3RD LE BIO 11 LEC NOTES: ZOOLOGY
Nervous
October 10, 2017
OUTLINE
ANIMALS: FORM AND FUNCTION
A.Animal Cell types and tissues
B.Animal Systems and Processes
1. Support and protection
2. Movement
3. Digestion and nutrition
4. Gas exchange
5. Transport/Circulation
6. Excretion and Osmoregulation
7. Regulatory Mechanisms
Source: Hickmans Principles of Biology & Campbell
__________________________________________
FORM AND FUNCTION:
Anatomy: the study of the biological form of an
organism
Physiology: the study of the biological functions an
organism performs
The comparative study of animals reveals that form
and function are closely correlated
Life is characterized by hierarchical levels of
organization, each with emergent properties.
o Review: Atoms Molecule Cell Tissue
Organ Body/Organ System
Organism Population Community
Ecosystem Biosphere
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION IN ORGANISMAL COMPLEXITY:
1) Protoplasmic grade of organization (simplest form of
life)
a. Unicellular organisms
b. All life functions are confined within the
boundaries of a single cell
c. Protoplasm is differentiated into organelles
d. Eukaryotes vs. Prokaryotes:
i. Membrane-bound organelles: Eukaryotes
1. Single-celled eukaryotes:
Paramecium
ii. Non-membrane bound: Prokaryotes
2) Cellular grade of organization:
a. Aggregation of cells that are functionally
differentiated (cells can have different
functions)
b. A division of labor is evident
3) Cell-tissue grade of organization:
a. Aggregation of similar cells into definite
patterns of layers, thus becoming a tissue
4) Tissue-organ grade of organization
a. An aggregation of tissues into organs
5) Organ-system grade of organization
a. Organs work together to perform some
functions
b. Systems are associated with basic body
functions
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION IN HIGHER FORMS
Structural Types/Kinds/Examples
Unit
Tissue A. Somatic B. Reproductive
- Epithelial - Sperm
- Connective - Egg/oocyte
B. Muscular
C.
Cell Same as in tissue Cytology/cell
biology
FOUR MAIN CATEGORIES OF ANIMAL TISSUES: (EMNT)
EPITHELIAL TISSUE:
- Separates outside from inside environment
i. Gastrointestinal tract: outside
- Covers the outside of the body and lines organs and
cavities within the body
- Compact; occurs in sheets of tightly packed cells
- Little intercellular substance
- Polarized
- Cells are closely joined
a. Apical or free surface
i. Is exposed to air or fluid
ii. Structures on free surfaces: microvilli, cilia,
flagella
b. Basal surface
i. Where the cells at the base of the barrier
are attached (where theyre grounded)
ii. Also called basal lamina and basement
membrane
A. Animals have 3 main types of intercellular links:
a. Tight junctions:
a. prevents mixing between outside and inside
environments
b. membranes of adjacent cells are fused,
forming continuous belts around cells
c. prevent leakage of extracellular fluid
across a layer of epithelial cells
b. Gap junctions
a. Communication junctions
b. Making cells synchronized
c. Cytoplasmic channels
Desmosomes
c.
a. For anchorage
b. made of intermediate filaments
B. Types according to layering:
a. Simple epithelium: made of a single layer of cells
b. Stratified epithelium: made up of many layers of
cells
c. Pseudostratified epithelium: made up of a single
layer of cells but appears stratified
C. Types according to shape:
a. Cuboidal: Like dice
b. Squamous: flat like tiles
c. Columnar: like bricks on end (absorptive)
D. Types:
A. Simple squamous epithelium
B. Stratified squamous epithelium
a. Consists of 2 to many layers of cells
b. Adapted to withstand mild
mechanical abrasion
c. Basal layers of cells undergo
continuous mitotic divisions
d. Lines the oral cavity, esophagus, anal
Field of
canal, vagina of mammals, skin
study C. Simple cuboidal epithelium
Histology a. Short, boxlike cells
b. Usually lines small ducts and tubules
 c. May have active secretory and
absorptive functions
d. Glandular epithelium
D. Simple columnar epithelium
a. Like cuboidal epithelium but cells are
taller
b. Found on highly absorptive surfaces
such as intestinal tract
E. Stratified columnar epithelium
a. Consists of at least two layers of cells
b. Found along some areas of the
anorectal region and salivary duct
F. Pseudostratified epithelium
a. Consists of a single layer of cells
varying in height and position of their
nuclei
b. In many vertebrates, forms a mucous
membrane that lines portions of the
respiratory tract
E. Special types of epithelial tissue
a. Transitional epithelium:
a. A type of pseudostratified epithelium
b. Specialized to accommodate great
stretching
c. Found in the urinary tract and
bladder
b. Glandular epithelia:
a. Absorb or secrete chemical solutions
b. Types based on how products are
released:
i. Exocrine (uni/multicellular):
secretes into outside
environment
1. Ex: salivary glands
ii. Endocrine: secretion into
blood (inside environment)
1. hormones
iii. Mixed (e.g. pancreas)
F. Special terms of some epithelial tissues:
a. Mesothelium: squamous cells lining serous cavities
such as peritoneal and pleural cavities and lining
of visceral organs (somewhat in the middle of outside and
inside)
b. Endothelium: lining of blood and lymph vessels
(separates outside from inside like epithelium)
October 12, 2017
CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
- Mechanical support
- Bind structures to preserve integrity of organization
- Exchange of metabolites between blood and tissue
- Paucity of cells; more intracellular substance (fibers
and ground substance)
- The intercellular substance or extracellular matrix
generally consists of a web of fibers embedded in a
uniform foundation that may be liquid, jellylike, or
solid
- Types of cells:
a. Fixed
b. Wandering
- Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates
A. Fibrous connective tissue
a. Tendons and ligaments
b. Amorphous ground substance (ECM)
i. Glycosaminoglycan such as chondroitin
sulfate
ii. Permit diffusion of nutrients, substances,
water, gases, and wastes
iii. Important in areas where small blood
vessels are absent
B. Loose connective tissue
a. Binds epithelia to underlying tissues
b. AKA Areolar tissue
c. Functions as packing materials, holding
organs in place
d. Has all three fiber types
e. Two cell types predominate in its fibrous
mesh
i. Fibroblasts
ii. Microphages
C. Adipose Tissue
a. Specialized form of loose connective tissues
that store fat in adipose cells
b. Pads and insulates the body and stores fuel
as fat molecules
c. Each adipose cells contains a large fat
droplet that swells when fat is stored and
shrinks when the body uses fat as fuel
D. Cartilage:
a. Has an abundance of collagenous fibers
embedded in a rubbery matrix made of a
substance called chondroitin sulfate, a
protein-carbohydrate complex
b. Chondrocytes secrete collagen and
chondroitin sulfate
c. Types:
i. Hyaline cartilage
1. Bluish white, translucent, and
homogenous
2. Has significant proportion of
collagen fibers
3. Covers joint surfaces and rib
ends
4. Present in nose, larynx, and
trachea
5. Skeletal cartilage in the nose,
larynx, and trachea
6. Skeletal cartilage in the embryos
of all vertebrates
7. Skeletal cartilage of adult sharks
and rays
ii. Elastic cartilage
1. Contains fine collagenous fibers
and many elastic fibers
2. External ears, Eustachian tube
(attaches ears to pharynx),
epiglottis (covers
windpipe/glottis)
3. Maintains a structures shape
while allowing great flexibility
iii. Fibrocartilage
 Nuclei stain very
1. Contains many large collagenous basophil 0.5- faintly, often
Stain blue Infla-
fibers 2 obscured by with basic mmatory
cytoplasmic
granules; U or J- dye reaction
2. Intervertebral disks, pubic shaped

symphysis, disks of knee joint Two main phagocytic cells in animals: macrophages
and pads between femur and and neutrophil (aka microphage)
tibia Agranulocyte
3. Absorbs compression shock Type % Nucleus Cytoplasmi Other
c granule/ features
cytoplasm
E. Bone:
Lymphocyt 20 Large, Narrow Smallest;
a. The skeleton supporting most vertebrates e - somewhat rim of antibody
b. Mineralized connective tissue 25 spherical cytoplasm production
c. Calcium phosphate with some
indentation
d. Osteoblasts (osteocytes: general;
s and only
osteoblasts: specific cells that produce bone) slightly
are cells that deposit a matric of collagen concentric
e. Then, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate position
ions combine and harden within the matrix Monocyte 3- Nuclei vary Large Biggest;
8 slightly, amount of becomes
into the mineral hydroxyapatite indented cytoplasm macro-
f. the combination of hard mineral and flexible ovals to Phage
collagen makes bone harder than cartilage horse-shoe (monocyte
without being brittle shaped still in
structure blood;
g. Osteoclasts are cells that destroys bone; macrophag
bone remodelling is a constant process in e in Loose
humans that allows changes in bone connective
structure tissue)
phagocytic
F. Blood:
o Made of:
MUSCLE TISSUE:
i. Plasma (55%): matrix consisting of water,
- Composed of long cells called muscle fibers that are
salts, and a variety of dissolved proteins
capable of contracting when stimulated by nerve
ii. Formed elements (45%): erythrocytes,
impulses
leukocytes and cell fragments called
- Most abundant tissue in most animals
platelets (thrombocytes)
- Muscle contraction accounts for most for the energy-
Plasma:
consuming cellular work
1. Water (90% of plasma)
A. Skeletal muscle
2. Dissolved solids
Voluntary muscles
3. Gases (O2, CO2, N)
a. Proteins Has cylindrical and striated cells with multiple
Fibrinogen (synth. by liver) nuclei (syncytial)
Albumin (synth. by liver) Occurs in muscles attached to skeleton
Globulin Single innervation by motor nerve
b. Supplies for cells (glucose, fats and fat- Functions in voluntary movement of body
like substances, amino acids, salts) Structure of a skeletal muscle:
Formed Elements: o Muscle fiber: smallest; innermost
o produced by bone marrow o Endomysium: covers muscle fiber
1. White blood cells: fight infection o Muscle fascicle: combine multiple
2. Red blood cells: carry oxygen muscle fibers
3. Platelets: control clotting o Perimysium: around muscle fascicle
Types of White Blood Cells: o Epimysium: join muscle fascicles
Granulocyte together and is covered by this
Type % Nucleus Cytoplasmic Other B. Smooth muscle:
granule/ features Spindle-shaped cells, each with a single nucleus
cytoplasm
Cells have no striations
Neutrophil 60- 2-5 or more Fine; dont phagocytic
75 thin lobes, stain well at Double innervation by parasympathetic (flight
connected neutral pH ex: gastrointestinal; increases activity) and
by slender with either sympathetic (fight ex: pupil) nervous system;
chromatic acid or basic
threads stain
involuntary (autonomic)
eosinophil 2-5 2 oval lobes Granules, Against Blood vessel walls and walls of the digestive tract
linked by coarse; stain helminthic Functions in movement of substances in lumens
thread-like pinkish red (parasitic) (body cavity; gastrointestinal tract) of body
chromatin with acid infections
stain C. Cardiac muscle:
 Has cylindrical but branching striated cells, each
with a single nucleus
Double innervation by parasympathetic and
sympathetic nervous system; involuntary
Occurs in the wall of the heart
Functions in the pumping of blood
NERVOUS TISSUE:
- Irritability and conductivity; senses stimuli and
transmits signals from one part of the animal to
another
- Neuron: functional unit of nervous tissue; consists of a
cell body, dendrites and axons
o Dendrites: (can only receive) transmits
nerve impulses from their tips toward the
rest of the axon
o Axon: (can only send) transmits impulses
towards another neuron or toward an
effector, such as a muscle cell
- Types of neurons:
o Sensory (afferent: ascending pathway;
papunta pa lang)
o Motor (efferent: descending pathway; from
the brain to other parts)
o Interneuron
- Nerve structure:
o Endoneurium
o Perineurium
o Fasciculus
o Epineurium
October 24, 2017
You missed stuff!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
EXOSKELETON:
- External skeleton
- Molluscs composed of calcium carbonate
- Arthropods composed of chitin
- Protection and locomotion
- Simple animals remain to use exoskeletons
ENDOSKELETON:
- Internal skeleton
- Echinoderms and vertebrates
- Mineralized bone and cartilage
- Support, protection, and reservoir of calcium and
phosphorous
- Grows as the animal grows
o Does not limit space for internal organs
o Supports greater weight
TYPES OF ENDOSKELETON
1) Notochord
o Semirigid supportive axial rod of
protochordates and all vertebrate larvae and
embryos
o Composed of large vacuolated cells
surrounded by elastic and fibrous sheaths
o Stiffening device
o Except in jawless vertebrates, surrounded or
replaced by the back bone during embryonic
development
o Equivalent to our spinal column (cord
nervous; found inside the column main
bone [spine])
2) Cartilage
o Major skeletal element of some vertebrates
o Soft, pliable tissue that resists compression
o Jawless vertebrates and elasmobranchs have
purely cartilaginous skeletons
o Lighter structural support
3) Bone
o Living tissue having significant deposits of
calcium salts in the extracellular matrix
o Bones store calcium and phosphate ions
o Certain bones produce red blood cells
BONE DEVELOPMENT
o Endochondral or replacement bone:
any bone that develops in and
replaces cartilage, i.e. long bone
o Intramembranous bone:
any bone that develops without any
associated cartilage, i.e. parietal and
frontal bones of the face and patella
BONE DENSITY
o Cancellous or spongy bone
Bone composed of thin intersecting
lamellae, usually found internal to
compact bone
o Compact bone: bone substance thats dense
LONG BONE (FEMUR THIGH BONE)
o Oriented longitudinally
o Spongy bone: usually in middle
o Compact bone: periphery
o Articular cartilage: cushion between bones
o Epiphysis:
Proximal epiphysis
Metaphysis
Diaphysis
Distal epiphysis
o Periosteum: covering of compact bone
o Endosteum: covering of spongy bone
STRUCTRURE OF COMPACT BONE
o Haversian system:
how your bone develops
center to periphery circular
Osteocytes add more layers of bone
o Lacuna: space where osteocyte is located
o Canaliculi: communication between
osteocytes
BONE GROWTH AND RENEWAL
o Osteoblasts
Deposit bone matrix
Become osteocytes once
surrounded by bone matrix
o Osteoclasts
Break down bone
Remove worn out cells
Deposit calcium in blood
 Work with osteoblasts to heal Post-anal tail for phyllochordata
broken bones so we once had tails
o Role of hormones: o Sternum
Somatotropin: growth hormone o Rib cage:
(bone growth or elongation) Protects heart and lungs
Calcitonin: decrease calcium levels assists breathing
in blood and increase in bone Support by the thoracic vertebrae
Parathyroid hormone: secreted by Posteriorly attached to vertebral
parathyroid gland; increase calcium column
in blood and decrease in bone Anteriorly attached to sternum
STAGES OF INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION: False rib: attached to
(check slides for details) previous rib
1) An ossification center (where it starts) True rib: attached to
2) Bone matrix (osteoid) is secreted within the sternum
fibrous membrane Floating rib: not attached to
3) Woven bone and periosteum form (blood anything
going into bone) - Apendicular skeleton
4) Bone collar of compact bone forms and red o bones within the pectoral and pelvic girdles
marrow appears o attached limbs
STAGES OF ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION: o limbs, fins, wings, pectoral and pelvic girdles
1) Formation of bone collar around hyaline Pectoral girdle: bones of the shoulder
cartilage model o anterior
2) Cavitation of the hyaline cartilage within the o supports arms and hands
cartilage model Pelvic girdle: bones of the pelvis
3) Invasion of internal cavities by the periosteal o posterior
bud and spongy bone formation o supports the legs and feet
4) Formation of medullary cavity as ossification o ileum, pubis, iseum (?)
continues; appearance of secondary
ossification centers in the epiphyses in prep CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS:
for stage 5 - Fibrous joints (synarthroses)
5) Ossification of epiphyses; when completed, o Immovable
hyaline cartilage remains only in the o Between cranial bones, tibia and fibula,
epiphyseal plates (metaphysis) and articular radius and ulna
cartilages - Cartilaginous joints (amphiarthroses)
o Development of height is explained by this o Slightly movable
concept; What allows bone elongation is the o Between vertebrae
epi/metaphyseal plate, once it fuses at 21 for - Synovial joints (diarthroses)
males and 18 for females, the person stops o Freely movable
growing o Bones separated by a cavity
Types of skeletal system based on Development: o Ball and socket, hinge joints
endochondral and intramembranous
PLAN OF THE VERTEBRATE SKELETON: MOVEMENT October 26, 2017
2 MAIN DIVISIONS: - Three principal kinds of movement:
- Axial skeleton o Ameboid
o Skull: o Ciliary and flagellar
o Vertebral column: o Muscular
supports head and trunk
protects spinal cord and roots of AMEBOID MOVEMENT:
spinal nerves - Amoebas (protozoa single celled eukaryote,
Segments (fr superior to inferior) membrane-bound organelles) and other unicellular
Cervical neck forms; Bacteria (prokaryotes no nucleus,
Thoracic chest mitochondria)
Lumbar lower back - White blood cells
Sacral sacrum/pelvic - Embryonic mesenchyme cells
Coccyx tailbone - Other mobile cells
Intervertebral disks of - Phagocytosis/Endocytosis: form of eating
fibrocartilage act as padding - Extension and withdrawal of pseudopodia and
Notochord degenerated in humans amoeboid crawling: (Dont focus too much on ameboid
into palpanuclei; found in middle of movement)
intervertebral disc; 1) Hyaline cap appears
2) Actin and myosin (actin microfilaments)
 3) Ca2+ activate actin-severing protein
CILIARY AND FLAGELLAR MOVEMENT:
CILIA:
o Minute, hairlike, motile processes
o Occur in large numbers
o Ciliate protistans
o Found in all major groups of animals
o Move organisms through aquatic
environment
o Propel fluids and materials across surfaces
o Move more like oars with alternating power
and recovery strokes
FLAGELLA:
o Whiplike
o Present singly or in small numbers
o Occur in unicellular eukaryotes
o Animal spermatozoa
o Rotatory motion for both cilia and flagella
o A flagellum has an undulatory movement
o 9+2 configuration: 9 microtobules and 2 in
the middle
- Both cilia and flagella have the same ultrastructure
- A core microtubules sheathed by the plasma
membrane
- The bending of cilia and flagella is driven by arms of a
motor protein, dynein (continuous bending causes
rotatory motion)
- Addition to dynein of a phosphate group from ATP and
its removal causes conformation changes in the
protein
- Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and release outer
microtubules
INVERTEBRATE MUSCLE:
BIVALVE MOLUSCAN MUSCLES:
- 2 kinds of fibers:
o fast muscle fibers = striated, can contract
rapidly
o smooth muscle = capable of slow, long-
lasting contractions
o note: no muscles lengthen, they shorten
o Insect flight muscles (fibrillar muscle)
Flexor muscle: smaller angle
becomes even smaller
Extensor muscle: angle increase
VERTEBRATE MUSCLES:
TYPES:
1. Striated
2. Smooth
3. Cardiac
STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLES:
- Recall structure
- Functional unit: sarcomere
o Myofibril is made up of sarcomeres attached
to each other
o Myofibril muscle fiber muscle fascicle...
- Sliding Filament model
o Z-line: boundary of sarcomeres
o M-line: middle of sarcomere
o I-band: absence of myosin
Shortens in contraction
o A-band: presence of myosin
Stays same in contraction
o H-zone: absence of actin in middle
Shortens in contraction
o Myosin filaments at middle
o Actin filaments at both ends of sarcomere
One end of each filament attached
to a Z-plate at one end of the
sarcomere
Other end suspended in sarcoplasm
o Myosin filaments suspended
Myosin filaments contain cross-
bridges which pull actin filaments
inward
Cause z-plates to move toward each
other
Shortens sarcomere
o Sarcomeres stacked together in series and
cause myofiber to shortenWorking muscles
require ATP
Needed to detach myosin to allow
next contraction
Needed to return calcium to
sarcoplasmic reticulum
Rigor mortis occurs as there is no
more ATP production
MUSCLE INNERVATION:
- Neuromuscular junction:
o Synaptic contact between a nerve fiber and a
muscle fiber
o Nerve impulses bring about a release of a
neurotransmitter
o Parts: Sarcoplasmic recticulum
specialized ER in muscle cells
- Process:
o Acetylcholine: muscles receives this
neurotransmitter change in voltage
propagated by T Tubule (spreads signal
deeper into muscle tissue) Reaches SR
which stores a lot of Calcium Calcium is
released from the Sarcoplastic storage
Troponin Tropomyosin Actin complex
(tropomyosin covers the binding site of
myosin to actin, if tropomyosin is there,
myosin cannot pull on actin; Troponin is
where calcium attaches, changes
configuration of tropomyosin, which
exposes binding site of myosin to actin)
Presence of calcium important in muscle
contraction
o Working muscles require ATP
Needed to detach myosin to allow
next contraction
Needed to return calcium to
sarcoplasmic reticulum
 Rigor mortis occurs as there is no
more ATP production

HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM:

- Skeletal muscles:
o Attached to the skeleton by cable-like
fibrous connective tissue called tendons
o Arranged in antagonistic pairs
Can only contract, cannot push
When one muscle contracts, it
stretches is antagonistic partner
o A muscle at rest exhibits tone (minimal
contraction)
o A muscle in tetany at maximum sustained
contraction