erosion. Installation can be time consuming if it is a course per course and cut key
construction, and since this is a tight build, the lining can become stressed in service, with cracking of the
brick parallel to the hot face. A spiral construction, however, allows speedy installation, and can give
better lining stability compared with semi-universal design.
Side arch or more commonly P-Series can be described as a brick with a single taper where the depth
tapers along the width of the brick, and the course height is typically 250mm. This type of construction
is very much dependent upon customer preference and experience. It is a good, stable construction, and
maintains a stable lining with a thin residual thickness. It is also a good construction for stress relief due
to the number of joints in the vertical direction. It can, however, be a slower build compared with a spiral
SULB construction or minikey, with a stepped construction in conical ladles. Skilled labour is required
for effective installation.
2.3. Plant Type
Currently, there are two primary steelmaking facilities; The Integrated Plant - Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
(BOS); and The Minimill - Electric Arc Steelmaking. According to the International Iron and Steel
Institute (IIST), in 2001, 59.4% of the Worlds crude steel production was manufactured by BOS, and
33.8% by EAF, and in 2002, 60.1% and 33.9% respectively. The remaining capacity was manufactured
by the Open Hearth method (mainly in Russia & Ukraine) and other processes.
The Integrated Plant essentially consists of a Blast Furnace, which generally continually produces liquid
iron, and is then transferred to the converter. Scrap is charged first into the vessel, followed by the
molten iron. The cost of producing the iron compared with the scrap cost determines the charge mix.
Ladle fleets commonly contain in excess of 20 shells in order to meet the continual demand to make
steel. This demand is controlled both by the Blast Furnace and the market.
The Minimill, which is generally contained in a much smaller area, uses cold scrap as its primary feed,
which is then melted using high powered electrodes. Output compared with typical integrated plants
tends to be much lower, with a more focused product range. The EAF is much more flexible than a BOS
plant, as it is possible to turn off a plant and then re-start it more easily. Subsequently, the ladle fleet

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Fig. 5. Dolomite in Al-killed Process

Fig. 6. Ladle Brick Shapes

Fig. 7. Starter Ramp for Spiral Construction

tends to be much smaller.
The table below [1] gives the costs of each process, including the capital investments; operating costs,
and output;
There is a high initial capital outlay for the integrated process, but operating costs are lower, and output
is higher compared with the EAF route. Electric steelmaking is particularly dependent upon power
availability and energy costs, and scrap prices. James King [2] reports that scrap prices in the US rose
from $69/tonne in January 2002 to $121 in April 2003, and is now approximately $125 due to interna-
tional demand. In addition, during 2004, energy costs in the UK, for example, are expected to rise ~ 6%.
However, continuous developments for both processes, provide the basis for cost reductions of both
capital expenditure and operating costs whilst maintaining productivity and addressing environmental
issues. Some of these developments include; coal injection in the BF; preheating EAF scrap with ex-
haust gases [3]; use of Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) in the BF and EAF. As a point of interest, Hutchinson
[4] noted that between 1989 and 1996, world-wide production of DRI more than doubled in excess of 33
Mt. This has now increased to over 67Mt.

3. THE MARKET
The dominant factors which control the production of steel is the demand for steel products and its
market price. As Hutchinson states The customer is the casting machine and rolling mill[5].
In 2003, World apparent consumption of steel was estimated at 832 Mt, with China accounting for ~ 25%
[6]. Forecasts suggest that consumption will increase at an average 2.4% over the next three years, with
China, NAFTA, EU, and remaining Asia being the biggest consumers.
This compares to 930 Mt World production of crude steel in 2003 and a projected increase of an average
2.6% over the next three years.

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The demand for steel is largely determined by the industrial production and construction sectors, and if
activity is slow, this has a direct effect on steel consumption.
World steel prices have generally remained buoyant in response to continued demand, with an average
13% increase on 2002 prices, depending upon the product. Hot rolled coil, for example, was $362/T in
December 2003, compared with $328/T in December 2002. Plate was $378/T in December 2003 and
$327/T in December 2002, and medium sections were $411 (Dec 2003) and $339 (Dec 2002)(7). Prices
are predicted to increase slightly in 2004, due to continued consumption, and increases input costs.
Currency effects can also have direct consequences on trade. For instance, recent increases in the Euro
Table 1. Approximate Plant Costs
Capital Cost Operating Cost Productivity
Steel Plant
($ / T) ($ / T) (mh / T)
Integrated
950 240 1.8
(4 Mt)
Minimill
250 260 0.5
(1.8 Mt)

against the US dollar, has seen the influx of lower cost imports. In the first quarter of 2003, imports of
hot rolled coil averaged at 520,000 tonnes per month, which were approximately 15% higher than in
2002. In addition, the strong Euro affects the ability to compete in the export market.

4. CONCLUSION
Steelmaking is certainly an art, and is often a complex and difficult process. Likewise, refractory type
and selection is not a simple task. Refractory selection in itself is often a compromise, as it is usually not
possible to have all the desired properties; physical, chemical, and thermal all in one material. One
feature is usually gained to the detriment of another. This is illustrated in the case of using dolomite in
stainless steelmaking applications. Chemically it performs very well, but if the process is intermittent, or
thermal management is poor, then the material may be susceptible to cracking upon cooling due to its
inherent large RTE.
The refractory material choice involves careful selection to suit the process it is intended, to give suitable
chemical and physical performance.
Cost is obviously a determining factor in the selection of a material, but value in use and the effect on
steel quality must also be taken into account. Dolomite is a low cost refractory, but will not perform well
in al-killed applications. The use of more innovative materials such as alumina-spinel, AMG, even high
alumina products, can have a major impact on the ladle performance if used correctly.
There are a variety of ladle construction methods and designs, all of which have their own features in
terms of installation and performance in service. It is often customer preference and or historical prac-
tice, which determine the use of a particular design.
The two types of plant outlined in this paper both face individual steelmaking pressures, but ultimately
are controlled by the demand for steel and its market price. This in turn is predominantly influenced by
the activity in the industrial production and construction sectors.
It is known, that the ladle fleets and individual ladle capacity may vary in size according to the plant type,
which can have an impact on the types of refractory materials employed, in addition to selection to suit
the steel grade and process involved.
Finally, with the continuous developments in steelmaking process, steel products, striving to reduce
costs, and environmental pressures, the refractory supplier has to be able to anticipate and react to these
advancements, offering product developments or solutions.

REFERENCES
1. Edington, Dr J W, Oxygen Steelmaking in the 21st Century, 2nd European Oxygen Steelmaking

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Congress, Taranto, Italy, October 1997.

2. King, James F, steelonthenet.com, Steel Industry Statistics Service Page, Page 8, January 2004.
3. Edington, Dr J W, Oxygen Steelmaking in the 21st Century, 2nd European Oxygen Steelmaking
Congress, Taranto, Italy, Page 5, October 1997.
4. Hutchinson, L C, Steelmaking Optimization in Mini Mills, McMaster Symposium on Iron &
Steelmaking, No.25, Canada, 1997.
5. Hutchinson, L C, Steelmaking Optimization in Mini Mills, McMaster Symposium on Iron &
Steelmaking, No.25, Canada, 1997.
6. MEPS, Global Iron and Steel Production to 2007, 2003.
7. MEPS, World Steel Transaction Prices, 2003.

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