Running head: LEARNING THEORY 1

Paper Two

Learning Theory: Application to Capstone Project

Brianne Fitzgerald

California State University - Monterey Bay

IST520 Learning Theory

Dr. Sarah Tourtellotte, Ph.D.

May 12, 2017

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As an accredited member of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), the

Monterey Bay Aquarium (MBA) must conduct zoonotic diseases training for employees and

volunteers of the husbandry department (animal care team). A zoonotic disease is a disease

spread between animals and people. Zoonotic diseases can be caused by viruses, bacteria,

parasites, and fungi. They can be transmitted from frozen food items offered to the aquariums

animals or transmitted directly from the animals themselves. Kumar, Lokesha, Madhavaprasad,

Shilpa, Karabasanavar, and Kumar (2013) reported that there are approximately 1,415 infectious

agents causing diseases in humans, out of which 868 (61%) are known to be zoonotic in nature.

More than 70% of the emerging zoonotic diseases have wild animals as reservoir hosts, meaning

that employees and volunteers at the aquarium are particularly susceptible to such diseases as

they interact with wild animals. According to M. Murray, DVM, this department includes

members with the highest level of animal exposure at the aquarium, and therefore, high zoonotic

disease exposure risk. In addition to exhibit animals (which include mammals, aquatic species,

reptiles, and amphibians), members of the team are also exposed to wild nuisance animals that

arrive on site, such as raccoons and pigeons (M. Murray, DVM, personal communication,

September 10, 2016).

The Husbandry Department, which is the department that curates, maintains, and

manages the live animal collection, has a total of 150 employees and volunteers collectively.

This combined group (referred to as workers, in the rest of the document) requires training on

zoonotic diseases every two years. The staff veterinarian is the only subject matter expert (SME)

and sole provider of training, and faces the challenge of delivering training in a consistent

manner to this large worker audience. A senior manager of the husbandry department questions

the efficacy of the existing training, as there has been a recent increase in animal-related injuries.
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It is assumed that workers have also incurred injuries that go unreported. The management team

has requested a comprehensive, modular training course that will fit their departments needs in

an effort to reduce injuries. The veterinarian is requesting a revised, general training course that

would mitigate his delivery challenges, and that could be used by other AZA organizations.

Goals of Instruction

The training redesign includes two modules. The first module is designed as a general

overview of zoonotic diseases and can be used by any department within the aquarium to satisfy

AZA compliance standards. The second module is customized for the husbandry department as a

means to reinforce performance standards and to walk people through the planning process for

animal moves to include protective safety equipment.

There are other departments within the aquarium that require zoonotic diseases training

(Facilities, Guest Experience, and Volunteer Engagement). The veterinarian also requested new

training modules to meet the needs of these other three departments. Those modules are beyond

the scope of this initial project and would be included as subsequent course development after

the implementation of this training course. This document focuses on the general zoonotic

disease training module and the husbandry department module. The combined course will be

delivered through the aquariums learning management system (MBALearns) and include

supportive job aids.

Project Constraints

There are several factors that will assist in the completion of this project. The SME is

onsite and enthusiastic about the project and has provided content and access to training

information from other AZA institutions. Managers are supportive and have provided access to

injury reports, position descriptions, and are interesting in using this opportunity to set clear
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standards of performance. Safety equipment is available and accessible, or easily purchased.

MBA has the technology infrastructure and administrative support in place with MBALearns and

the majority of participants have become successful e-learners. Workers have experienced the

online format of instruction therefore, technology use does not pose a constraint.

Prior knowledge of zoonotic diseases does not pose a constraint to the general training module as

it is designed for the broad worker audience of varying backgrounds.

The main constraints o fthe project are posed by the safety culture of negative attitudes

toward the imposition of safety practices (these are discussed more in depth in the analysis

section). The Husbandry department has several members who hold cavalier attitudes toward

engaging in preventative safety measures. This group views animal- related injuries as part of the

job and some even regale their injury stories as badges of honor (S. Halbrend, personal

communication, October 16, 2016).

The list of environmental constraints includes:

Lack of set standards for safety equipment use and absence of accountability systems.

Negative attitudes toward adopting safety practices.

Cultural constraints between the Husbandry and Safety Departments which affect

animal-related injury reporting.

Employees following injury-reporting guidelines can be viewed as accident prone.

Managers do not necessarily recognize these constraints or how they pose barriers to

successful training outcomes. The revised training will need wide-ranging managerial support

and a broad implementation plan in order to succeed. Part of the development plan includes

meetings with the management team and veterinarian to align instructional goals with desired

outcomes. Course development can begin once the performance standards have been agreed
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upon and will occur over a three-month period followed by a 30 day implementation period.

Analysis

Needs Assessment

Personal interviews were conducted with Husbandry Department employees and

managers, the veterinarian, and two members of the Safety Department. Documents reviewed

included job descriptions, AZA standards, worker onboarding checklists, and injury reports.

Clear Expectations. The main performance issue is the employees lack of adopting

expected safety measures. A gap exists between what the employees should know from

training, and the behaviors they are demonstrating. Department managers and the veterinarian

want workers to wear gloves in the food preparation room and anytime they are handling food

items, however, these expectations have not been set as mandatory performance standards. The

veterinarian views this as a managerial responsibility; he views his role as providing information

and suggestions for best practices. The training goal is to provide a greater understanding of the

risks inherent in working with wildlife and to provide the mechanisms to mitigate risk (Dr. M.

Murray, DVM, personal communication, October 16, 2016). Managers expect employees to do

the right thing, this is an ill-defined expectation, which is supposedly achieved by workers

using their common sense and knowledge they have gained from the existing zoonotic training..

They expect employees to wear gloves when handling food and animals, with the addition of

protective gloves during certain animal-move situations. In addition to not receiving formalized

standards, the employees have not received training on how to evaluate different scenarios which

may require the use of protective gloves.

The course is designed to increase awareness of zoonotic diseases, reinforce clear

performance expectations, and outline general processes for evaluating and planning animal
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moves. Manager involvement in the development and implementation phases is instrumental to

training success.

The volunteer training progression is of interest as it adds an additional follow-up

element to the existing training offering. They receive additional on-the-job (OTJ) prevention

reinforcement in the food preparation room. Initial observations were conducted as a survey of

glove-use in this area. All volunteers observed used nitrile gloves, whereas the personnel who

did not use gloves were all employees.

Attitudes. The lack of employees consistently adopting the desired safety practices can

be attributed to both internal and external factors. Employees view the wearing of safety gloves

as an impediment to conducting their daily activities in an efficient manner. Some employees

feel that they will earn the stigma of being a wimp amongst their peers for choosing to wear

protective gloves when handling animals. There are still others who dont consider wearing

gloves because they have not been injured in the past.

The addition of managerial support systems can engender positive safety culture and help to

achieve the prescribed safety behaviors.

Animal handling procedures are not delivered through formal training. These skills are

attained through direct observation by new employees of veteran employees. Formal training of

proper animal handling and moves does not exist, and the sharing of this tacit knowledge does

not generally include safety parameters. Employees are moving animals on a daily basis. They

have learned methods from veteran employees (or from their prior place of employment) which

do not include preventative measures of zoonotic disease transmission. Granted, not all animal-

related injuries result in zoonotic disease infections, but the instances of injuries have compelled

the management team to include aspects of safe animal handling into the revised zoonotic
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diseases training course.

Of note, but not part of the information collected through interviews, employees are often

asked to take special guests into their work areas for private animal interactions (e.g. meet and

greet a penguin, interact with an octopus). Although this was not requested as an element of

training, it would be relevant to include in some format. The employee would need to guide the

guest in proper hand-washing after these events, and ensure that the resources are available.

Desired Outcomes. The course includes a task evaluation of the processes involved with

animal moves from a risk analysis standpoint. This course could close performance gaps by

increasing employee awareness of performance expectations and increasing situational task

awareness. Procedural job aids are included as quick checklists for planning animal moves, and

follow-up OTJ training will reinforce the learning objectives.

Side effects of the training may include individual resistance to changes in practices.

When any new requirement is set forth with the intention of ensuring compliance, there is often

resistance, complaints, and frustration. Implementing positive reinforcement and reward systems

as part of managerial support systems could also promote change.

As the aquarium has an LMS in place, development costs are minimal. Transitioning the

existing course into an online format reduces the costs of employees being away from their

duties, as they will be able to plan it into their schedule accordingly. Additionally, there will be a

decrease in costs incurred by the veterinary services team when the veterinarian no longer needs

to provide training. PPE purchases are already standardized for the organization. There remains a

need to purchase a variety of puncture-resistant gloves for husbandry team members.

Learner Analysis

The Husbandry Department is a homogenous team with similar backgrounds in biology

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and marine science, most within the age range of 25-40. The husbandry volunteers are a more

diverse group who range in age from the 20-65 and are more ethnically diverse. Both employees

and volunteers represent a wide range of longevity at the aquarium and therefore different levels

of technical skills and historic, departmental knowledge.

Background Knowledge/Demographics. Workers with more than five years at the

aquarium will have a higher likelihood of being exposed to zoonotic diseases training, however,

the delivery has been sporadic and undocumented. Prior training is not necessary for the general

zoonotic module. Every employee has a background in biological sciences with a minimum of

bachelors degrees. Through their coursework and prior work experience, they will have been

exposed to the foundational elements of animal handling. This prior experience serves as basic

entry knowledge for successfully completing the second module. Volunteers vary in their degree

of science knowledge and animal-related work experience and will only be assigned the second

module if their assigned duties necessitate training.

Technology Skills. Workers have varying degrees of comfort with technology which

does not necessarily impact their success with the online learning course but may necessitate

higher levels of support. The organization has shifted to more online training with the rollout of

the LMS and both employee and volunteer groups have slowly been exposed to eLearning as a

training method. (During the time taken to write this document, the zoonotic diseases training

was taken online within MBALearns. The course consisted of an instructor-led presentation

which was recorded. The hour-long video presentation was broken into smaller learning chunks

ending with a quiz. All employees and volunteers successfully participated in the course. There

is now a baseline of exposure to the information and evidence that an online course can be a
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successful delivery system for the revised training).

Employees are onsite in the main aquarium building and each has their own workstation

and computer. Three members and two volunteers in the Collections Department work in an

off-site building and also have dedicated computer access. Volunteers of each work group will

need to access the training from their personal computers, tablets or smartphones (One

volunteer successfully completed the new online training course from his smartphone).

Workplace Analysis

Interviews were conducted with Husbandry Department employees and managers.

Additional interviews were conducted with the manager of the Safety Department. In addition

to the cavalier cultural constraint previously described. An additional environmental

constraint is the husbandry employee perception of workload inequity across the department.

Being at your desk is viewed as not having enough to do. This view contributes to an

environment of frustration and potentially low motivation to participate in an online training

course. Again, training delivery will need management support through strategic

communication and clear expectations.

The cultural issues discovered between the Safety and Husbandry Departments introduce

additional constraints that impact employees adoption of safety behaviors. Employees and

managers view some safety measures as impositions, preventing them from completing their

duties efficiently. When an incident occurs and is reported, the safety team is viewed as reacting

in an authoritative way, imposing unrealistic expectations on task performance. Acceptable

safety measures presented in the training course must be agreed on by both departments and

upheld by the husbandry managers.

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Literature Review

A review of the AZA accreditation standards did not produce any requirements or

recommendations for training content. The standards simply state that zoonotic training and

preventative procedures must be in place. Institutions must train appropriate staff in methods to

prevent zoonotic disease (AZA standards, 2016). The National Association of State Public

Health Veterinarians (NASPHV) has prepared a Compendium of Measures to Prevent Diseases

Associated with Animals in Public Settings, which should be followed by institutions presenting

animals for public contact. The NASPHV recommends that local and state public health,

agricultural, environmental, and wildlife agencies use these recommendations to establish their

own guidelines or regulations for reducing the risk for disease from human-animal contact in

public settings (Williams, Scheftel, Elchos, Hopkins, & Levine, 2013). The AZA standards

require training, the Public Health Veterinarians group provide materials and statistics that can

be included in training design, but individual organizations and agencies are responsible for

developing their own training.

The Journal of Safety Research, Vol. 3, 2002 included an organizational study that was

conducted to determine which management factors were most effective in reducing workplace

injuries. It empirically confirmed that safety training for employees at the start of hire could help

reduce injuries. The most important finding of this study is that when organizations take

proactive measures to protect their employees, the company derives a financial benefit in

reduced lost time and workers compensation expenses (Vredenburgh, 2002). This study also

demonstrated that providing training in itself is not adequate. Organizations must verify that the

safe practices taught in the classes are being implemented in the work areas (Vredenburgh,

2002). The study went on to discuss that key factors for reducing injuries including changes to
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the organizational culture that would perpetuate messages of greater care for those who get

injured, instead of messages that convey the importance of saving money and reducing lost time

from injuries.

Activity Theory. This learning theory (developed by L. Vygotsky, A. Leontev, and S.

Rubinstein in the 1930s) is a framework or descriptive tool for a system. (It) considers the

entire work/activity system (including teams, organizations, etc.) beyond just one actor or user

(Learning Theories blog, n.d.). Activity theory views individual performance as a result of

development and learning within a system (i.e. organization) and takes into account the whole

mind of the individual in the environmental context. It serves as the means of conducting needs

and task analysis from the view of the organizational factors, management factors, social

relationships and individual motivation that lead to performance behaviors (or activities).

Activity theory examines the nature of practical activities, their social origins, and the nature of

the activity systems within which people collaborate (Blackler, F. 1993). When viewed from

this learning theorys framework, the act of using PPE is not simply taught by direction. A

behavioral approach to instruction will not affect performance behavior change as it would not

take into account the social context of the motivation to choose to wear protective gear or not.

There are many social-historical factors that account for individual decision and therefore,

action. It goes deeper into understanding the contextual factors that influence individual

motivation to choose the correct behavior. Why do workers choose not to wear gloves? The

answers to those questions from an activity theory lens have larger implications for training

design that, in addition to knowledge, include the need for cultural change and implementation of

management practices.

According to Laberge, MacEachen, and Calvet (2014) current occupational health and
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safety (OHS) training approaches are based on a cognitive or a behavioral educational paradigm,

which is oriented to shaping the new workers attitude or behavior so that he or she will follow

OHS rules. This training approach generally involves an instructor-centered environment of

stating the rules and making attempts to develop safe attitudes.

The study by Laberge, et al., set out to determine if those methods were effective with

young workers, or if a learner-centered approach based in activity theory would be more

effective. Through interviews of these apprentices, it was concluded that when learning new

skills at work the social environment can be both a learning resource and a source of constraints

(Laberge 2014). Experienced co-workers can pass on useful information. Or, these co-workers

can give too much conflicting advice that becomes confusing and may go against normal

operating procedures. Designing training within an activity theory framework acknowledges that

activities (safe work practices) are accomplished within a social system and takes into account

safety culture and safety climate as affecting performance outcomes.

Another area of research on activity theory indicated that a more successful learner-

centered safety program would include workers knowledge and first-level supervisors in the fine

tuning of safety practices (Ripamonti & Scaratti, 2015). Safety teams generally approach

interventions based on statistical data of injury-related reports and will employ new, unilateral

safety practices as a response without including managers in the process. These safety practices

are often not conducive to the ever-changing nature of work activities, forcing workers to break

the rules in order to accomplish their tasks. Additionally, front-line managers will often accept

this type of conduct as they have a better understanding of the conflicting pressures employees

face when accomplishing their work. A broader perspective is needed in order to create more

effective safety compliance training. Organizational factors must be included with individual
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behavior analysis.

The zoonotic diseases training design is a result of acknowledging the needed changes to

the organizational safety culture and worker attitudes toward safety by including managers and

veteran employees in all phases. It also contains learner-centered activities which allow

employees to identify and problem-solve cultural barriers to adopting safety practices. From this

approach, workers will be able to construct a better understanding of their prior attitudes toward

adopting the practices and will result in higher levels of motivation toward performance of these

practices.

Affective Domain. Not a learning theory, but worth mentioning for the project design,

Blooms Taxonomy of Learning Domains identifies three areas of learning categories: cognitive,

affective, and psychomotor. This training includes elements in the psychomotor domain by

showing workers how to remove gloves and wash hands properly. It includes elements in the

cognitive domain by having workers recall information and evaluate which situations require

PPE implementation. Additionally, it includes the cognitive category of creativity by having

employees produce a safety planning process and reviewing it with their manager. The affective

domain addresses the emotional aspects of learning including motivation, attitudes, and feelings.

This training design attempts to motivate employees to choose preventative safety measures. It

contains elements which are based on what is known to influence the affective domain.

Essentials such as getting learners to be willing to listen to the material, motivating them to

participate with the material, connecting the material to their value system, and helping them to

resolve conflicts within their value systems. If that can be accomplished, then the knowledge

will result in a new set of internalized values that controls their behavior (Clark, 2016).
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Content Analysis

The content design gives an overview of zoonotic diseases, where they are encountered

and how to prevent disease transmission. Content for the second module is designed to increase

awareness of situations which require the use of protective gloves and to motivate workers

toward choosing to wear protective equipment when moving animals. Relevance is established

by portraying real cases of animal move scenarios that resulted in injuries and includes a

respected veteran worker as the spokesperson. An element of shock factor is involved by

graphically depicting real zoonotic diseases cases as a measure to encourage employees use of

gloves.

Module 1- General zoonotic training

1. Definition of zoonotic diseases

Workers learn what a zoonotic disease is, are provided with examples of how they

can be transmitted, and are introduced to injury and infection statistics.

2. Zoonotic disease examples

Workers are introduced to types of diseases carried by different animal groups

and learn to recognize general symptoms of common zoonotic diseases.

3. Prevention

Workers are shown the proper method of washing hands, encouragement to do so

throughout the day, and when to use nitrile gloves. They are also shown the

proper methods of glove removal.

Module 2- Animal Move Safety

1. Common Scenarios

Workers are shown different work-related scenarios pertaining to animal moves at

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the aquarium. They are shown to real cases of animal-related injuries.

2. Safety Equipment

Workers are shown the different types of safety equipment available to them and

what they are designed for. They learn the expected requirements for equipment

selection and responsibilities for ensuring volunteer access to the equipment.

3. Planning Process

Workers are introduced to a planning process for animal moves. They are given

examples of animal-move situations with successful safety practices employed.

They have an opportunity to explain scenarios specific to them and how they

would utilize the information provided in training.

4. Post-course Element

Workers develop a safety plan for an upcoming animal move and review it with

their supervisor prior to initiating the task. Research has shown that manager

involvement is key to reaching application and impact goals (Phillips, 2016).

This module includes supervisors in the course assignment element to integrate

managerial encouragement of the new processes.

Development Plan

Involving multiple stakeholders in the development phase aligns the product development

within the activity theory framework. Establishing buy-in by including these managers in the

development phase will help address the barriers of accountability and lack of reward systems

that this training will need for success. An initial meeting with the SME, department managers,

two senior employees, and members of the learning and development team (Content Team) will

occur to:
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Establish consensus on performance standards to include in the course.

Establish managerial support and accountability systems.

Discuss roles in the implementation phase.

Gather input and consensus on general content inclusion.

Implementation Plan

Activity theory supports the need for social/cultural change as part of training design. A

presentation to the Husbandry Department occurs after the initial draft review. Creating a venue

for managers to present the new course will convey organizational support of and set clear

expectations for safe performance. This presentation outlines the goals of the course, aligns the

course content with departmental safety values, and provides an overview of training support and

the accountability system. It is also a forum to discuss and address employees concerns about

the new standards. The veterinarian, safety team, and husbandry managers each deliver a portion

of the presentation followed by the course overview, implementation plan, and course

administration support from the designer. This presentation acts as a vehicle for management to

establish and discuss performance expectations and system of accountability prior to course

participation. An employee activity is included which addresses the cultural constraints

discovered in the needs analysis (see Appendix C). The activity is designed to elicit suggestions

for mitigating these issues. Employee input will be evaluated for inclusion in course design.

Evaluation

Formative Evaluation

Information is collected from small group evaluations in three different phases:

1. Draft review session- the Content Team will receive the draft one week prior to a draft

review in-person session.

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2. Husbandry Department presentation- information collected from employee discussions

and the group activity during this meeting is used to adjust content during product

development.

3. Beta Test- information gathered during this phase will be used as to correct any

functional issues with the course prior to implementation.

Summative Evaluation

The summative evaluation includes course surveys, quizzes, assignments, and post-

course field observations. The pre- and posttest surveys assess how often workers employ the use

of protective safety equipment, and if the course has influenced their intent to use PPE in the

future. The posttest also provides them with the opportunity to share reasons why they would

still choose to not wear safety equipment. This will establish the need for further organizational

constraints that need addressed and/or revisions to content and delivery of the training. The

module constructed responses evaluate whether the content was an effective means to alleviate

their constraints to wearing PPE. The information gathered from these constructed responses will

be used to further refine training and managerial support systems. The field observations of

animal moves occur in the six months following training to determine if performance standards

are being met. Additional interviews with employees are conducted to help determine if the

cultural constraints have been mitigated over time as a result of the training and managerial

support systems. Having managers involved with training evaluation through observations and

individual performance feedback is critical to changing the safety climate.

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References

Accreditation standards and related policies. 2016. The Association of Zoos and Aquariums.

Retrieved from https://www.aza.org/assets/2332/aza-accreditation-standards.pdf

Activity Theory. (2007, January 21). Retrieved from https://www.learning-theories.com/activity-

theory.html

Blackler, F. (1993), Knowledge and the theory of organizations: Organizations as activity

systems and the reframing of management. Journal of Management Studies, 30: 863884.

doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.1993.tb00470.x

Blooms Taxonomy: The Affective Domain. (n.d.). Retrieved December 4, 2016, from

http://www.nwlink.com/~%E2%80%89Donclark/hrd/Bloom/affective_domain.html

California Code of Regulations, Title 8, Section 5199.1. Aerosol Transmissible Diseases -

Zoonotic. (n.d.). Retrieved November 9, 2016, from https://www.dir.ca.gov/title8/5199-

1.html

Engestrm, Y., Miettinen, R., & Punamki, R.-L. (1999). Perspectives on Activity Theory.

Cambridge University Press.

Jonassen, D., & Rohrer-Murphy, L. (1999). Activity Theory as a Framework for Designing

Constructivist Learning Environments. Educational Technology Research and

Development,47(1), 61-79. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/30220230

Laberge, M., MacEachen, E., & Calvet, B. (2014). Why are occupational health and safety

training approaches not effective? Understanding young worker learning processes using an

ergonomic lens. Safety Science, 68, 250257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2014.04.012

Williams, C. J., Scheftel, J. M., Elchos, B. L., Hopkins, S. G., & Levine, J. F. (2013).

Compendium of Measures to Prevent Disease Associated with Animals in Public Settings,

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2013. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 243(9), 12701288.

Vredenburgh, A. (2002). Organizational safety: Which management practices are most effective

in reducing employee injury rates? Journal of Safety Research, 33, 259276.