RMS Technical Guide - Instrumentation and Monitoring

Technical Guide
Geotechnical instrumentation and monitoring
Issue No: 1 31 March 2016

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About this release
Title: Geotechnical Instrumentation and Monitoring
Document Number: C-G-003 (GEO 4384)
Author: Pavements and Geotechnical Section, Engineering Services
Authorised by: Manager, Asset Strategy
Issue Date Revision description
1.0 31 Mar 2016 First issue
Note: Printed copies of this document are uncontrolled 3 | 68

Technical Guide to Geotechnical

instrumentation and monitoring
FOREWORD and DISCLAIMER
This Guide has been prepared by Roads and Maritime Services (RMS) to provide information on the
range of geotechnical instrumentation available to build, maintain and monitor road infrastructure in
New South Wales.
Persons or organisations external to RMS considering use of the Guide should obtain independent
expert advice applicable to their particular circumstances including advice as to the appropriateness
of the Guide for use by them. The Guide has been written for use within the management structure
of RMS and references to responsibility for various actions are expressed in terms of that structure.
Persons external to RMS considering the use of the Guide should consider how those
responsibilities would be addressed within their own management structures.
No warranty or representation (expressed or implied) is made by RMS, its employees or agents in
relation to the accuracy, currency or adequacy of the Guide or that it is fit for purpose. RMS accepts
no responsibility whatsoever arising (whether by statute, in tort, contract or otherwise at law) out of
or in connection with the contents or use of the Guide. The photographs used in this Guide are for
reference only and do not necessarily reflect RMS approved WHS practice.
The Guide is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may
be reproduced by any process without written permission from RMS.
4 | 68 Note: Printed copies of this document are uncontrolled

Contents
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 8
2. Scope and Structure .............................................................................................................. 10
3. The Need for Performance Monitoring ................................................................................. 11
3.1 Geotechnical structures..................................................................................................... 11
3.2 Geotechnical failure modes ............................................................................................... 11
3.3 Risk assessment ............................................................................................................... 12
4. The Purpose of Performance Monitoring ............................................................................. 15
4.1 Overview ........................................................................................................................... 15
4.2 Verifying design parameters .............................................................................................. 16
4.3 Achieving economies in design and construction .............................................................. 16
4.4 Maximising efficiency of preventative and remedial maintenance ...................................... 17
4.5 Safeguarding the introduction of new technology .............................................................. 17
5. Designing the Monitoring Program ....................................................................................... 18
5.1 Structural and geotechnical performance parameters ....................................................... 18
5.2 Performance limits ............................................................................................................ 19
5.3 Setting performance benchmarks (Warning Trigger Levels) .............................................. 19
5.4 Assessing risk levels and predicting future performance ................................................... 19
5.5 Monitoring frequency and timing ....................................................................................... 20
5.5.1 Conditions requiring a change of monitoring frequency .............................................. 20
5.5.2 Monitoring during construction ................................................................................... 21
5.6 Indicative monitoring costs ................................................................................................ 21
6. Selection of Geotechnical Instrumentation .......................................................................... 23
6.1 Overview ........................................................................................................................... 23
6.2 Monitoring surface movement ........................................................................................... 24
6.2.1 Applications ................................................................................................................ 24
6.2.2 Methods and instruments ........................................................................................... 24
6.2.3 Laser scanning ........................................................................................................... 26
6.2.4 Slope Scanning Radar (SSR) ..................................................................................... 26
6.3 Monitoring subsurface movement...................................................................................... 26
6.3.1 Applications ................................................................................................................ 26
6.3.3 Inclinometers .............................................................................................................. 27
6.3.4 Settlement gauges ..................................................................................................... 31
6.3.5 Extensometers ........................................................................................................... 34
6.3.6 Accuracy .................................................................................................................... 36
6.4 Monitoring loads, stresses and strains .............................................................................. 36
6.4.1 Applications ................................................................................................................ 36
6.4.2 Methods and Instruments ........................................................................................... 36
6.4.3 Load measuring devices ............................................................................................ 37
6.4.4 Strain gauges ............................................................................................................. 41
6.4.5 Total earth pressure cells ........................................................................................... 42
6.4.6 Accuracy .................................................................................................................... 44
6.5 Monitoring pore pressures, water content and water flow .................................................. 44
6.5.1 Applications ................................................................................................................ 44
6.5.3 Piezometers ............................................................................................................... 45
6.5.4 Soil suction sensors ................................................................................................... 47
6.5.5 Field methods for determining water content .............................................................. 47

6.5.6 Water flow measuring devices ................................................................................... 47

6.5.7 Accuracy.................................................................................................................... 47
6.6 Monitoring thermal, geophysical and geochemical properties ............................................48
6.6.1 Temperature .............................................................................................................. 49
6.6.2 Time Domain Reflectometry ...................................................................................... 49
6.6.3 Acoustic Emission...................................................................................................... 49
6.6.4 Corrosion ................................................................................................................... 49
6.6.5 Water turbidity ........................................................................................................... 50
6.6.6 Acid sulfate soils ........................................................................................................ 50
6.7 Real time monitoring applications ......................................................................................51
References .....................................................................................................................................56
Appendix A Instrumentation for structures ..............................................................................58
A1. Typical instrumentation ........................................................................................................58
A2. Critical performance benchmarks .........................................................................................60
A3. Specific purpose of instrumentation .....................................................................................60
Appendix B Classification of monitoring methods and instruments ......................................62
List of Figures
Figure 1 Road infrastructure components. .................................................................................... 8
Figure 2. Structure of this Guide. ................................................................................................. 10
Figure 3. Role of monitoring in risk management of geotechnical structures. ............................... 13
Figure 4. Monitoring in different project phases. .......................................................................... 15
Figure 5. Deformation versus time curves (schematic) for different structures. ............................ 15
Figure 6. Use of survey instruments to measure movements in a typical landslide (Wilson and
Mikkelsen, 1978)........................................................................................................... 24
Figure 7. Types of crack meters to monitor widening of rock joints or tension cracks (Left: Model
JM-S. and Right: Model PF25 with dial gauge). ............................................................ 25
Figure 8. Laser beam technology used to scan wall movements at the James Ruse Drive and
Victoria Road Intersection. ............................................................................................ 26
Figure 9. Details of vertical borehole inclinometer in a cased borehole (Wilson and Mikkelsen,
1978). ........................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 10. Vertical borehole inclinometer probe being lowered on the F3 Sydney to Newcastle
Freeway at Mt White. .................................................................................................... 28
Figure 11. Example of inclinometer locations in a landslide to detect slip zone at depth (Wilson and
Mikkelsen 1978). .......................................................................................................... 29
Figure 12. Example of Inclinometer data plot showing lateral movement with depth for Inclinometer
S-6. The monitoring shows a zone of sliding occurring at about 12 m below ground
surface (Wilson and Mikkelsen 1978). .......................................................................... 29
Figure 13. Successive inclinometer data from one borehole from 1995 to 2000 showing cumulative
horizontal displacement versus depth over this five year monitoring period. ................. 30
Figure 14. Plot of horizontal movements from inclinometer data at a selected depth of 4.5 m over
the five year period. ...................................................................................................... 30
Figure 15. Settlement plate monitoring used to measure vertical displacement. ............................ 31
Figure 16. Hydraulic settlement gauge. ......................................................................................... 32
Figure 17. Horizontal Profile Gauge (HPG) installed beneath an embankment. ............................. 32
Figure 18. Horizontal Profile Gauge being used to measure settlements under an embankment
constructed on soft ground (F3 Freeway Extensions Leneghans Drive).................... 33
Figure 19. Cross section of 66 m wide embankment constructed on soft compressible clay soils; F3
Freeway Extensions at Leneghans Drive. ..................................................................... 33

Figure 20. Horizontal profile monitoring data on progressive settlements underneath the freeway
embankment (see Figure 15 above) at Leneghans Drive. (Monitoring Period 1995 to
2001 inclusive). ............................................................................................................. 34
Figure 21. Magnetic probe extensometer system for measuring settlements. ................................ 35
Figure 22. Multiple borehole extensometer system. ....................................................................... 35
Figure 23. M4 Freeway Lapstone: Ground anchors supporting rock cutting. .................................. 38
Figure 24. M4 Freeway, Lapstone ground anchor monitoring. ........................................................ 38
Figure 25. Typical details on load cells installed on head of ground anchor. .................................. 38
Figure 26. Great Western Highway, Leura Interchange. Soil nailing installation of a vertical cutting
in very weak rock. ......................................................................................................... 39
Figure 27. Great Western Highway, Leura Interchange instrumented soil nail bar using welded
vibrating wire gauge to measure axial load (kN). ........................................................... 39
Figure 28. F3 Freeway Extensions at Leneghans Drive: High strength geosynthetic reinforcement
(Exxon Paralink 200M) being installed on a working platform over soft ground. ........... 40
Figure 29. Vibrating Wire Load Bolt installed on the high strength.................................................. 40
Figure 30. Soil Nail method of slope stabilisation for a section of fill embankment on the F3 Sydney
to Newcastle Freeway at Mt White. ............................................................................... 41
Figure 31. Eaton weldable strain gauges (120 resistance) being installed on soil nail bar used for
the Mt White Project. ..................................................................................................... 41
Figure 32. An array of four total earth pressure cells installed at the foundation level for a
reinforced soil retaining wall at James Ruse Drive, Sydney. .......................................... 43
Figure 33. Diaphragm total earth pressure cell being installed at the foundation ............................ 43
Figure 34. Typical piezometer units for monitoring pore water pressure in boreholes.................... 46
Figure 35. Piezometer types used for water level measurement. (Left: Open standpipe piezometer.
Right: Diaphragm piezometer)....................................................................................... 46
Figure 36. Reinforced metallic strips being extracted from RECO Wall (Parramatta) for corrosion
monitoring. .................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 37. In-place inclinometer. .................................................................................................... 52
Figure 38. Automated rainfall gauge. ............................................................................................. 52
Figure 39. Datalogger, power supply and phone modem. .............................................................. 53
Figure 40. Monitoring station with solar cell panel mast in secure enclosure. ................................. 53
Figure 41. Real time monitoring data of landslide movement, ground water conditions and rainfall
events plotted over time (Flentje et al, 2005). ................................................................ 54
Figure 42. SCADA real time monitoring technology implemented on Mt Ousley Road project for
dewatering wells and pump control. .............................................................................. 55
Figure 43. SCADA real time monitoring of performance of pumps used to dewater the Mt Ousley
landslide site. ................................................................................................................ 55
List of Tables
Table 1. Failure modes for various structures ................................................................................. 12
Table 2. Classification of monitoring situations. .............................................................................. 16
Table 3. Typical monitoring intervals related to Assessed Risk Levels (ARLs) ............................... 20
Table 4. Typical monitoring costs for road formation structures ...................................................... 22
Table 5. Instrumentation for monitoring surface movements........................................................... 25
Table 6. Instrumentation for monitoring subsurface movement....................................................... 27
Table 7. Instrumentation for monitoring loads, stress and strain ..................................................... 37
Table 8. Instrumentation for monitoring water/hydraulic effects. ..................................................... 45
Table 9. Instrumentation for monitoring thermal, geophysical and geochemical properties ............. 48

1. Introduction
The RMS vision of a safe, sustainable and efficient road transport system involves the
management of over 18,000 km of state road assets in NSW. Management and maintenance of
these assets involves monitoring the condition and behaviour of all facets of the network
including bridges, other structures, road pavements and the earth structures that pavements are
associated with (i.e. cuttings and embankments) as illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Road infrastructure components.

The Guide will be useful for situations which involve minimising the consequences of risks
associated with earth and rock structures, such as landslides, rockfalls, soft soil foundations,
retaining walls, ground subsidence etc. Guidance is provided to assist in examining the
likelihood of such events occurring, quantifying the consequences and evaluating and
developing strategies to minimise risks.
The photographs used in this Guide may not represent current personal protective equipment
(PPE) or the use of safe work method statements (SWMS) but they serve to illustrate an
example of the instrumentation.
Monitoring is a vital part of having an effective risk management strategy for maintaining the
NSW road network.
The purpose of this Guide is to help project managers, asset owners, network managers,
contractors and designers understand the:
Need for geotechnical instrumentation
Various types of geotechnical instrumentation available.
Applications of geotechnical instrumentation to a variety of road formation structures.

2. Scope and Structure

The scope of this Guide is to provide an overview of the technical knowledge necessary to:
Identify areas or activities which benefit most from performance monitoring
Define relevant performance parameters.
Recognise performance limits and set performance benchmarks (or warning trigger levels).
Decide on the extent, frequency and timing of monitoring activities.
Select suitable instruments and measuring methods.
Develop monitoring plans and manage geotechnical monitoring data
The Guide will be useful for situations which involve minimising the consequences of risks
associated with earth and rock structures, such as landslides, rockfalls, retaining walls,
foundations on soft ground etc. Guidance is provided to assist in examining the likelihood of
such events occurring, quantifying the consequences and evaluating and developing strategies
to minimise risks.
This Guide is structured as shown in Figure 2.
What are the ground conditions and

Determining the need for geotechnical hazards?
performance monitoring What are the risks?
How are they assessed?
What are the benefits?
Determining the purpose of

performance monitoring Why monitor?
What are the objectives?
What can monitoring tell you?
Designing the monitoring program

What will be measured?
At what frequency?
What are the triggers for action?
Selection of instrumentation
What type and quantity of instrumentation is
required?
Who records data and does interpretation?
Figure 2. Structure of this Guide.

3. The Need for Performance Monitoring

3.1 Geotechnical structures
Monitoring is a means of data collection for a geotechnical structure subjected to loads,
movements and or processes. Data collected from monitoring over time can then be utilised to
diagnose the structures behaviour and predict likely performance.
Monitoring is often an essential part of geotechnical investigations to determine the following:
An understanding of site ground conditions (e.g. underlying geological structure,
hydrogeologic conditions).
Observing, measuring and quantifying the response of the geotechnical structure to an
applied action (e.g. loading causing deformation).
Certain geotechnical structures may develop into hazards which may lead to an undesirable
consequence, such as loss of life, interruption to traffic or expensive maintenance costs.
Some examples are given as follows:
Slope instability such as landslides and rockfalls.
Embankments constructed on soft ground with excessive settlement or affected by global
instability or bearing failure.
Retaining structures built on weak foundations or containing low quality backfill.
Anchored or reinforced structures (e.g. ground anchors) in critical locations.
Tunnels built in poor ground (e.g. weathered and fractured rock) requiring tunnel supports or
lining or adversely affected by overlying structures.
Fill embankments affected by extreme rainfall producing seepage and erosion on construction
sites which may cause siltation.
Pavement structure affected by underground mining causing subsidence. This could affect
the ride quality and road safety.
It must be recognised that there will be uncertainties regarding geological conditions which could
be complex, even if an extensive site investigation program has been carried out. Monitoring
can give a better knowledge of subsurface conditions and ground behaviour.
3.2 Geotechnical failure modes
Table 1 shows the types of failure modes that structures may experience. Where the risks of
these types of failure are assessed as being high enough, instrumentation and monitoring may
be applicable.

Table 1. Failure modes for various structures.
Structure: Failure mode (ultimate, serviceability:
Slope Rotation
Translation
Rockfall
Embankment Settlement
Bearing capacity
Seepage
Erosion
Shear failure/slip
Retaining walls (incl. seawalls and Overturning, tilting
abutments) Settlement
Translation
Bearing capacity
Soil and rock reinforcement Rupture
Slippage
Corrosion, degradation
Pavement subbase, subgrade Subsidence (e.g. due to underground mining)
Volume change (shrink, swell)
Bridges Ground movements affecting foundations and

abutments
Tunnels Deformation
Horizontal stress
External loading
Seepage
Pore pressures
3.3 Risk assessment

Slope risk assessment should be carried out in accordance with the RMS Guide to Slope Risk
Analysis (Roads and Maritime, 2013).
The steps involved are:
1. Establish the context, or scope of the process (design, construction or maintenance of road
formation structures).
2. Identify hazards that may endanger life and property, increase project costs or delay
completion (understand the site conditions and adverse mechanisms), such as:
Analyse risks with respect to likelihood and consequences.
Evaluate and prioritise the risks.
Establish a risk management plan and treat hazards accordingly. Evaluate alternative
designs, construction or remediation procedures (including contingency planning), and
future maintenance.

Risk management applied to geotechnical instrumentation and monitoring is illustrated in

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Role of monitoring in risk management of geotechnical structures.
Reporting and reviewing monitoring data is an integral part of risk management. Specialist
consultants may be engaged to facilitate the process. Risks are reduced either by reducing the
damaging consequences of a potentially hazardous event or by reducing the likelihood of this
event occurring.
Negative consequences can be minimised by:
Setting performance benchmark or warning trigger levels, e.g. this may allow areas that
could be affected by a landslide to be cleared of traffic and people.
Increasing monitoring frequency. This may allow warnings or remediation actions to be
initiated earlier than would otherwise be possible.
Formulating action plans or contingency plans for specified performance levels
The likelihood of a hazard being realised can be reduced by:
Changing design and construction methods if actual performance is not as anticipated.
If necessary and feasible relocate structure or remove hazardous materials.
Improving maintenance procedures.
Remediating unstable land or structures (build retaining walls, increase the strength of
structural members, install anchors, change slope geometry, provide drainage, etc).

Refining the monitoring process. This may allow reducing the conservatism inherent in
geotechnical design.
In some instances, however, monitoring may disclose higher risks than perceived initially.
Monitoring only helps reduce risk if data collection and interpretation is followed by appropriate
actions.

4. The Purpose of Performance Monitoring

4.1 Overview
Instrumentation and monitoring may provide benefits at various infrastructure life cycle (ILC)
phases, as illustrated in Figure 4.
Network Management (Initiation)
Monitoring
Project Development (Concept)
Project Implementation
Project Finalisation
Figure 4. Monitoring in different project phases.
In broad terms the behaviour of geotechnical structures can be illustrated in Figure 5. In this
instance, the structure is being monitored for deformation (i.e. movement or displacement). One
path leads to stability in the long term, the other to failure.
Figure 5. Deformation versus time curves (schematic) for different structures.

At time t1 both structures (A and B) show a reducing rate of deformation. At time t2 structure B
reaches a defined serviceability limit. At time t3, Structure A appears stabilised, while structure B
shows an increasing rate of movement leading to failure. Monitoring is therefore essential to
determine if a structure is stable or unstable.
The most common situations that require geotechnical instrumentation and monitoring and the
reasons for investigation are described in Table 2.
Table 2. Classification of monitoring situations.

Timescale Situation Reason for investigation
Short term New construction To verify design parameters, quantify

behaviour
Medium term Existing infrastructure or new Diagnosis of suspected problem, verification
construction of behaviour
Long term Existing infrastructure Understanding behaviour, ensuring
performance parameters are not exceeded
Develop long term asset maintenance
strategies
4.2 Verifying design parameters

For the designer, monitoring during and after construction will reduce the uncertainty associated
with the assumed geotechnical, structural and/or environmental model. For example, in the field
of soft ground engineering where an embankment is constructed on soft soils, monitoring
settlement and pore water pressures enables:
Settlement predictions to be verified.
Analytical settlement models to be calibrated or updated.
The components of total settlement to be assessed.
Specific engineering questions to be answered (e.g. related to particular site conditions).
Design assumptions to be validated
4.3 Achieving economies in design and construction
In the network management and project development phases of a road engineering project,
considerable uncertainties may exist, such as:
Ground conditions (geological structure).
Soil and rock strength.
Hydrologic conditions.
Imposed loading conditions.
Construction sequence and process.

The designer will assume a certain geotechnical model to encapsulate the available information.
If the geotechnical information is limited, the designer may proceed by assuming the worst
possible conditions and select a very conservative design and low risk construction methods.
This conservative approach produces a safe but high cost engineering structure.
Monitoring both at the investigation and design stages generally leads to a better integrated
design solution along with an optimised construction sequence.
4.4 Maximising efficiency of preventative and remedial maintenance
Monitoring during the project implementation phase is a key function for determining
maintenance programs to ensure the asset meets the purpose for which it was designed.
The Project Manager, when considering the level of risk associated with a geotechnical
structure, will develop a site inspection and monitoring strategy as part of a slope risk
management plan commensurate with the risk and criticality of the structure during the asset
maintenance phase of project implementation.
Monitoring data is an essential part of the information required to decide on the extent of
maintenance which can be either preventative or remedial:
Preventative maintenance is proactive in nature; e.g. clearing of drains at the top of a cut
slope to prevent water-ponding, flushing out of horizontal drains in a slope or providing rock
buttress support for a rock overhang on a road cutting.
Remedial maintenance is reactive in nature; e.g. monitored data from the installed
geotechnical instrumentation indicates that slope movements for a landslide prone site have
exceeded a set level or in the case of a rock slope supported by ground anchors, the
monitored loads on anchors have exceed design benchmark levels.
Depending on the type of geotechnical structure being monitored, each will have its own design
benchmark parameters within which the structure is deemed to be performing satisfactorily.
In some cases, preventative maintenance and remedial action may benefit from additional
monitoring and instrumentation.
4.5 Safeguarding the introduction of new technology
RMS is frequently involved in the introduction of new construction materials and methods, or
improving existing technology and extending its range of applications. Examples are the
pioneering use of reinforced soil technology and new products such as geosynthetics and
geogrids. Experience has shown that it may be prudent to instrument and monitor critical new
road formation structures involving techniques which are not yet proven in Australian conditions.
The role of monitoring and long-term appraisal when implementing innovative technologies is
recognised in RTA document entitled Management of Innovative Technologies (RTA, 2003).

5. Designing the Monitoring Program

For instrumentation and monitoring projects to be successful in assessing the performance and
condition of a road formation structure, some basic questions or principles have to be followed:
What are we trying to measure?
What is the purpose?
What are the relevant performance parameters (e.g. displacement) which have to be
identified?
What are the performance limits of the structure (e.g. possible failure mechanisms)?
Can we benchmark satisfactory performance (such as minimum safety factors or determine
allowable deformation)?
What is the timeframe over which monitoring will be required?
Current risk levels and likely future behaviour need to be assessed.
5.1 Structural and geotechnical performance parameters
The major engineering performance parameters of a road formation structure, measured on or
within the soil mass or structural components, or at the soil-structure interface, are (including
typical units):
Magnitude of deformation in form of settlement, lateral movement or deflection (millimetres or
metres) or strain (in percent).
Angular distortion (say 1 in 500), radius of curvature (metres).
Rate of deformation or strain (mm/day, m/year, %/h).
Load (kN) or stress or pressure (kPa).
Water levels (metres) or pore water pressures (kPa).
Monitoring of climatic or environmental factors may be required depending on the geotechnical
structure such as:
Rainfall (mm/day).
Earthquake or other vibrations (accelerometer records) m/s.
Water flow (l/s).
Water quality (turbidity, chemicals e.g. acid sulfate or toxic pollutants).
Temperature (C).
Other performance parameters which may need to be monitored are:
Corrosion of metallic reinforcements in structures.
Deterioration of concrete in structures.
Degradation of geosynthetics over time.
The characterisation of a geotechnical hazard may require more than a temporal record of basic
physical parameters. For example, data on rockfall incidents may best be interpreted in terms of
rockfall frequency, volume and spatial distribution.

5.2 Performance limits

In geotechnical terms, a road formation structure becomes inoperable when it either fails by
catastrophic collapse or experiences excessive deformation. Collapse modes involve shear
failure in the ground and include loss of bearing capacity of a foundation, overturning of a
retaining structure, rockfalls and landslides. Excessive deformation may occur due to volume
change or creep of soils, causing settlement, heave or lateral movement.
Failures due to rupture or instability of an earth structure or its components are also referred to
as ultimate limit states. A structures proximity to a particular state of failure is expressed in a
variety of forms: a global safety factor, partial safety factors, resistance reduction factors
combined with load factors, or a probability of failure.
Serviceability limits delineate excessive deformation, local damage or other factors interfering
with the intended use of the structure, shortening its life or requiring high maintenance efforts.
Serviceability limits can be specific to a structures purpose and may be agreed upon between
the Asset Manager and designer.
5.3 Setting performance benchmarks (Warning Trigger Levels)
It is more straightforward to evaluate performance with respect to serviceability limits than trying
to recognise the proximity of failure. It is true that an accelerating rate of movement could flag
impending failure, but there is no reliable way of accurately predicting the time of catastrophic
collapse or the corresponding deformation or strain. Considerable experience with the particular
type of hazard and its geological and climatic environment would be required to determine
whether a measured rate of movement represents failure or just precursor movement.
For meaningful interpretation of performance data it is necessary to establish acceptable limits or
benchmarks with respect to safety, deformation or other criteria. These critical limits, also called
trigger levels, are needed for initiating hazard warning systems or remediation action. It is,
however, not unusual to revise initial criteria set for a specific project if unusual geotechnical
conditions exist, design changes are made or remediation action has been taken, depending on
individual circumstances.
5.4 Assessing risk levels and predicting future performance
Based on existing performance data it may be possible to assess the current state of safety and
estimate future behaviour. This is particularly important for slope movement and embankment
settlement. For example:
For slopes and retaining structures, increasing rates of movement in such structures may
indicate a failure is imminent.
For rock slopes supported by ground anchors, a decrease in anchor loads over time may
signal failure of anchor components e.g. loss of bond capacity or anchor head restraint.
Conversely an increase in anchor loads could indicate increased slope movements in which
case additional anchors may be required to stabilise the slope.
Where there is a correlation between rainfall and slope movement, monitoring rainfall may be
useful for predicting a change in risk level.
For embankments constructed on soft ground, monitored settlements and pore water
pressures in the clay soils will enable more accurate estimates of consolidation parameters.
Refined settlement analysis will improve forward predictions on the magnitude and time
required to reach the final settlement.
The synthesis of monitoring data related to the ground structure, geological and numerical
analysis model can be complex in the assessment of risk level and prediction of future behaviour
of the structure.

5.5 Monitoring frequency and timing

The frequency and timing of monitoring will depend on many factors, such as the level of risk,
geological complexity, the type of road formation structure and its importance.
For slopes (including supporting retaining structures, fill and embankment slopes, natural slopes)
which have been risk assessed in accordance with the current RMS Guide to Slope Risk
Analysis, the suggested frequency for monitoring is given in Table 3.
Table 3. Typical monitoring intervals related to Assessed Risk Levels (ARLs).

2
ARL Risk Typical Monitoring Interval
11 High 3 to 6 months
2 6 months to 1 year
3 Medium 1 to 2 years
4 2 to 5 years
5 Low 5 years
Notes:
1. Where ARL1 is combined with high likelihood of failure continuous monitoring may be
required.
2. Refer to RMS Slope Management Policy for details.
5.5.1 Conditions requiring a change of monitoring frequency

The risk level of a road formation structure and thus also the recommended monitoring
frequency is likely to increase for conditions such as:
Adverse climatic effects (e.g. prolonged rainfall).
Changes in external loading or geometry (steepening of slope or excavation).
Increased deterioration in rock batters or natural slopes (e.g. increase in rockfall incidents).
Change in internal stresses due to surface or underground excavations or longer term
geological processes.
Unexpected changes in movement rates.
An increase in likelihood of the hazard or magnitude of failure.
Changes to adjacent structures.
A decrease in the frequency of monitoring with instruments or precision surveying, or termination
of monitoring, may be considered if:
Measured movements have ceased.
Primary settlement is complete.
Secondary settlement is insignificant.
Excess hydrostatic pore pressures have dissipated.
Settlement due to mining subsidence is complete.
Loads on and stresses in critical structural members are stable and within design limits.
Geochemical or geophysical monitoring shows no deteriorating effects.

There are no changes in environmental influences and adjacent land use expected in the
foreseeable future.
5.5.2 Monitoring during construction
During critical phases of construction of a road cutting, embankment, tunnel, retaining wall or
other structure, monitoring may be advisable on a continuous basis, daily or weekly. Low risk
structures may only require monitoring every few years.
5.6 Indicative monitoring costs
Costs will vary depending on the type of road formation structure, the particular site conditions,
the complexity and criticality of the infrastructure and risks. In general the monitoring cost
component will range from 2 % to 10 % of total project costs. Typical monitoring costs for road
formation structures based on Roads and Maritime experience over the last 10 years are
summarised in Table 4. This costing includes instrumentation purchase and installation, data
acquisition, analysis and reporting.
Clearly ongoing monitoring activities over a number of years at a particular site will attract
additional costs which must be taken into account in the management of the road infrastructure.

Table 4. Typical monitoring costs for road formation structures.

Type of Road Scope of Monitoring Instruments + installation + initial
1
Structure monitoring Total costs
Cost ($) Percentage of

2
project costs
Small embankment Survey 25,000 to 30,000 10 %
failure or landslide Two to three inclinometers, a
standpipe piezometer
Large embankment Survey, 30 to 60 boreholes, five 125,000 to 5 % to 10 %
failure or landslide to 12 inclinometers, six 1 Million
(>150 m length) horizontal profile gauges,
electronic piezometers, remote
alarm system.
Soil nailed cutting Survey, strain gauges on nails 38,000 to 220,000 2 % to 5 %
at five levels with data logger,
two inclinometers.
Small retaining wall Survey 3,500 to 6,000 2%
(<5 m)
Large retaining wall Survey, inclinometers, 38,000 to 300,000 2 % to 5 %
(>10 m high, 300 m extensometers, load cells,
long) strain gauges, laser scanning
alarm.
Anchored rock slope Load cells on six anchors; lift off 65,000 to 125,000 2 % to 5 %
in 300 m long cutting testing of 10 % of anchors (five
(200 anchors) times).
Major embankment on Survey, two inclinometers, one 50,000 to 75,000 2 % to 3 %
soft soil (200 m long) horizontal profile gauge, 18
piezometers, load cells and
strain gauges on high strength
geosynthetic reinforcement.
Road tunnel in Survey, extensometers, strain 60,000 to 125,000 <1 %
sandstone (<200 m gauges and/or load cells on
length) rock bolts and other supports.
Notes:
1. Monitoring after initial establishment will incur additional costs.
2. New construction or remediation.
3. Costs at 2013.

6. Selection of Geotechnical Instrumentation

6.1 Overview
Geotechnical monitoring can be categorised under the following five broad groupings where the
instrumentation is required to monitor:
Surface movements.
Subsurface movements.
Loads, stresses and strains.
Hydraulic characteristics (e.g. water levels pore pressure, soil suction).
Material characteristics (e.g. geophysical or geochemical properties, temperature).
The instrumentation associated with each of the above broad groupings is given in Appendix B.
The types of instrumentation in these categories are explained in more detail in this section. It is
noted that depending on the type of road formation structure being monitored, a combination of
instrumentation types from each of the above groupings can be selected to better understand
the behaviour of the structure.
Factors to be taken into account when selecting particular techniques are:
Parameters to be measured.
Range and accuracy required.
Skill and training needed for personnel.
Calibration and maintenance requirements.
Cost.
Simplicity and reliability.
Many practitioners regard simplicity and reliability as key considerations when selecting
monitoring instruments. This is understandable considering the many adverse conditions that
some instruments may have to survive in:
High deformations and pressures.
Extremes of temperatures, bushfires.
Corrosiveness of the ground.
Blasting shocks, construction impact forces.
Lightning.
Dust, water & humidity.
Unstable power supply.
Vandalism and theft.
Most instrumentation experts claim that optical methods are the simplest and most reliable
monitoring techniques, followed by those operating on mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic and
electronic principles. Although many electronic instruments are complex and have questionable
reliability in the long term, the need for remote reading or real time monitoring may be a deciding
factor in their favour.
Appendix A summarises monitoring methods and their uses. Appendix B summarises the
accuracy offered by monitoring methods and instruments.

6.2 Monitoring surface movement

6.2.1 Applications
Traditional survey methods and tools are extensively used to monitor surface movements of
the ground or structures built on it. They efficiently capture changes in levels or position of
numerous points at ground surface or inside a tunnel. This is particularly important for
monitoring landslides (see Figure 6), embankments and retaining walls. Accurate surveying
of reference marks is also needed for measuring subsurface movement (within soil or rock).
New developments in laser beam technology and side-scan imaging radar to detect changes
in surface movements are included in this section to complement traditional survey methods.
Figure 6. Use of survey instruments to measure movements in a

typical landslide (Wilson and Mikkelsen, 1978).
6.2.2 Methods and instruments

An overview of these methods is given in Table 5.
The instruments used range from measuring tapes, engineers levels, theodolites, Electronic
Distance Measuring (EDM) equipment to phototheodolites (for photogrammetry) and global
positioning systems (GPS).
Tiltmeters (or clinometers) measure deviation from the vertical axis rather than measure
horizontal or vertical movement. Rotation is often part of the overall deformation of a soil
mass or retaining structure. An array of tiltmeters installed down the slope of a landslide can
be used to detect the rate of sliding activity. The method can be applied to detect instability in
toppling rock masses (e.g. clifflines) or boulders.
Extensometers equipped with dial gauges or transducers are used to monitor crack widening
on the surface of a structure rather than with traditional survey techniques.

Figure 7 shows types of surface mounted gauges to measure displacements at rock joints.
Similarly, the deformation of underground openings can be measured using tapes, rules or
rods, or fixed extensometers (convergence gauges).
Table 5. Instrumentation for monitoring surface movements.
Group of Individual Methods Mode of Typical applications/findings

Methods Instruments operation
Instruments
Survey methods Line of sight Optical Indication of extent and rate of downslope
and instruments movement of a landslide
Levelling Optical Settlement and subsidence (embankments,
buildings, slopes)
EDM Electronic Changes in positions and of survey points
Triangulation. Optical and Changes in positions and levels of survey
Total Station electronic, digital points, direction and rate of movement over
time
Photogrammetry Optical and Movements of targets in 2D or 3D
electronic, digital
GPS Electronic, Location of instruments and topographic and
digital geological features. Special fixed GPS for
monitoring building movements
Crack monitoring. Optical, Determining crack widening, particularly at the
(Including surface mechanical, head of a sliding mass or at discontinuities
extensometers) electronic (faults or joints)
Tiltmeters Mechanical, Slope movement with rotational component, tilt

electronic of stakes, poles and trees on landslides
Laser scanning Electronic beam Retaining Wall or slope movement detection
Slope Stability Radar Side Imaging Monitoring rock and soil slope movements in
Radar methods clifflines, open cut mines. System can activate
warning systems
Figure 7. Types of crack meters to monitor widening of rock joints or tension

cracks (Left: Model JM-S. and Right: Model PF25 with dial gauge).

6.2.3 Laser scanning

Laser scanning methods have the potential to collect three-dimensional information with an
accuracy of 50 mm up to a distance of 400 m. A digital camera integrated with the laser
instrument can simultaneously capture colour texture and local survey control can be linked to
the scans made.
Laser beam technology was used by RTA to continuously monitor retaining walls at the grade
separated interchange of James Ruse Drive and Victoria Road in 1999. A total of twelve
lasers were deployed. The arrangement of the laser beam equipment is shown in Figure 8.
Laser beams passed through a line of gratings mounted onto the wall which was reflected
back to a return sensor.
Figure 8. Laser beam technology used to scan wall movements at the

James Ruse Drive and Victoria Road Intersection.
6.2.4 Slope Scanning Radar (SSR)

In mining applications in Australia, Slope Scanning Radar methods have been able to
measure wall displacement in an open cut mine with an accuracy of 0.2 mm over a distance
of 450 m. Its potential for monitoring road formation structures has not yet been properly
explored.
6.3 Monitoring subsurface movement
6.3.1 Applications
Measuring the lateral and vertical displacements within a soil or rock mass is important for
defining the extent and rate of movement of a failing slope, settling embankment or rotating
retaining wall. Monitoring subsurface movements gives a better understanding of the site
geological conditions and mechanisms of failure in the road formation structure.
There are three main groups of instruments employed in monitoring subsurface movement:
inclinometers, settlement gauges and extensometers. An overview of these instruments is
given in Table 6.

Inclinometers are mainly used to measure the lateral displacement of a soil mass whilst
settlement gauges measure vertical movements. Extensometers covers a wide range of
instruments monitoring changes in distances either within a soil or rock mass as well as
movements at the ground surface. Each of these instrument types are discussed in greater
detail in the following sections of this Guide.
Table 6. Instrumentation for monitoring subsurface movement.
Instrumentation Type Operation mode Typical Applications

Inclinometers Probe inclinometers Electronic Lateral movements (landslides,
embankments retaining walls)
In-place inclinometers Electronic As above but at a selected depth
such as shape-array
system
Deflectometers Deflectometers Angle between two Foundation settlement
rigid segments
Settlement gauges Settlement platforms Optical Settlement below and within
embankments and fills
Liquid level gauges Hydraulic Settlement within dams and
embankments
Horizontal profile Electronic, hydraulic Settlement below embankments
gauges
Probe extensometers Electronic Vertical and horizontal displacements
within soil or rockmass
Fixed extensometers Electronic, Vertical and horizontal displacements
mechanical within soil or rockmass
6.3.3 Inclinometers
Inclinometer systems consist of three parts (as shown in Figure 9), namely:
Inclinometer tubes installed in boreholes (often simply referred to as inclinometers).
Sensors permanently installed in the inclinometer tubing (in-place inclinometers) or in
an inclinometer probe which is inserted into the inclinometer tubing (probe
inclinometers).
A read-out unit or data logger, recording depth and inclination of sensor.
In most instances, inclinometers are installed in vertical boreholes to measure the change of
horizontal displacement with depth. Generally the base section of the inclinometer is installed
into a stable stratum such as rock or stiff soil which serves as a fixed reference point to
calculate lateral movements relative to this point of fixity. Standard procedures have been
developed for installing inclinometer tubing.
Most RMS inclinometers are monitored with portable probes as shown in Figure 10, where the
inclinometer probe is lowered down a borehole to measure lateral subsurface movements.
For automatic data collection systems, in-place inclinometers are required. Special training is
required for executing field measurements and applying checks and corrections to the data
collected.

The inclinometer sensor measures the angular rotation from the vertical at any chosen
location along the borehole, in two directions perpendicular to each other. The grooved
inclinometer tubing is usually oriented in such a way that one measurement is along the
direction of the expected movement.

Figure 9. Details of vertical borehole inclinometer in a cased
borehole (Wilson and Mikkelsen, 1978).
Figure 10. Vertical borehole inclinometer probe being lowered on the

F3 Sydney to Newcastle Freeway at Mt White.

The application of inclinometer monitoring in a typical landslide is illustrated in Figure 11.

Several inclinometers have been installed to detect subsurface shearing movements at the base
of the landslide. A typical plot of lateral movements with depth is shown in Figure 12 for
Inclinometer S-6 which has detected a zone of shearing at approximately 12 m deep below
ground surface.
Figure 11. Example of inclinometer locations in a landslide to detect slip zone at depth
(Wilson and Mikkelsen 1978).
Figure 12. Example of Inclinometer data plot showing lateral movement with depth for
Inclinometer S-6. The monitoring shows a zone of sliding occurring at about 12 m below
ground surface (Wilson and Mikkelsen 1978).

Monitoring of inclinometers over time enables subsurface movements to be tracked to calculate

rates of movement. This information can be correlated with causes such as increased rainfall
affecting slope instability. Figure 13 shows successive inclinometer data readings from one
vertical inclinometer, presented in the form of a cumulative change plot. As a group, the curves
represent the progressive lateral movement of the soil profile in the borehole over time. Such
multiple data sets can be used to identify slip planes (e.g. at a depth of 10 m) or determine the
extent of creep movement at depth.
Displacem ent (0.1m m )

-50 0 50 100 150
0
3/5/1995
10
Depth (m)
6/7/1998
21/8/1998
15 12/8/1999
11/9/2000
20
25
Figure 13. Successive inclinometer data from one borehole from 1995 to 2000 showing
cumulative horizontal displacement versus depth over this five year monitoring period.
Movement at 4.5m Depth
120
Displacement (0.1mm)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.00 500.00 1000.00 1500.00 2000.00 2500.00
Time (days)
Figure 14. Plot of horizontal movements from inclinometer data

at a selected depth of 4.5 m over the five year period.

Other plots which can be produced from the data are:

Displacement versus time plot for a particular depth (see
Figure 14). This is the best representation for evaluating the rate of movement.
Change plots giving incremental angular changes measured by the probe versus
depth. This highlights locations where dramatic changes occur, such as in a slip zone.
Multi-plots showing deformations in the two directions (A and B direction) measured by
the probe.
Slice plots giving the magnitude and the direction of movement at a particular depth,
combining the readings in the A and B direction.
6.3.4 Settlement gauges
For road embankments constructed on soft ground, settlement monitoring is required to
determine actual rate of settlement with time as well as total settlements. Stability of such
embankments is required during the construction stage. Such monitoring is required for
reclamation fill projects or where ground treatments have been used to improve existing
conditions. Monitoring may be required for foundations to verify the compression and
consolidation of soil layers below retaining walls, bridges, storage tanks and other structures.
Many of the techniques used for road embankments were originally developed for reservoir
dams. Instruments include:
Settlement platforms: A 1 m2 (or larger) steel or concrete plate placed on the ground
before an embankment is constructed. Rigid riser pipe sections of known length are
attached as filling proceeds, their top acting as a measuring point (see Figure 15).
Conventional surveying allows settlement of the foundation to be determined.
Figure 15. Settlement plate monitoring used to measure vertical displacement.
Liquid level gauges: Hydraulic level gauges are mainly used for determining settlement in
dams and embankments. The simplest liquid level gauge is an overflow cell connected via
a U-tube with a read-out unit as shown in Figure 16. Modifications are needed where the
read-out unit cannot be placed at the same level as the settlement gauge.

Figure 16. Hydraulic settlement gauge.
Horizontal Profile Gauges (HPG): Horizontal profile gauges are capable of measuring the
settlement at multiple points along a particular level as shown in Figure 17. The system
uses plastic access pipes installed prior to the start of embankment construction or
inserted into horizontal boreholes drilled into soil or rock for other applications.
Measurements are obtained from permanently installed sensors or probes dragged along
the pipes or boreholes. Depending on the system used, settlements can be calculated
based on hydraulic head differences or incremental vertical displacements along the
length of the pipe.
Figure 17. Horizontal Profile Gauge (HPG) installed beneath an embankment.
HPG monitoring has been widely used by Roads and Maritime for major Freeway projects
such as the F3 Freeway extensions at Leneghans Drive, Minmi (Newcastle) as shown in
Figure 18. At this site a seven metre high embankment was constructed on soft compressive
clays up to 17 m deep. Total consolidation settlements were predicted to be 1.8 m occurring
over a three year time period.

Figure 18. Horizontal Profile Gauge being used to measure settlements

under an embankment constructed on soft ground
(F3 Freeway Extensions Leneghans Drive).
Figure 19 shows the cross sectional details for the 66 m wide embankment which was
instrumented using an HPG installed at the start of embankment construction in 1995. The
results of progressive settlement monitoring over a six year period is shown in Figure 20
which shows the settlement profile under the embankment.
Figure 19. Cross section of 66 m wide embankment constructed on soft

compressible clay soils; F3 Freeway Extensions at Leneghans Drive.

Figure 20. Horizontal profile monitoring data on progressive

settlements underneath the freeway embankment (see Figure 15 above)
at Leneghans Drive. (Monitoring Period 1995 to 2001 inclusive).
6.3.5 Extensometers
Extensometers measure changes in the distance between two points. The measurement can
be carried out mechanically using rods or wires and dial gauges, or pins and rules or callipers.
Alternatively, extension or contraction is converted into an electronic signal by a transducer
and recorded on a manual or automatic data acquisition system. Simple wire or rod
extensometers are also referred to as tell-tales.
A probe extensometer is inserted into a telescopic or corrugated pipe embedded in fill or into a
borehole (vertical or horizontal). Measuring points are usually defined by steel wire rings,
magnets, mechanically activated anchors on the outside of the pipe, or cross arms embedded
in the fill (for the case of embankments). This system is shown in Figure 21 for measuring
settlements within the foundation soils under an embankment. The probe is able to monitor
the distance between these points or between a point and the ground surface.
Fixed borehole or embankment extensometers permanently connect measuring points to a
surface reference mark via rods or tensioned wires. A multiple borehole extensometer system
applicable to tunnel monitoring is shown in Figure 22. Crack gauges at ground surface and
convergence gauges underground can be classed as fixed extensometers.

Figure 21. Magnetic probe extensometer system for measuring settlements.
Figure 22. Multiple borehole extensometer system.

6.3.6 Accuracy
A properly calibrated probe inclinometer in a near vertical borehole can measure lateral
displacement to an accuracy of 3 mm over a depth of 30 m. In-place inclinometers can be
1 mm.
For inclined boreholes, deflectometers instead of inclinometers may be advantageous.
Deflectometers produce similar results to inclinometers, but this instrument measures the
angle between two rigid segments rather than the rotation of a sensor like an inclinometer
(see Appendix B for details).
Settlement gauges generally give accuracies between 3 mm and 25 mm. Settlement
platforms and liquid level gauges are potentially more accurate than horizontal profile gauges.
The accuracy of extensometers varies greatly depending on the underlying physical and
mechanical principles. A probe extensometers accuracy is likely to be similar to that of a
probe inclinometer (3 mm) but special equipment like a sliding micrometer may be able to
monitor changes of 0.03 mm or smaller over short distances.
6.4 Monitoring loads, stresses and strains
6.4.1 Applications
For many geotechnical structures, reinforcement elements are incorporated in their design to
provide stability. For critical structures, the designer may be required to verify loads and
stresses carried by such reinforcement elements in addition to monitoring of deformation,
earth pressure, water levels etc.
Examples where load and stress monitoring may be necessary include:
Rock slopes supported by ground anchors.
Structures (e.g. tunnels and rock faces) stabilised with rock bolts.
Soil nailed slopes.
Anchored pile wall structures.
Reinforced soil wall structures.
Heavily loaded foundation structures (e.g. bridge abutments, towers).
Large concrete arch structures.
Embankments on soft ground reinforced with basal high strength geosynthetic layers.
Pavement strain from mine subsidence.
6.4.2 Methods and Instruments
Table 7 lists the three groups of methods used to measure load, stress or strain parameters.
In most cases of geotechnical structures, loads and strains on reinforcing elements act in
tension. In the case of earth pressure, stresses are generally compressive.

Table 7. Instrumentation for monitoring loads, stress and strain.
Group of Individual Methods / Mode of Typical applications /

Methods Instruments operations findings
Instruments
Load Load cells in line of Mechanical Stress in reinforcing bars,

measuring action Hydraulic stress in soil reinforcing
devices geosynthetics
Electronic
Photoelastic
Load bolts, pins or Electronic Strain in steel and

studs concrete elements to
calculate stresses
Strain Surface mounted or Electronic. Strains within

gauges embedded (steel and Fibre optic embankments,
concrete) foundations, backfill and
pavements
Soil strain meters Electronic Earth pressure at

(induction coils) soil/structure interface
(retaining walls, footings,
raft foundations, piles,
culverts) and within
embankments
Total earth Soil/structure interface Hydraulic Stress in reinforcing bars,

pressure and embedment cells Pneumatic stress in soil reinforcing
cells geosynthetics
Electronic
6.4.3 Load measuring devices

Forces acting on anchors, rock bolts, piles, foundations and abutments can be measured by
interposing a load cell between the structural element and the source of the action. Most
commonly these load cells are required for pile load testing and proof stressing of anchors,
either during the site investigation or the construction phase. An example is shown in Figures
Figure 23 and 24 where ground anchors have been monitored with load cells on the M4
Motorway at Lapstone. For this project approximately 300 multi-strand ground anchors were
installed on a steeply dipping rock slope to stabilise the road cutting. Typical details of the
fitted load cells are shown in
Figure 25. A program of lift off testing was carried out on these anchors to monitor loads and
verify data.

Figure 23. M4 Freeway Lapstone: Ground anchors supporting rock cutting.
Figure 24. M4 Freeway, Lapstone ground anchor monitoring.
Figure 25. Typical details on load cells installed on head of ground anchor.

Load bolts, pins and studs contain strain gauges mounted internally in such a configuration
that stresses due to bending and torque are eliminated. Alternatively, the load-measuring unit
could be a vibrating wire load cell. The most common application of these devices is
measuring axial load in reinforcing bars and hence enabling the determination of stress. This
type of instrumentation was used to monitor loads on soil nails installed in a vertical
excavation at Leura (Great Western Highway) as shown in Figure 26. The installation of
these vibrating wire gauges is shown in Figure 27.
Figure 26. Great Western Highway, Leura Interchange.

Soil nailing installation of a vertical cutting in very weak rock.
Figure 27. Great Western Highway, Leura Interchange instrumented

soil nail bar using welded vibrating wire gauge to measure axial load (kN).

Vibrating wire load bolts have been used to monitor loads in high strength geosynthetic
reinforcement used in embankments constructed on soft ground and retaining structures.
This is illustrated in
Figure 28 which shows high strength Exxon Paralink 200M geosynthetic strap reinforcement
being installed on soft ground on the F3 Freeway extensions at Leneghans Drive. The load
bolt attachment to the geosynthetic strap is shown in Figure 29. A number of these load bolts
were strategically installed along the length of the geosynthetic reinforcement to measure the
distribution of axial load along the strap during embankment construction. These systems
have proven to be quite robust operating in saturated environments and have performed well
several years after construction.
Figure 28. F3 Freeway Extensions at Leneghans Drive: High strength

geosynthetic reinforcement (Exxon Paralink 200M) being installed on
a working platform over soft ground.
Figure 29. Vibrating Wire Load Bolt installed on the high strength
geosynthetic strap to monitor axial forced developed during the
embankment construction on soft ground.

6.4.4 Strain gauges

Surface mounted and embedded strain gauges are mainly applied to steel and concrete
structural elements, including rock bolts and soil nails.
Figure 30 shows the soil nailing method of slope stabilization being carried for a section of
embankment on the F3 Freeway at Mt White. Approximately 400 soil nails each 12 m in
length were installed. Selected soil nails were monitored using Eaton weldable strain
resistance based gauges, as shown in
Figure 31 for the Mt White project.
The primary aim of strain monitoring of steel reinforcement components is to estimate tensile
stresses by knowing the elastic modulus of the material.
Figure 30. Soil Nail method of slope stabilisation for a section of fill
embankment on the F3 Sydney to Newcastle Freeway at Mt White.
Figure 31. Eaton weldable strain gauges (120 resistance)

being installed on soil nail bar used for the Mt White Project.

Accurate strain measurement is possible with fibre optic sensing technology which has been a
new development over the last decade. Fibre Optic Bragg Grating sensor technology (termed
FBG) have successfully been used by Roads and Maritime for monitoring strains on two
bridge structures. This technology has also been used to measure pavement strains due to
longwall mining adjacent to the Hume Highway, where FBG sensors were embedded in the
asphalt surfacing. Further information on optic fibre sensing applications is given in the
Geotechnical Report titled Investigation on Fibre Optic Sensing Technology (RTA, 2006).
Direct measurement of strain within a soil mass is difficult because strains are large compared
with steel and concrete, and the embedded instrument may influence the deformation of the
soil around it. The most common type of soil strain meter is based on measuring the
inductance between two free-floating discs containing coils.
6.4.5 Total earth pressure cells
Total earth pressure cells measure the combined effect of intergranular stress and water
pressure either within a soil mass or at a soil/structure interface. The purpose of installing
such instruments is usually to confirm design assumptions such as bearing stresses imposed
on foundations.
The two main types of earth pressure cells are diaphragm cells and hydraulic cells. Deflection
of the diaphragm cells and hydraulic cell fluid pressure is measured with transducers. Both
types of cells can be calibrated in a fluid filled chamber in the laboratory but this does not
guarantee that the pressures measured in the field are representative.
Factors affecting the measurements include cell size, thickness and stiffness, placement
stresses and orientation, select backfill properties, moisture and temperature.
Figure 32 shows an array of earth pressure cells being installed on foundations for a
reinforced soil wall located at the intersection of James Ruse Drive and Victoria Road,
Sydney.
Figure 33 shows a diaphragm total earth pressure cell being installed at the foundation level of
a fill embankment for the F3 Freeway at Leneghans Drive. In this instance, vertical pressures
due to embankment construction were being monitored to accurately measure fill surcharge
loads on soft clay foundations.

Figure 32. An array of four total earth pressure cells installed at the foundation
level for a reinforced soil retaining wall at James Ruse Drive, Sydney.
Figure 33. Diaphragm total earth pressure cell being installed at the foundation
level of a fill embankment for the F3 Freeway at Leneghans Drive.
Note the other load and strain instrumentation concurrently being installed.

6.4.6 Accuracy
Calibrated load cells, bolts, pins and studs measure forces with accuracies in the range of
2 to 10 %. Loads measured using the fluid pressure measured in a hydraulic jack are most
likely less accurate.
Measurements with strain gauges have accuracies in the range from 1 to 50 microstrain units.
For many installations, the question of whether the measurements are representative for the
forces or stresses acting in the soil or rock mass or structure is more important than the
apparent accuracy or precision of the readings. This is particularly true for monitoring total
earth pressures.
6.5 Monitoring pore pressures, water content and water flow
6.5.1 Applications
Ground stability and deformation are strongly affected by the presence of water due to rainfall,
runoff and seepage. Geotechnical engineers evaluate the interrelationship between soil solids
and water predominantly in terms of pore water pressure (positive, below the water table and
negative (soil suction) above the water table), water content and water flow. Rainfall
pluviographs installed to measure rainfall intensity are deployed in conjunction with ground
water monitoring methods.
Water content and pore pressures have a crucial effect on the shear strength of soil and rock
as well as their deformation characteristics. Therefore, all stability and serviceability problems
can be affected by the presence of water. In addition, water flow may cause corrosion of
structures and may lead to physical or chemical changes in soils.
The presence of water in the ground may also be crucial in the development of lateral forces
on retaining walls and other structures, as well as uplift on foundations, liquid storage tanks,
pipelines, etc.
Soil suction measurements are important when interpreting the behaviour of unsaturated soils
(or saturated soils above the water table). Such monitoring may be relevant to understanding
the behaviour of compacted fills, temporary excavations in clay, retaining walls with cohesive
backfill and reactive (swelling and shrinking) subgrades and foundations.
Table 8 lists the four parameters and associated methods used when dealing with water or
hydraulic effects.

Table 8. Instrumentation for monitoring water/hydraulic effects.
Groups of Methods Individual methods / Mode of Typical applications

/ Instruments Instruments Operations
Pore pressures Standpipe piezometers Hydraulic Slopes in conjunction with

Electronic rainfall pluviographs at the
site
Twin tube piezometers Hydraulic Slopes, dams

(including vibrating Electronic Soft ground engineering
wire and pneumatic Pneumatic
types)
Diaphragm type Pneumatic Slopes, dams.

piezometers Electronic Soft ground engineering
Soil suction Tensiometers Pneumatic Slopes, agricultural.

Electronic Pavements
Porous blocks Electronic Agricultural
Water content Nuclear gauges Nuclear Pavements compaction

Electronic testing
Time Domain Electronic Pavements foundations on

Reflectometry (TDR) expansive subgrades
Frequency Domain Electronic Pavements, foundations on

Reflectometry (FDR) expansive subgrades
Water flow V-notch weir Manual Drainage systems

Electronic
Flow meter Hydraulic Pipe flows; e.g. horizontal

Electronic drains in landslides
6.5.3 Piezometers
A piezometer consists of a porous cell (piezometer tip or cup) embedded in the ground (see
Figure 34) hydraulically isolated from soil layers above and below, and connected to a tube or
cable leading to the surface. Installation details are shown in Figure 35 and for an open
standpipe and diaphragm piezometer respectively. The pore pressure is measured by a
transducer built into the cell or by assessing the water level in the tube.
Hydraulic isolation of the piezometer tip is important where multiple (perched) ground water
levels exist or steady state or transient flow occurs.
Standpipe piezometers, often installed in boreholes during the network management phase,
may not give a true indication of the prevailing hydraulic conditions, because they may not be
isolated and could be affected by the hydrodynamic time lag (or response time).

Figure 34. Typical piezometer units for monitoring pore water

pressure in boreholes.
Figure 35. Piezometer types used for water level measurement.

(Left: Open standpipe piezometer. Right: Diaphragm piezometer).
Diaphragm piezometers, particularly vibrating wire piezometers are the preferred type in view
of their reliability. Careful calibration, installation, and adequate maintenance of piezometers
are vital for accurate and reliable pore pressure measurements.

Piezometers only have a very limited capacity to measure negative pore pressures. In
general, negative pore pressures recorded in piezometers are ignored.
Next to survey instruments and inclinometers, piezometers are the most important tools in
monitoring road formation structures.
6.5.4 Soil suction sensors
Laboratory soil suction measuring devices generally measure total suction as:
Total suction = {matric (capillary) suction} + {osmotic (solute) suction}
Field instruments like tensiometers and porous block sensors read matric suction, which is
usually the main component of interest to geotechnical engineers.
For a particular soil, the soil water characteristic curve relates soil suction to water content and
is determined in the laboratory with a range of different pieces of equipment. For an
engineering field study, the measurement of water content using Time Domain Reflectometry
(TDR) and relating it to soil suction may be a better approach than using soil suction sensors.
6.5.5 Field methods for determining water content
Water content determinations in the field are most common as part of compaction control
procedures. Nuclear gauges have frequently been applied for this purpose.
Nuclear probes have also been used to monitor water contents over an extended period of
time at multiple locations below footings or pavements. This technique requires pre-drilled
boreholes and periodic insertion of the nuclear probe.
The development of TDR has now made remote reading of water contents possible without
nuclear technology. The underlying principle is the determination of the dielectric constant of
the soil surrounding the probe. In soil, the dielectric constant (or permittivity) is related to the
volumetric water content. The probe consists of two or three electrodes buried in the soil.
Related techniques are referred to as Frequency Domain Reflectometry (FDR) and
continuous wave TDR.
6.5.6 Water flow measuring devices
The monitoring of water flows may be necessary for the following situations:
Discharge efficiency of horizontal drains installed to stabilise a landslide area.
Seepage through embankments or into tunnels.
Dewatering of excavations or preloading using wick drains.
Where seepage can be channelled through a V-notch weir, the flow rate is easily calculated
from the notch angle of the weir and the head of water above the bottom of the V-notch. A
wide variety of flow meters exist for piped flow such as Venturi, orifice, ultrasonic, turbine,
electro-magnetic flow meter devices.
6.5.7 Accuracy
In open boreholes, measuring tapes with an electrical probe attached are capable of
determining water levels with an accuracy of 1 mm, but in practice less precision is required.
Vibrating wire piezometers with a range of 200 kPa (= 20 m head of water) have an accuracy
of about 100 mm. Pneumatic piezometers are more sensitive.
Tensiometers measure soil suction with 1% accuracy, but only in the range of 0 to -90 kPa.
Porous blocks, as used for agricultural purposes, have less accuracy (7%) but a wider range
(-10 to -1000 kPa).

Because of the many different types of flow meters available, a general statement on their
accuracy is not meaningful.
6.6 Monitoring thermal, geophysical and geochemical properties
This section briefly describes important monitoring methods used which are used to measure the
thermal, geophysical or geochemical parameters which may be significant for the road formation
structure. These are summarised in Table 9
Table 9. Instrumentation for monitoring thermal, geophysical and geochemical properties.
Parameter Individual Methods / Mode of operation Applications

Instruments
Thermal e.g. Mercury Thermometer Manual Thermal detection.

Temperature Monitoring calibration
Thermocouples, Electronic As above

Thermistors, Resistance
temperature devices
Geophysical Time Domain Electronic Water content in soils,

Reflectometry (TDR) locating shear zones in
soil and rock
Acoustic Emission (AE) Electronic Detecting rock fracturing

in tunnels or ground
movement in rock and
soil slopes
Geochemical Corrosion loss of Physical Observation Steel structures.

thickness Thin coatings analysis Metallic reinforced soil
walls or slopes
Acid sulfate soils Chemical Environmental

Agricultural
Water quality (Turbidity) Optical Runoff; seepage

Electronic

6.6.1 Temperature
Temperature measurement is generally supplementary to other monitoring of movement
loading etc. Listed below are some situations where measurement of this parameter may be
required.
Temperature distribution in pavements and diurnal variations affecting pavement life (e.g.
asphalt properties in cold climates).
Temperature effects at the face of retaining structures where geosynthetic reinforcements
are used. This has the potential to reduce the strength and durability of geosynthetic
inclusions.
Correction effects of temperature on other types of sensors (e.g. vibrating wire gauges).
6.6.2 Time Domain Reflectometry
The main application of TDR has been the determination of the moisture content in soils.
However, TDR can also be employed to determine fluctuations in ground water level and
locate shear zones in rock and soil; in these applications, long coaxial cables serve as probes.
Crimping the cable at regular intervals helps to locate zones of relative movement in the
ground.
6.6.3 Acoustic Emission
Shear movements or fractures in materials are accompanied by a release of strain energy,
partly in form of a shock wave that can be picked up by a transducer and made audible
electronically as Acoustic Emission (AE). The frequency of the actual stress waves emitted
ranges from 30 kHz to 30 MHz which is outside the audio range. Acoustic emission is also
referred to as microseismic activity or sub-audible rock noise (SARN). Acoustic emission is
measured in terms of the count rate which indicates the number of times the signal amplitude
exceeds a preset voltage threshold over a specific length of time. RTA research in the late
1980s successfully linked the AE count rate to slope stability on a project in the Newcastle
area.
6.6.4 Corrosion
Monitoring of corrosion of metallic reinforcement components in structures may be required to
evaluate long term durability, performance and design life. Some examples are:
Reinforced Soil Walls corrosion of steel strips or bars.
Soil nailed structures corrosion of grouted steel bars.
Rock bolts corrosion of steel bolts and sheathing.
Ground anchors durability of steel strand or bar anchors and sheathing.
In the mid 1970s the RTA undertook a program of long term monitoring of the reinforced earth
steel strips for a RECO reinforced earth wall in Parramatta, Sydney (Clarke & Won 1992). The
monitoring involved extraction of buried steel strips from the wall 20 years after construction
for corrosion assessment as shown in Figure 36.

Figure 36. Reinforced metallic strips being extracted from

RECO Wall (Parramatta) for corrosion monitoring.
6.6.5 Water turbidity

Water quality and in particular water clarity may be required to be tested on construction sites
as a result of surface runoff or seepage.
A variety of different turbidity meters are available, from the handheld unit used for testing
water samples contained in vials, to submersible instruments suitable for continuous insitu
monitoring.
6.6.6 Acid sulfate soils
Acid Sulfate Soils (ASS) occurs in many low-lying areas along the NSW coast. Where
construction projects may be affected by ASS, environmental management plans may require
that water quality be regularly monitored for:
Acidity (pH).
Chloride and sulfate concentrations.
Salinity (Total Dissolved Solids).
Further information on the requirements for dealing with acid sulfate soils are given in the
Guidelines for Acid Sulphate Soils (RTA, 1995).

6.7 Real time monitoring applications

Over the past decade there have been major advances in data acquisition, processing and rapid
communications applied to geotechnical monitoring. Ground information (e.g. landslide
movements, load/strain data from geotechnical structures, water levels etc) can be viewed in
real time for critical sites using graphical user interface (GUI) technology. This reduces the
need for staff to be deployed to travel to the site to physically read the geotechnical instruments
and subsequent delays in processing the data. Furthermore real time monitoring may be
advantageous for sites which are remote or difficult to access due to terrain or traffic restrictions.
This technology enables continuous monitoring to be undertaken at a site to capture rapid
changes in ground conditions which are able to be interrogated by staff remote from the site.
During 2004, two landslide prone sites on Mt Ousley Road (Wollongong) were instrumented
using real time monitoring technology. Roads and Maritime Services partnered with the
University of Wollongong to implement this technology for the following reasons:
Provide better understanding for each sites response to rainfall.
Provide accurate information on performance of ground water drainage systems.
Enable a risk management plan for each site to be developed in conjunction with a
Geotechnical Emergency Response Plan for this critical infrastructure link.
The geotechnical instrumentation consisted of the following elements:
In-place inclinometers (see Figure 37) to measure landslide movements at depth.
Water level piezometers (vibrating wire type) to measure rapid rise/drawdown of ground
water.
Automated tipping bucket type rainfall gauges (see Figure 38).
Data loggers (multi-channel Campbell CR2) linked to dial up phone modem (DNP3 protocol)
with antenna (see Figure 39).
Solar cell panel to power data logger with vandal proof enclosure (see Figure 40).

Figure 37. In-place inclinometer.
Figure 38. Automated rainfall gauge.

Figure 39. Datalogger, power supply and phone modem.
Figure 40. Monitoring station with solar cell panel mast in secure enclosure.

Results of real time monitoring are shown in Figure 41 illustrating the relationships between
rainfall events, ground water levels and landslide movement over time.
Figure 41. Real time monitoring data of landslide movement, ground water
conditions and rainfall events plotted over time (Flentje et al, 2005).
Since 2010, real time monitoring technology has been expanded to include the ability to control
instrumentation and equipment on site remotely. The SCADA system (term meaning
supervisory control and data acquisition) has been deployed by the Roads and Maritime
Services for critical landslide sites on Mt Ousley Road (Wollongong) and the F3 Sydney
Newcastle Freeway at Palmers Road, 90 km north of Sydney.
The SCADA technology is summarised in Figure 42 for the Mt Ousley Road project where a
system of nine deep wells and associated pump equipment have been installed to control
adverse ground water conditions that may trigger a major landslide. The end user is able to
quickly access site data (i.e. ground water levels, landslide movements) in real time via GUI and
interrogate and control pump performance as shown in Figure 43.
Real time monitoring systems such as SCADA give the following benefits:
Enables 24/7 alarms and advance warning of incidents to be developed with communication
protocols to the NSW Transport Management Centre.
Supervisory control of on-site equipment to risk-manage unstable ground. The equipment
may include pump stations, traffic control devices installed at a site etc.
Continuous monitoring enables the ground characteristics and response to rainfall to be better
understood by geotechnical personnel.

Work health safety benefits, particularly for remote sites and those which may be difficult to
access.
Improved reporting capabilities.
Access to site data, its long term storage and data management.
Advances in real time monitoring will continue to improve as computer interface systems
become more sophisticated.
Figure 42. SCADA real time monitoring technology implemented

on Mt Ousley Road project for dewatering wells and pump control.
Figure 43. SCADA real time monitoring of performance of pumps

used to dewater the Mt Ousley landslide site.

References
Amer, G.S.T. (2001) Monitoring and Assessment of Structures. Spon Press, London.
AS/NZS ISO 31000:2009 AS/NZS 4360: Risk Management Australian Standard.
AS 4678-2002 Earth Retaining Structures Australian Standard
AS 1726-1993 Geotechnical site investigations Australian Standard on Site Investigations
(referred as the SAA Site Investigation Code).
Asaoka, A. (1978) Observational Procedure of Settlement Prediction. Soils and Foundations,
Vol. 18, No. 4.
Brokaw, W.S. (1998) Using Geomatics in the Acquisition and Management of Field Data. Field
Instrumentation for Soil and Rock (Durham, G.N., and Marr, W.A., eds). ASTM STP 1358.
Bromhead, E.N. (1992) Stability of Slopes. Blackie Academic and Professional, 2nd Ed, 411p.
Clarke, J.W. (1992) Durability of Reinforced Earth Wall Tie Strips. University of Technology,
Sydney (School of Civil Engineering) Internal Report dated July 1992 for Roads & Traffic
Authority (NSW).
Dunnicliff, J. (1988) Geotechnical Instrumentation for Monitoring Field Performance. Wiley
Interscience.
Flentje, P.N., Chowdhury, R.N., Tobin, P. and Brizga, V. (2005) Towards real-time landslide risk
management in an urban area. Landslide Risk Management (Editors Hungr, O, Fell, R et al).
Proceedings of the International Conference on Landslide Risk Management; 18th Annual
Vancouver Geotechnical Society Symposium.
Forrester, K. (1987) The Carisbrook Avenue landslide. Soil Slope Instability and Stabilisation,
Walker and Fell (eds), Balkema, Rotterdam.
Forrester, K. (2000) Subsurface Drainage for Slope Stabilization. ASCE Press.
Hanna, T.H. (1985) Field Instrumentation in Geotechnical Engineering. Trans Tech Publications.
Hausmann, M.R. (1990) Engineering Principles of Ground Modification. McGraw-Hill, 1990.
Marr, W.A. (1998) Uses of Automated Geotechnical Instrumentation Systems. Field
Instrumentation for Soil and Rock. Durham, G.N., and Marr, W.A., (eds.). ASTM STP 1358.
Martin, M.A. and Poole, D.A. (1993) Early Warning Systems and Risk Management Strategies
(Based on a site visit to SRA of NSW), Connors Range Geotechnical Investigation. Queensland
Railways, Civil Engineering Section.
Mikkelsen, P.E. and Green,G.E. (2003) Piezometers in Fully Grouted Boreholes. Field
Measurements in Geomechanics, Oslo, Norway.
Nicholson, D.P., Tse, C.M. and Penny, C. (1997) The Observational Method in Ground
Engineering: Principles and Applications. Research Report RP 527, CIRIA, London.
O'Connor, K.M., and Dowding, C.H. (2001) Real Time Monitoring of Infrastructure Using TDR
Technology: Case Histories. FHWA Report. Powderham, A.J (1998) The Observational Method
Application Through Progressive Modification. Civil Engineering Practice, Fall/Winter 1998.
RMS ( 2013) Guide to Slope Risk Analysis Version 4.0 Roads & Maritime Services (NSW).
RTA (1990) Acoustic Emission Materials Guide No.2. First Edition. Roads & Traffic Authority.
RTA (1996) Fieldwork Manual TSS-M-409001. Published by the RTA Technology Directorate,
Scientific Services Branch, Roads & Traffic Authority (NSW).
RTA (1999) Risk Management Manual, Roads & Traffic Authority (NSW).

RTA (2003) Guidelines for Treatment Selection at Rockfall Sites, September 2003. Report No.
3142/Rev 1. Roads & Traffic Authority (NSW).
RTA (2003a) Business Rules for the Development and Management of the Slope Stability
Remediation Program. Maintenance Matters MM-00-05. Roads & Traffic Authority (NSW).
RTA (2003b) Management of Innovative Technologies. RNIM-TP4-007. Roads & Traffic
Authority (NSW).
RTA (2006) Geotechnical Report Investigation on Fibre Optic Sensing Technology. Roads &
Traffic Authority (NSW).
Stirling, D.M. (2001) Photogrammetry Practice and Applications. Monitoring and Assessment
of Structures. Amer, G.S.T. (ed.). Spon Press, London.
Turner, A.K., Schuster, R.L. (eds) (1996) Landslides Investigation and Mitigation. Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council, Special Report 247. National Academy Press,
Washington, D.C.
Walker, B.F., Blong, R.J. and MacGregor, J.P. (1987) Landslide classification, geomorphology,
and site investigations. Soil Slope Instability and Stabilisation. Walker and Fell (eds.). Balkema,
Rotterdam.
Wilson, S.D., and Mikkelsen, P.E. (1978) Field instrumentation. In Special Report 176:
Landslided: Analysis and Control. Schuster, R.L. and Krizek, R.J. (eds.). TRB. National
Research Council, Washington, D.C.
Won, G.W. (1992) Testing and Materials ( Discussion on RECO Corrosion Monitoring).
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Earth Reinforcement Practice (Vol 2), Fukuoka,
Kyushu, Japan: Editors H. Ochaia, S. Hayashi and I. Otani.

Appendix A Instrumentation for structures

A1. Typical instrumentation
Geotechnical instrumentation and monitoring of existing slopes, embankments, retaining walls,
tunnels and associated structural elements generally follows the following stages
Project engineers, asset managers or others recognise problems with a particular road
formation structure: Settlement, rotation, translation, cracks, corrosion, water ponding and
seepage, etc.
A geotechnical specialist inspects the site and makes an initial risk assessment.
A survey of surface features is undertaken.
A subsurface investigation follows and embedded instruments are installed (inclinometers,
piezometers, etc) depending on what performance parameters are considered critical.
Performance benchmarks are set (e.g. magnitudes of deformations at which remediation or
emergency measures are initiated) and incorporated in a risk management plan.
The management of geotechnical monitoring is summarised in Figure 3 of this Guide.
The need for instrumentation and monitoring for new infrastructure may already be anticipated
during the design stage when the results of the initial site investigation become available and
geotechnical hazards are identified. Providing for structural performance assessment during
construction and preparing contingency plans for worse than expected geotechnical conditions
may improve project management and reduce overall costs.
For each road formation structure, the recommended types of instrumentation are given in
Table A1. Instrumentation has been classified in three levels of importance namely,
Level 1 Vital.
Level 2 Beneficial, allowing a more comprehensive assessment of a site.
Level 3 Supplementary: recommended for large and complex sites or where the project has
a research component or where new technology has been introduced.

Table A1. Typical geotechnical instrumentation of road formation structures.

Structure Failure mode (ultimate, Instrumentation type Comments
serviceability)
marks
Survey of surface
Inclinometers
gauges
Internal settlement
Extensometers
Load cells, bolts
Strain gauges
Total pressure cells
Piezometers
Soil suction meters
probes
Water content
Water flow meters
chemical
Geo-physical/ geo-
Slope Rotation 1 1 1 1 2 3
Translation 1 1 1 1 2 2 3
Rockfall 1 1 1 2 Record fallen rock
Embankment Settlement 1 1 2 1
Bearing capacity 1 1
Seepage 1 Horizontal drain flow
Erosion 1 1 2
Retaining walls (incl. Overturning, tilting 1 2 2 2 1 2
seawalls and Settlement 1 1 3 1
abutments) Translation 1 1.
Bearing capacity 2 3 2 2
Soil and rock Rupture 1 1 1 3
reinforcement Slippage 1 1 1 3
Corrosion, degradation 1-3 Use dummy specimen
Pavement subbase, Volume change (shrink, 1 1 1
subgrade swell)
Tunnels Deformation 1 1 1 Including rock bolts
Pressures 1 1 1
Water ingress 1 2
Pore pressures 1
KEY TO IMPORTANCE LEVEL 1 = Vital Importance 2 = Beneficial Importance 3 = Supplementary Importance

A2. Critical performance benchmarks

Performance benchmarks (or trigger levels) are set in terms of the critical parameters identified.
They vary with the type of structure and hazard involved. Examples are given in Table A2.
Table A2. Critical performance benchmarks.

Type of Structure Critical Performance Parameters (for benchmarks or
trigger levels)
Slopes Total movement
Rate of movement
Rockfalls Size, frequency and total volume of fallen rock
Impact on rock fences
Rainfall intensity
Embankments Settlement
Pore pressures
Lateral movement
Rate of movement
Retaining Walls Rotation
Lateral movement
Settlement
Rupture of components
Earth pressures
Anchors and Soil Load loss or gain
Reinforcing Elements Stress
Elongation
Tunnels Distortion/deformation of profile
Structural damage
Subsidence at ground surface
Water ingress
A3. Specific purpose of instrumentation

The primary objectives of instrument installation and monitoring specific structures usually are to:
Define the extent of the problem (e.g. area and depth of sliding soil mass) and its urgency (with
respect to performance benchmarks).
Provide parameters which help to analyse the problem, determine its cause and design
remediation (e.g. carry out slip circle analysis using measured pore pressures, design drainage).
Prove the effectiveness of remediation (e.g. reduced rate of movement).
The purpose of different instruments in the monitoring of slope instability (translational or rotational

Table A3. Instrumentation for unstable slopes.

Type of slope Principal Main purpose of data obtained Comments
instability monitoring
Defining extent, Analysis, Check
instrument
rate of identifying remediation
movement cause
Translational
slide
Survey

Inclinometers

Piezometers

Extensometers

Water flow (from
drainage)

Rainfall

Soil suction

Rotational
slide
Survey

Inclinometers

Tiltmeters

Piezometers

Extensometers

Water flow (from
drainage)

Rainfall

Soil suction
In residual
soils
Rockfall Survey
Rockfall
statistics
useful
Extensometers,
crack monitors

Load bolts and
trip wires for
For fences,
alarm
fences systems are
possible

Appendix B Classification of monitoring methods and instruments

Table B1. Classification of monitoring methods and instruments
Parameter / Group of Individual Mode of Measurement taken Possible accuracy Typical applications/findings
Attribute Methods / Methods / operation
Observed Instruments Instruments
Surface Survey Line of sight Optical Offsets of stakes (or 50 mm. Indication of extent and rate of
movements methods and survey marks) from 1 mm (using theodolite downslope movement of a landslide
instruments fixed base line of and scale)
sight
Levelling Optical Levels of survey 3 mm ordinary Settlement and subsidence
points relative to 1 mm precise (embankments, buildings, slopes)
stable benchmark
EDM Electronic Distance between 1:50000 Changes in positions and of survey
instrument and 1 mm over 50m points
survey mark
Triangulation Optical and Horizontal and 5 mm Changes in positions and levels of
Total Station electronic, vertical angles survey points, direction and rate of
digital movement over time
Photogrammetry Optical and Photographs of 3 micro on photographic Movements of targets in 2D or 3D
electronic, targets from datum plate
digital points 1.5 mm for large
structure
1:5000 to 1:50000
GPS Electronic, Easting and Northing, Position: 10m civilian Location of instruments and
digital Longitude and receivers, topographic and geological features
Latitude 1 m military receivers, Special fixed GPS for monitoring
1 mm (special receivers) building movements
Elevation: Less accurate
Crack monitoring Optical, Distance between 2 1 mm Determining crack widening,
(incl. surface mechanical, stakes (or particularly at the head of a sliding
extensometers) electronic quadrilateral mass or at discontinuities (faults or
arrangement) or joints)
anchor pins

Tiltmeters Mechanical, Rotation about 0.1 and better Slope movement with rotational
electronic horizontal axis component, tilt of stakes, poles and
trees on landslides
Slope Stability Electronic Slope stability radar 0.02 mm Monitoring rock walls in open cut
Radar (SSR) mining and similar slopes can activate
warning system
Laser scanning Electronic Laser scanning 50 mm @ 400 m Recording topographic information,
6 mm @ 50 m including cliff faces and other slopes
software detects changes between
scans
Subsurface Inclinometers Probe Electronic Angular rotation from 3 mm (to depth of 30 m) Lateral movement (landslides,
movements inclinometers vertical axis (sensors 1:10000 embankments, retaining walls, piles)
in probe inserted into Range (tilt) 12 to 30
plastic casing)
In-place Electronic Angular rotation from 1:25000 Lateral movement (landslides,
inclinometers vertical axis (multiple embankments, retaining walls, piles)
2
sensors fixed in where ADAS is used and high
plastic casing) accuracy is needed
Deflectometers Deflectometers Angle 0.05% Settlement of
between two Range 50 foundations, borehole
rigid deviations
segments
Settlement Settlement Optical Levels 3 to 25 mm Settlement below and within
gauges platforms embankment or reclamation fill
Liquid level Hydraulic Hydraulic level in 5 mm Settlement within dams and
gauge. standpipe, air or embankments
water pressure
Horizontal profile Electronic, Hydraulic pressure 20 mm Settlement below embankment
gauges hydraulic (head) in U-tube
Extensometers Probe Electronic Probe extensometers 3 mm (in soil) Vertical and horizontal displacement
extensometers 0.03 mm/m (sliding between points by locating steel or
micrometer) magnetic markers

Fixed Electronic, Fixed extensometers 0.03-0.13 mm Vertical and horizontal displacement
extensometers mechanical (Depends on the between points connected with rods
instruments used and the and wires using dial gauges,
distance between micrometers or transducers
measuring points)
Loads, Load Load cells in line Mechanical, Dial gauge, pressure 2-10% Forces acting on piles, anchors, rock
stresses and measuring of action hydraulic, gauge, electrical bolts, foundations and abutments
strains devices electronic, signal
photoelastic
1
Load bolts, pins Electronic Resistance, voltage 1-50 microstrain Stress in reinforcing bars, stress in soil
or studs or frequency of reinforcing geosynthetics
vibration gives strain
1
Strain gauges Surface Electronic, Electronic: 1-50 microstrain Strain in steel and concrete elements,
mounted or fibre optic Resistance, voltage, generally for conversion into stresses
embedded (steel frequency of
and concrete) vibration, fibre optic
Soil strain Electronic Voltage induced in 0.05% static strain Strains within embankments,
meters secondary coil gives 0.001% dynamic strain foundations, backfill and pavements
(induction coils) distance between the
two coils
Total earth Soil/structure Hydraulic, Diaphragm deflection Measurement may be Earth pressure at soil/structure
pressure cells interface and pneumatic, or hydraulic pressure precise, but not interface (retaining walls, footings, raft
embedment cells electronic using transducers representative foundations, piles, culverts) and within
embankments
Pore Pore Standpipe Hydraulic, Water level in 1 mm (Standpipe: inside Preferred where reliable long term
pressures, pressures piezometers electronic standpipe diameter 8 mm to 80 mm) performance is required and long
soil suction, Using survey tape, response time is acceptable
water content electrical dipmeter,
and water transducer, etc
flow Twin tube Hydraulic, Pressure in Bourdon 1 to 5 mm water column Long term monitoring in dams and
piezometers electronic, gauge, transducer or 1% full scale embankments
pneumatic U-tube (commercial pressure Flushing of tubing and piezometer
gauge reading) cavity possible
Negative pressure heads to 5 m
measurable

Diaphragm type Pneumatic, Pressure in Bourdon 0.015% full scale Where quick response time is required
piezometers electronic gauge or vibrating (pneumatic with digital (short time lag)
wire transducer readout) Slope stability, dewatering, dams and
0.1 to 0.5% full scale embankments
(vibrating wire
piezometer)
Soil suction Tensiometers Pneumatic, Pressure transducer, 1% Applications limited by available range.
electronic Bourdon type gauge, Range: 0 to -90 kPa. Mainly agricultural monitoring
mercury column
Porous blocks Electronic Resistivity or thermal 7% Mainly agricultural
properties of block -10 to 1000 kPa.
Water content Nuclear gauges Nuclear, Count 2% Compaction testing (density and water
electronic content), few long term monitoring
projects
TDR - Time Electronic Volumetric water 2% Swelling and shrinking soils below
Domain content pavements and foundations. Seasonal
Reflectometry (%volume of soil wetting and drying of slopes resulting in
moisture) progressive downslope movement.
Also used in measuring deformation of
rock or soil mass
FDR Electronic Volumetric water 3% to 1% (with Swelling and shrinking soils below
Frequency content calibration) pavements and foundations. Seasonal
Domain (%volume of soil wetting and drying of slopes resulting in
Reflectometry moisture) progressive downslope movement
Water flow V-notch weir Manual, Height of water is Height measurement in Seepage collected in drainage systems
electronic converted into flow mm
Accuracy depends on
flow
Flow meter Hydraulic, A variety of physical Depends on type of flow Mainly flow in or out of pipes
electronic measurements meter
Temperature, Temperature Mercury Manual Expansion of mercury 0.1 to 1C Maximum/minimum thermometers
geophysical Thermometer useful in monitoring

and Thermocouples, Electronic Various electronic 0.1 to 1C Suitable for remote monitoring
geochemical Thermistors, measurements
properties Resistance
temperature
devices
Geophysical TDR Time Electronic Time Domain Varies with application Measuring water content in soil,
Domain Reflectometry (TDR) and expertise of operator determining ground water level,
Reflectometry locating shear zones in soil and rock
Slope Stability Electronic Slope Stability Radar 0.02 mm Monitoring rock walls in open cut
Radar (SSR) Maximum distance 450 m mining and similar slopes
Can activate warning system
Laser Scanning Electronic Laser scanning 50 mm @ 400 m Recording topographic information,
6 mm @ 50 m including cliff faces and other slopes
Software detects changes between
scans
Acoustic Electronic Acoustic emission Accuracy depends on Monitoring of slope stability, structures
Emission (AE) (AE) equipment/instruments under stress (Reported in AE count
used rates)
Geochemical Water quality Optical / Turbidity Accuracy depends on Assessing acceptability of water
(Turbidity) electronic equipment/instruments seeping or running off construction site
used (Reported in NTUs or PPMs)
Acid sulphate Chemical Acid sulphate soil Accuracy depends on Monitoring of potentially toxic water
soils seepage water equipment/instruments draining from acid sulphate soils
used (pH & other tests)
Corrosion loss of Physical Galvanisation Accuracy depends on Steel structures
thickness observation Steel equipment/instrument used Metallic reinforced soil walls or slopes
Thin coatings
analysis
Notes: 1) Strain: Change in length per unit length. Microstrain = strain expressed in parts per million.
2) ADAS: Automatic Data Acquisition System.

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Geotechnical instrumentation and monitoring

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About this release

Title: Geotechnical Instrumentation and Monitoring

Document Number: C-G-003 (GEO 4384)

Author: Pavements and Geotechnical Section, Engineering Services

Authorised by: Manager, Asset Strategy

Issue Date Revision description

1.0 31 Mar 2016 First issue

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Technical Guide to Geotechnical

FOREWORD and DISCLAIMER

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6.5.6 Water flow measuring devices ................................................................................... 47

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Figure 1. Road infrastructure components.

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2. Scope and Structure

What are the ground conditions and

Determining the purpose of

Designing the monitoring program

Figure 2. Structure of this Guide.

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3. The Need for Performance Monitoring

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Table 1. Failure modes for various structures.

Structure: Failure mode (ultimate, serviceability:

Bridges Ground movements affecting foundations and

3.3 Risk assessment

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Risk management applied to geotechnical instrumentation and monitoring is illustrated in

Figure 3. Role of monitoring in risk management of geotechnical structures.

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4. The Purpose of Performance Monitoring

Network Management (Initiation)

Figure 4. Monitoring in different project phases.

Figure 5. Deformation versus time curves (schematic) for different structures.

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Table 2. Classification of monitoring situations.

Short term New construction To verify design parameters, quantify

4.2 Verifying design parameters

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5. Designing the Monitoring Program

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5.2 Performance limits

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5.5 Monitoring frequency and timing

Table 3. Typical monitoring intervals related to Assessed Risk Levels (ARLs).

5.5.1 Conditions requiring a change of monitoring frequency

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Table 4. Typical monitoring costs for road formation structures.

Cost ($) Percentage of

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6. Selection of Geotechnical Instrumentation

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6.2 Monitoring surface movement