Alternative Energy Generation

Alternative Energy Distribution
By: Chanakya
chanakya@windowslive.com
Table of Contents
1.0 Overview ............................................................................................................................... 3
2.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 4
3.0 Background............................................................................................................................ 5
3.1 Traditional Generation Model .................................................................................................. 5
3.1.1 Generation............................................................................................................................ 5
3.1.1.1 Coal-fired power plants: ..................................................................................................... 5
3.1.1.2 Gas turbines and combustion cycle power plants ............................................................... 5
3.1.1.3 Piston engine based power plant ....................................................................................... 6
3.1.1.4 Fuel cell.............................................................................................................................. 6
3.2 Traditional Transmission Model ............................................................................................... 6
3.2.1 Inductance of the three phase Transmission line ................................................................... 9
3.2.2 Corona effect ...................................................................................................................... 11
3.3 Solar power ........................................................................................................................... 11
3.4 Wind power ........................................................................................................................... 13
3.4.1 Background ......................................................................................................................... 13
3.4.1.1 Wind Turbine Issues ......................................................................................................... 14
Technology .................................................................................................................................. 15
4.0 Emerging model and background ......................................................................................... 17
4.1 Battery................................................................................................................................... 17
4.1.1 Types of Batteries ............................................................................................................... 18
Automotive Batteries................................................................................................................... 18
Vehicle Traction Battery: ............................................................................................................. 18
Stationary battery........................................................................................................................ 18
4.1.2 Batteries in Series ............................................................................................................... 18
4.1.3 Batteries in parallel: ............................................................................................................ 19
4.1.4 Battery Ratings: .................................................................................................................. 19
4.1.5 Battery charging.................................................................................................................. 20
4.2 Induction Motor .................................................................................................................... 22
4.3 Induction Generator: ............................................................................................................. 25
5.0 Models Created ................................................................................................................... 25
Model Assumptions ..................................................................................................................... 25
5.1 Home Usage Estimate model ................................................................................................. 26
By: Chanakya
5.1.1 Load Calculations ................................................................................................................ 28
5.2 Rectifier ................................................................................................................................. 29
5.3 DFIG....................................................................................................................................... 31
5.3.1 The criteria for synchronising two generators ..................................................................... 34
5.4 Solar Panel ............................................................................................................................. 35
5.5 Combined Model ................................................................................................................... 37
6.0 Simulation Results ............................................................................................................... 39
6.1 Rectifier ................................................................................................................................. 39
6.2 DFIG....................................................................................................................................... 41
6.3 Combined Model ................................................................................................................... 44
7.0 Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 45
7.1 Power Factor Analysis ............................................................................................................ 48
7.2 Fault tolerance ....................................................................................................................... 48
8.0 Further Work ....................................................................................................................... 49
9.0 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 50
10.0 Appendices .......................................................................................................................... 50
11.0 References ........................................................................................................................... 57
By: Chanakya
1.0 Overview
The generation of electricity at remote sites or sites located closer to the load has the
potential to reduce transmission costs and losses, and reduce the environmental impact.
However, integrating such smaller generation plant that is distributed throughout the
network raises many issues around load flow analysis, safety, and network operation. This
investigation looks at the integration of distributed electricity generation for residential use,
such as remote communities or those reducing their reliance on the national grid.
Simulations of various network operations were performed using MATLAB and Microcap.
MATLAB was chosen for this project because the output obtained matched the theory.
Models were made of Battery room, Rectifier, Variable voltage source, DFIG [Double Fed
Induction Generation] and tested using different conditions.
In this project, the DFIG model generates electricity on 575V which is transmitted to the
load. The rest of unutilised energy is transmitted back to the grid. The output voltage of
the generator also varies as the grid voltage varies. Though the generation take place on
three phase, only one phase is used for domestic purpose. The distribution transformer is
used to get neutral point as well as to separate one phase out of three.
When the generation depends on weather, i.e. solar or wind, a back-up station is required
so the user can still utilise the electricity when there is not enough generation. To meet this
criterion, batteries were installed in such manner, that it provided electricity when
generation fails. Apart from that the batteries will charge only when the load demand is less
than the generation. The rectifier circuit is developed to charge these batteries as well as to
remove the transients. As the load is single phase AC, an Inverter is also required to convert
the DC voltage obtained by rectifier.
By: Chanakya
2.0 Introduction
The prices of fossil fuels, particularly oil and natural gas, have risen sharply over the past
few years. As a result, alternative sources of energy — used specifically in electricity
generation and transportation — are garnering increasing attention although they still meet
only a small percentage of global energy demand, the more commercially viable alternative
energy sources are growing rapidly, presenting investors with the potential for attractive
long-term opportunities. The Idea of generating electricity on one end and transmitting it on
the other end is not more. Now there is an idea of generating electricity near to the load so
one can utilise it whenever they want. Not only this but one can transmits that energy back
to the grid. That also helps to reduce the transmission losses.
By: Chanakya
3.0 Background
3.1 Traditional Generation Model

The earliest power station had concept of generating electricity on one point and
transmitting it on the other end of the country because of what power drop occurs in
transmitting electricity. The utilisation of electric power is distributed mainly in 3 parts
generation, transmission and distribution…
3.1.1 Generation
Alternators are used for generating electricity. Generation is normally performed on 6 KV.
There are lots of methods available for generating electricity by using differ type of prime
movers. As for example in New Zealand especially in North Island most of electricity is
generated from Lake Taupo.
There are other concepts of generating electricity by….
3.1.1.1 Coal-fired power plants:

Coal is the most important and most widely used fuel for generating electricity. According to
world Energy Council it provides 23% of total global primary energy demand and 38% of
electricity production(Geest and Yeaman 2005). In the plant first of all coal is passed
through cleaning process where they are crushed into small particles so that can burn easily.
And then they are passed through electro static precipitator so that the metal parts can be
removed easily. These coal particles are then send to coal burning plant known as burner
where it burns and release large amount of electricity which is used to boil water and
generates steam on various pressure and temperature measured in Pascal and Celsius. This
generated steam passes through steam turbine on which generator is mechanically coupled
moves turbine thus electricity generates. In short this plant convert chemical energy to
steam, mechanical (kinetic), electric energy.
However, it is expensive to transport coal from one part to another that is one of the main
reasons why power generation companies built power station near to the coal mines.
Another thing is coal is also dirtiest of the fossil fuel and also emits large quantities of ash,
sulphur as a result it cause damage to earth environment.
3.1.1.2 Gas turbines and combustion cycle power plants

Gas turbine power plant works on the same principle as the coal fired power plant works.
The only difference is Gas is used as a source of energy rather than coal. It has more
efficiency with respect to coal fired power plant. However, it is also cheap and available in
large quantity as well as creates less pollution with respect to coal. It has more latent heat
respect to coal that means less fuel has to be used for same generation of electricity.
By: Chanakya
3.1.1.3 Piston engine based power plant
In above two power plants external combustion engines were used. But this plant consists
of internal combustion engines which work in four strokes Intake, Compression, Power and
Exhaust. Here generators are connected to flywheel and as the fly wheel rotates generator
shafts and generates electricity. This plant has more advantages as It is available in small
size from 1KW to 65000KW(Breeze 2005). Petrol or diesel can be used as a fuel though
diesel engine does not have any spark plugs. It is more efficient than external combustion
engines. It has efficiency of 70-80 percent for four stroke engines only.(Breeze 2005)
3.1.1.4 Fuel cell

The fuel cell is an electromechanical device, closely related to the battery which harnesses
chemical reaction between two reagents to produce electricity. This method is the best
among the others as it consumes hydrogen and oxygen which can be supplies from water by
hydrolysis method. The outcome of the cell is only water so no carbon foot prints are
generated. The cell itself has no moving part and also can be operate for long period of time
without maintenance, far longer than any turbine- or engine- based generating system. It
does not generate unwanted noise as there are no moving parts used. The only problem
with this technology is primary cost. (Breeze 2005)
There are also plenty of the techniques available as for example, Bio massed power
generation, Nuclear power and geothermal power.
3.2 Traditional Transmission Model
Generated voltages are transmitted to load centre by using conductors. The diameter and
length of this conductors are choose according to materials they are made of, allowable
impedance, length of networks etc. generated voltages are not enough high to transmit to a
long distance. Because as per the power formula KW (P) = V × I × Cos Ø If the power factor
remains constant then load will consumes more current for low voltage with respect to high
voltage. So as the current increases the power losses also increase by I 2Z, where Z is the
impedance of the network providing current to that load. 3 phase Δ/Δ transformers or Y/Δ
step up transformers are used to step up the voltage level by 66kv or 120kv. Now on the
same voltage low current has to be drag by the load so there will be less transmission losses
as well as it helps to reduce the size of conductor and that cause less installation cost and
reduce the number of supports.
Normally the power distributed to small office let’s say domestic loads are provided on
single phase which is 230 volt. This is done by using 3 phase step down Δ/Y transformer
which transforms 11kv/400v. Generally 400v 3 phase connection is provided to small
engineering companies, shopping centres, large buildings etc…(AUT 2009)
By: Chanakya
In New Zealand there are some private companies whom are given power on 11kv near to
the distribution transformers then they provide the same power to their own
customers.(AUT 2009)
The transmission lines are made of conductors which have their own resistance reactance
and capacitance. As the temperature changes this parameters also changes but it does not
affect the transmission parameters as these values are negligible enough to ignore.
The resistance of the conductor is more important in transmission evolution and economic
studies. The dc resistance of solid round conductor at constant temperature is.
R = ρl/A where, ρ,l,A are resistivity, length and diameter of the area.
This is not the term when ac flows in conductor; because of screen effect [higher current
density on the surface] this resistance is more than normal resistance called impedance (Z).
When ac current flows in conductors it creates self and mutual inductance let’s say, for
single phase two wire system, the predefine value of self inductance is 0.5e -7. And the value
of mutual inductance between two points can be define by L = 2e-7 where D2 is the
distance between two conductors and D1 = r1
In single phase two wire system……
Lext = 2e-7 × H/m where, D is the distance between two conductors, r is redius of the
conductor.
Total inductance for conductor 1 is then
L1 = Lself + L mutual
L1 =2e-7 ;
L1 = 2e-7 + 2e-7 where, r1’ = H/m

By: Chanakya
Same way,
L2 = 2e-7 + 2e-7 where, r2’ =
The second term of the above equation is known as inductance spacing factor.
In single phase both the conductor has same current to flow and therefore they generates
same inductance of both conductor has same diameter then, r1 = r2 = r and hence L1 = L2 =L.
The ELCB (Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker) is based on the same principle as the. When there
is no current flow through earth, same current pass through neutral. So both phase and
neutral induces the same amount of flux which compensate the system. As the current start
flowing from phase to earth neutral does not generates flux for more and the latch operates
and circuit breaker trips.
While energising the grid for first time it is important to divide a whole grid in to small parts
and then charge it. If it is connected directly with the generators then it will absorbed lots of
power as it is charging and fail the system.
Considering L11, L22 as mutual inductance and L12 = L21 as a self inductance of the line then
flux linkage is given by
λ1 = L11I1 + L12I2 as each conductor has its own self and mutual inductance.
λ2 = L22I2 + L21I1
as I2 = -I1
λ1 =
λ2 =
These calculations were for single phase two wire systems in three phase this scenario
changes.
By: Chanakya
3.2.1 Inductance of the three phase Transmission line
Consider three conductors lay down in delta for symmetrical distance from each other.
Assuming balance load condition the final formula for flux linkage is.
λa =
In balance load condition λa = λb = λc. As
For three phase asymmetrical distances….
Line inductance of each line can be found from following equation…
λa =
λb =
λc =
if is a reference means and where = 1(120o and = 1(240o
a = λa/Ia it is easy to find a value of inductance.
s conductor has inductance it has capacitance too. It causes because of the potential
difference between two lines. Of course this value is not constant and varies with
temperature and moisture in air as the permittivity of air also affects capacitance. The
amount of capacitor is a function of conductor size, spacing between two conductors and
height above the ground.
C = q/V
By: Chanakya
If V12is the voltage drops from pint 1 relative to 2 is
V12 =
Considering one meter length of a single-phase line consisting two long solid round
conductors having a radius r.
Assuming conductor 1 alone to have a charge of q 1, the voltage between conductor 1 and 2
is
V12 (q1) =
Now assuming only conductor 2, having charge of q2, the voltage between conductor 2 and
1 is
V21 (q2) =
Since, V12(q2) = -V21(q2)
V12(q1) =
Now the potential difference due to presence of both charges will be
V12 = V12(q1) + V12(q2) = +
For single phase line -q1 =q2 = -q
V12 =
By: Chanakya
By formula C= q/v
C12 = F/m
Above equation gives line to line capacitance between conductors. The effect of the ground
is neglected as it is very law with respect to line capacitance.
The magnetic field generates in transmission line induces voltages in the objects having
considerable length parallel to line such as telephone line, pipe line and fences. Apart from
that there is a reason while doing maintenance of transmission line it is isolated and
discharge, as it has capacitance in it. The magnetic field is affected by the presence of earth
return currents. For balance three phase system zero current flows in earth return path.
Magnetic fields have been reported to affect blood composition, growth, behaviour,
immune systems, and neutral functions.(Saadat 2002)
3.2.2 Corona effect

According to the author, Hadi Saadat.“ when the surface potential gradient of a conductor
exceeds the dielectric strength of the surrounding air, ionization occurs in the area close of
the conductor surface. This partial ionization is known as corona” it produces the distortion
in nearest radio and television signals. This is the reason while turning on the radio near to
the line does not catch the AM [amplitude modulation] signals.
In New Zealand in some rural area this transmission takes place by single wire earth return
system. This system was introduced in earlier 1930, when great recession was running on.
And it keep going until 1940, second world war. In this system only one conductor is
installed and the return path is gained by earth. Though this system can be installed in low
cost but it is very inefficient as the impedance of the system varies according to ground
condition. As the ground becomes wet its resistance decreases. This system also increases
the capacitance between two lines as the distance between two conductor increases, finally
the impedance of the system increases.
3.3 Solar power

Solar energy is the most important source of energy available to the earth and its
inhabitants. it is the energy source that drives the photosynthesis reaction. The energy
radiated by sun on the surface of earth is distinguished by ultraviolet light visible light and
infrared light which are around 7%, 47% and 46% respectively.(Breeze 2005) Each year
around 1500 million TWh of solar energy reached the earth(Breeze 2005). There are some
of the energy is absorbed by ozone layer some is reflected back by clods but still around 700
million Twh of energy is available on surface of earth. Most of this energy strikes the oceans
which are almost in accessible parts. (Breeze 2005)
By: Chanakya
(Fig 3.1) Solar power
Solar power can be generated anywhere on the earth but it would be wise to consider sites
before installing it. Places where clouds are cover commonly is not that preferable than the
place where sunlight is frequently available for whole of the year.
The advantage of this technology is solar panel does not require large amount of continues
area as it can be installed on various place where the space and sunlight available. The other
advantage is it does not generate any carbon emission. Apart from that there is no running
cost or maintenance cost for solar plants. However, it also has disadvantages like it
generates power only during morning time and does not generate any electricity at night or
when sunlight is not available. It also requires more space than other plants for generating
same capacity of electricity. It generates D.C power so there should be some extra device
requires which can convert DC voltage to A.C. e.g. inverter. It would be wise step to
installed backup system so that can supply power in peak period or at night. The solar cell
has life of about 10 years. Apart from that the output of solar panel does not remains
constant through the end. It’s generating capacity decrease with the duration. it is costly
and also requires good skills to install panels.(Solar 2009)
There is another way to generates electricity by concentrating solar rays. The solar thermal
generation involves using the sun simply as a source of heat. This heat is captured,
concentrated on point by which heat engine runs. The heat engine may be conventional
steam turbine, in case the heat will be used to generate steam.
There are also other ways of concentrating solar rays on the receiver side.
Parabolic troughs:
By: Chanakya
The parabola is ideal shape for a solar reflector because it concentrates all the light incident
on it from the sun at single point called focus. In this type of construction through is built
with the parabolic cross section reflectors which suppose to bring the sunlight to focus at a
line rather than a single point like in parabola. The reflecting panels can be made of mirror
glass or reflecting materials like foil.
Remember for obtaining optimum efficiency it is necessary to install reflector across the sky
facing towards sun. Once the beam concentrated on plate it converts heat to steam and the
same process starts….
3.4 Wind power
3.4.1 Background
Wind causes due to difference in pressure at two points and it flows from high pressure
zone to low pressure zone. It has enormous amount of energy in it and nowadays new
technology has introduce which can utilise this energy which means it can convert that
kinetic energy to electric energy by using bunch of equipments and machines. Wind mill is
divided mainly in two parts called wind turbine and generator (Induction motor type or
DFIG).(Energy 2009)
Wind turbine can be horizontal axis or vertical axis.

By: Chanakya
3.4.1.1 Wind Turbine Issues

A wind turbine generator has no output at all until the wind speed exceeds its low wind cut-
in speed, which is typically between 14 and 22 km/h. Power output then rises until rated
output is reached at wind speed of about 54km/h. After which output power remains
unchanged until wind speed reach to the cut-out wind speed about 90km/h. For greed
security it is necessary to control voltage at the output terminals of the wind turbine
generator. It is also necessary to maintaining consistent output during faults on the grid
where voltage can be drop suddenly. It is likely to maintain output over a range of grid
frequencies around the nominal 50Hz frequency at which New Zealand grid operates.(Geest
and Yeaman 2005)
There are such factors which are limiting Integration of wind energy in to national power
grid. Those are as follows...
Frequency management;
Short term variation in wind farm output;
Generation scheduling;
Frequency management
In New Zealand, Electricity is transmitted on 50Hz of frequency. If the frequency

varies then the safe limits which are between 49.8Hz and 50.2Hz, it causes damage
to generators and loads. The change in frequency occurs when the difference
between generation and demand changes. So if the demand is constant and
generation increases then frequency will increase.
The change in frequency f in a short time interval Δt is given approximately by;

By: Chanakya
Δf/Δt = (Generation - Load)/H × Generation
Where, H is the constant of inertia of turbine.
Short term variation in wind farm output
As we the wind speed never stays constant. It varies from time to time and as the
wind speed varies the power which is almost Vs3 also varies and hence the output of
wind generator also varies. That situation causes a change in frequency. To reduce
the change in frequency it is necessary to have a backup power station so that can
full fill the changes in the grid and can be helpful to reduce frequency variation. In
New Zealand we are lucky because we already have hydro-electric generating plant
which can be used as a backup. We also have thermal power plant but it takes more
time to start up with respect to hydro plant.
Generation Scheduling
Another problem related with wind farm is the future, the next day. There is some
uncertainty about broadcasting wind data. If there will not be any wind next day also
known as dry day, then there will not be any generation take place. Finally the
potential of large scale wind energy can increase the uncertainty around the need to
start large scale backup stations.
Apart from that in New Zealand there are large scales of power take place from
hydro power station. This is the energy that we have to use it or lose it. It is almost
impossible to store the flow of river.
There is lots of more detail available about integrating generated electricity to the national
power grid of New Zealand. There is point need to be considered by owner of the wind farm
like dispatch time, pre-dispatch time two hour rule etc....(Geest and Yeaman 2005)
Technology
The wind mill is divided in two main parts, wind turbine and wing generators. as we know
there are new technology in the market are available for WTG[Wind Turbine Generators]
which is known as DFIG[Double Fed Induction Generators]. Before that we will go through
the other technology as well as DFIG.
As we already know A WTG is typically connected to hub to form the rotor assembly. The
rotor hub is connected with shaft and gear train which transmit the power to WTG. And the
output is directly connected to grid. There are currently four technology is being used for
WTGs.
Asynchronous – Induction Generator

By: Chanakya
This technology has been used for a long time and uses standard squirrel cage
induction motor which is connected to the main grid in manner to supply excitation
to the field. The whole system consists of turbine- gearbox and generator. In this
type of generator turbine shaft is connected to the generator via gear box. The
reactive power can also be supplied by capacitors. The value of the capacitors can be
defined by considering a generator running as a motor with unity power factor. This
kind of generator does not have any control on reactive power and it provides only
active power.(Geest and Yeaman 2005)
Asynchronous – Double Fed Induction Generator [DFIG]
The double fed induction generator is the motor with the slip rings, which can be
accessed externally. This technology allows user to control rotor current by which
user can control speed or torque. This technology has ability to provide reactive
power, voltage as well as frequency regulation. As the stator windings are connected
to the grid, it can contribute overall power system inertia. The present project model
delivers 50% of the active power though the stator. An Example of this kind of
generator is Vestas V90 3MW WTG proposed by trust-power for stage III of the
Tararua wind farm.(Geest and Yeaman 2005)
Synchronous – Unsynchronised
This technology uses either permanent magnets or a standard excitation system,

hence it does not have to be connected with grid. User can connect is to the grid
once generator starts delivering power. The mechanical connections are made as
same as above two generators. The generator is connected directly to the turbine
and allows for variable speed operation over a wide range. The generator frequency
potentially being different to the grid frequency, a four quadrant power converter is
used to connect the generator to the grid. This system can provide reactive power,
voltage and frequency regulation. This generator cannot contribute to system inertia
owing to the presence of power electronic in the stator connections.(Geest and
Yeaman 2005)
Synchronous – Synchronised
This technology is used by only few power stations. One of the generators based on
this technology has been located at Gebbies Pass, near Christchurch. (Geest and
Yeaman 2005)This technology uses standard synchronous generator. In this type of
generator the generator frequency can be vary with the RPM because of what a
variable speed control gearbox is connected in between turbine shaft and generator
shaft.
By: Chanakya
4.0 Emerging model and background
Nowadays there is a new trend of generating power is taking place. For that wind and solar
power generation is the best option for generating electricity near to the load and if the
owner is not using that electricity, then he or she is able to transmit the same back to the
grid. That will reduce the transmission losses as well as it is the sustainable way to generate
electricity before that it is necessary to understand problems and requirement to transmit
generated electricity back to the grid provided by Trans power (network operators in New
Zealand).
The idea of generating electricity close to the load applied at various places. In India as the
sunlight is available during the eight months the idea of installing solar panels has been
widely spread. Many solar panels give an output of 18v and 60w though it can be varied
with temperature and solar intensity. This generated electricity is store in batteries and one
can use that any time when the user wants. The idea of generating electricity close to the
demand has many advantages on both user side and generation side. For example as the
distance between generation and utilisation point decrease, the less energy required to
transfer, which means less transmission losses. Reduce the size of conductor, less supports
need to be installed, less installation cost. If one use wind or solar energy to generates
electricity then there will be no carbon emission and that helps to reduce the carbon foot
print.
As per earlier discussion I am going to discuss some point about Matlab.
Creating an own model or start working directly on model is not good enough to research
for this project. That is why the model was built using SimPowerSystems. SimPowerSystems
extends Simulink with tools for modeling and simulating the generation, transmission,
distribution, and consumption of electrical power. It provides models of many components
used in these systems, including three-phase machines, electric drives, and libraries of
application-specific models such as Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) and wind-
power generation. Harmonic analysis, calculation of Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), load
flow, three phase load, wind generators, IGBTs, machines, DFIG, working models and so on.
4.1 Battery
Battery is the device which stores electric charge in form of chemical energy. So
basically it is the transducer which changes a form of energy. There are lots of terms
about battery before discussing that we have to understand a simple concept of DC
network. Battery is consisting of numbers of cells which gives output of 2 volts in
normal condition and in full charge condition it gives an output of 2.1 volt per cell.
That means there are 3 cells suppose to be connected in series to build six volt of
battery. 12 cells for 24V battery.
By: Chanakya
Nowadays, various kinds of batteries are available. But fundamentally it is divided in
two parts, primary and secondary. Primary cell is also called non rechargeable, use
and throw cell. The best example of this is AA or AAA dry cell available in market
easily which gives an output of 1.5 volt.
In simple terms secondary cell means rechargeable cell. We know the car batteries
we can easily recharge those batteries by the source. In practical life secondary cells
are more likely to use than the primary cell for backup system. Secondary batteries
are classified based on their use.(T.R.Crompton)
4.1.1 Types of Batteries
Automotive Batteries
These kinds of batteries are used for starting, lighting, Ignition [SLI] in internal
combustion engines. Batteries used in car [Lead-Acid] are best example of this.
Vehicle Traction Battery:

This is also called motive power or industrial batteries because of their use.
These are available in many different electrolytes. As for example, Lead-Acid,
Nicle-Iron, Silver-Zink etc… This type of batteries has ability to withstand against
high temperature. In fully charge condition the energy density range of
electrolyte is in between 100-120 wh/kg.(T.R.Crompton)
Stationary battery
Stationary batteries are mostly use for backup system but it is divided in to two
groups one type of battery is used for standby power system. It is used
intermittently E.g. UPS [uninterrupted power supply]. Another type of battery is
used for load levelling system E.g. in large power stations this type of battery
room are built to meet the peak demand when demand is more than generation.
(T.R.Crompton)
4.1.2 Batteries in Series

As we know battery has the unit of Ampere hour. That means the capacity of battery
measures in AH. As the number of AH increase the more energy it can store in it.
By: Chanakya
In above figure shows number of cells connected in series. In series connection
voltages add together for example in above figure six batteries of 2 volt are use so at
terminal we receive 2+2+2+2+2+2 = 12 v. the more numbers of batteries the more
output voltage. Remember connecting a battery in series does not increase AH
capacity. It only increases output voltage.
It is already known that the current is equal at all points in a series circuit, so
whatever amount of current there is in any one of the series-connected batteries,
must be the same for all the others as well. For this reason, each battery must have
the same amp-hour rating, or else some of the batteries will become depleted
sooner than others, compromising the capacity of the whole bank.
4.1.3 Batteries in parallel:
As shown in above figure in parallel connection the output voltage of the battery
remain same. But it increases the ampere hour capacity of the battery. Now as we
know that the voltage is equal across all branches of a parallel circuit, so we must be
sure that these batteries are of equal voltage. If not, we will have relatively large
currents circulating from one battery through another, the higher-voltage batteries
overpowering the lower-voltage batteries which can cause unwanted
effects.(B.L.Theraja and A.K.Theraja 2005)
Apart from that there are some other terms called battery ratings which are also
important while using a battery in a particular conditions..
4.1.4 Battery Ratings:

Reserve capacity: It is one of the newly developed rating standards. And it is more
realistic because it provides double check on Ah capacity. as the rating increase the
more one has to pay.
Zero Cranking Power: This is also called Zero degree performance. While testing the
By: Chanakya
battery to get rating. it has to be chilled up to -18 degrees and then load is applied
on that battery only for 5 seconds. The test is held continuously until the output
voltage of that battery drops to 5v. As higher both the digits, better the battery
quality. As higher the number the price increases.
Cold cranking Power: This simple rating is applied to all 12 v storage batteries
regardless of that size. The battery is chilled up to -18oC which is called (0oF) until the
output voltage of battery drops to 7.2V. On the same time the output current is
measured for 30 seconds. Remember Higher the output better the battery.
(T.R.Crompton)
4.1.5 Battery charging

When load is applied to battery it starts discharging and as it discharges the output
voltage also reduces of course not fast as the Ah. Remember while checking a battery
output voltage it is necessary to check it on load other vise owner always find full
voltage on battery and cannot be sure that whether battery is charged or not. Once
battery is fully discharge it is necessary to charge it. If it remains discharge for a long
time than it will not work properly because it occurs problem in electrolyte. There are
two type of charging methods are available for batteries constant current charging and
constant voltage charging. Both has their own advantages and disadvantages…..
Constant current charging
Constant current charging
The above figure shows the circuit diagram for constant current charging in this
method. This means the charger supply uniform current constantly. As the battery
start receiving that current the density of electrolyte increases and battery start
charging. As the battery charges the density of electrolyte increases not only this but
the temperature of battery also increases. It is necessary that battery temperature
should not increase then the optimum temperature which is provided by
manufacturers. Constant current charging helps to eliminate imbalance of cells and
batteries connected in series. Constant current chargers are mostly used for cyclic
operation where battery is supposed to charge overnight. Remember the voltage of
the charger may vary with time. It has disadvantages such as it takes longer time to
charge. Apart from that it is necessary to keep an eye on battery temperature and it
should not exceed than rated temperature in any condition.
As the battery start charging the amount of charging current decreases.

By: Chanakya
The battery charging current-time characteristic is given below
Constant voltage charging

In this method, the charging voltage remains constant at any instant of time.when
battery is discharge and it’s terminal voltage is low, a large amount of charging
current flows. As the battery start charging it’s back e.m.f. increases and the amount
of charging current decrease. It is notable that with this method the charging time
decreases by half with respect to constant current charging. It also increase storage
capacity by 20% but reduce the efficiency by 10%.
If there is a secondary cell in charging the back e.m.f. acts opposite to the applied
voltage. in above figure V is the supplied voltage which drives charging current
towards battery against back e.m.f. Eb. then the power spent in overcome is Eb I is
stored in form of chemical energy. The charging current can be found from following
equation.
I=
Where R = Total circuit resistance including internal resistance of the battery
I = Charging current
As Eb increases the V- Eb decreases cause a reduction in charging current, but by
variable resistor I can be keep constant.(B.L.Theraja and A.K.Theraja 2005)
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Constant voltage charging
4.2 Induction Motor

To understand the concept of induction generator it is necessary to understand
induction motor first. There are two types of induction motors available based on
rotor type squirrel cage and wound rotor (slip ring type). An induction motor is
made of two parts stator and rotor. A stator carries three phase windings and the 3
phase supply is connected to the terminals. It generates rotating magnetic field
which has synchronous speed of (120f/P) where f and P are frequency and number
of poles respectively.
A squirrel cage rotor has copper bar on it and they are permanently short circuited.
The rotor slots are not parallel to the shaft but they are little bit skew because 1) it
helps to reduce humming while rotor is rotating. And 2) it helps to reduce attraction
between stator and rotor so that rotor and stator windings do not magnetically lock
each other. In this type of rotor it is not possible to add external resistor to provide
extra mechanical torque.
In phase wound rotor the rotor is wounded for same number of poles as the stator
has. it is always wounded in three phase. It is possible to add external resistance to
control the torque.
Working principle:
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Here Ф1 ,Ф2 and Ф3 are in black red and blue colured.
When three phase windings are placed at 120 degrees apart from each other and supplied
current, it provides resultant magnetic flux, which rotates in space by synchronous speed.
When θ = 0o ;
Here Ф1 = 0 ;Ф2 = -√3/2 Фm, Ф3 = √3/2 Фm
So Фr = 2 × Фm cos (60o/2)
Фr = 3/2 Фm
When θ = 60o ;
Here Here Ф1 =√3/2 Фm, Ф2 = -√3/2 Фm, Ф3 = 0
So Фr = 2 × Фm cos (60o/2)
Фr = 3/2 Фm
When θ = 120o
Here Ф1 = √3/2 Фm, Ф2 = 0, Фm, Ф3 = -√3/2 Фm
So Фr = 2 × Фm cos (60o/2)
Фr = 3/2 Фm
Now it is proved that in any condition Фr = 3/2 Фm.
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From above results we can say that….
The resultant flux has constant value which is 1.5 times maximum flux per phase Ф m. As
well as the resultant flux rotates around the stator at synchronous speed Ns.
Fundamental concept of Rotor:
Due to relative speed between the rotating flux and stationary conductors, Emf is
induced in the rotor according to faradays law of electromagnetic induction e = Blv or by
e = N (∂ф/∂t)
The frequency of induced emf is same as supply voltages
It’s magnitude is proportional to relative velocity between flux and conductor given by
Fleming’s right hand rule.
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Because of current flows in rotor it also produce magnetic flux but in opposite
direction.[Lenz Law]the reason which produce the rotor current is the relative velocity
between rotating flux of stator and the rotor
Hence to reduce relative speed the rotor starts running in the same direction of flux and
tries to catch up with rotating flux.
4.3 Induction Generator:
Induction generator is the same device as the induction motor. When run faster than
its synchronise speed Ns, an induction motor runs as a generator known as induction
generator. It is the reciprocal of induction motor as it takes mechanical energy and
generates electrical energy. In general an ordinary squirrel-cage motor which is
driven by petrol engine and connected to three phase line. As the shaft speed
increases then the synchronous speed, motor start delivering power. For creating its
own magnetic field it absorbs reactive power Q from grid with whom it is connected.
The Q flows opposite direction to active power P.
The active power generated is directly proportional to the slip above the
synchronous speed Ns. in some cases the reactive power supplied by a group of
capacitors connected across the terminals. The generated frequency is little bit less
than the shaft’s rotating frequency.
The terminal voltage increases with the capacitance. If the capacitors are
insufficient, the generator voltage will not build up so it is necessary to make sure
that enough reactive power be supplied by the capacitor bank to induction motor.
It is already discussed in induction motors that the flux generated by three phase
windings are 1.5 times more than maximum flux that is one of the reason why
induction generators are used as it delivers 1.5 times more electric power than
mechanical input.(B.L.Theraja and A.K.Theraja 2005)
Pele = 1.5 × Pmech
5.0 Models Created

This project it based on generating electricity near to the load centre. To research on
this project it is necessary to work on models. For that few models were created by
using Simulation software MATLAB. The model was created on based of some
assumptions
Model Assumptions
The internal resistance is supposed to be constant during the charge and the discharge
cycles and doesn't vary with the amplitude of the current. The parameters of the model
are reduced from discharge characteristics and assumed to be the same for charging.
The capacity of the battery doesn't change with the amplitude of current. The model
doesn't take the temperature into account. The Self-Discharge of the battery is not
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represented. It can be represented by adding a large resistance in parallel with the
battery terminals. The battery has no memory effect.
5.1 Home Usage Estimate model

The sine wave generator is already available in this MATLAB. For primary condition
the sine wave generator was used as the voltage source which provides 230v RMS
[root mean square] value. it is not possible to use DFIG or Induction generator model
as the usage model. Because it was created to use in phasor type power gui. While
this model works on continues type power gui. We cannot use the both together on
the same time.
Before generating electricity it is important to know about its utilisation. The plant
capacity can be define by the capacity of generator to provide electricity to the
amount of load. First of all, it is a good idea to know about load demand and
maximum demand [peak demand]. By creating a load demand we can know about
load factor and peak load. In this project load demand chart is generated on the
basis of some general information. There could be difference in KW values of
appliances as they are available in wide range. Nowadays, electrical appliances are
available with energy ratings, as these ratings go higher the better appliance.
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12000
Peak-demand
10000
8000
TOTAL ENERGY-DEMAND W
6000
solar KD210GX-LP 210 wh
wind H6.4-5000W 45-5kwh
4000
2000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
The above graph is based on excel sheet, attached with this document.
To create a backup system it is not important to learn about load calculation. The
battery provides the active power and the same way the load use the same active
power. This active power is measured by KW-h meters installed in line. This domestic
meter measures only active power used by user. Because normally the power factor
of this domestic load is close to unity. But in commercial distribution industry has to
maintain a power factor. According to electricity rules, if the power factor of
particular industry drops then allowable value, then that company might be asked to
pay penalty.
To analyse DFIG model or generating electricity the owner must have the concept of
1 & 3 phase load so that he can isolate some of the loads to reduce peak demand. In
New Zealand during some periods the supply of water heaters are isolated to drop
the peak demand. In some industries maximum demand Indicators are installed. As
the maximum demand increases the more one owner has to pay.
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5.1.1 Load Calculations
Single Phase
The instantaneous power P(t) = v(t) i(t) =
Active Power P(t) = VI Cos θ where, V and I are rms value, θ = (θv- θi)
The reactive power occurs because of inductance and reactance in the circuit. It has the zero
average value.
Q = VI sin θ
Apparent power (S) =
Power Triangle
From the law of energy conservation it is already proved that the total power supplied by
the source to sink is the sum of all the power flown in sinks. Thus, P = P 1 + P2 + P3
Three phase load
One of the reason why three phase transmission take place is because it has ability
to delivered more power with respect to single phase. The instantaneous power
delivered by three phase is near to constant not pulsating like single phase.
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A power system has Y- connected generators. Loads can be in star or delta.
Generators are rarely Δ-connected, because if the load is not balanced then return
current flows through the circuit. While in Y-connection if the load is unbalanced
then return current will flow from neutral.
For Y-connected Load
VPH = √3 VL where, VPH and VL are phase voltage and line voltage respectively. In this
Y-connection line current and phase current has the same value.
IL = IPH
In Δ-connected load the value of line voltage and phase voltage are same as there is
not any neutral point. But line current is √3 times higher that phase current.
VL = VPH & IL = √3 IPH
The three phase instantaneous power is ....
P3ø = 3 VPHIPH Cos θ
Same way reactive power is
Q3ø = 3 VPHIPH Sin θ
Apparent power S3ø = 3 VPHIPH = P3ø + j Q3ø (B.L.Theraja and A.K.Theraja 2005)
5.2 Rectifier
Rectifier is the unit which converts alternative current to direct current by means of
p-n junction diodes. It helps to provide a backup supply for which batteries are used.
This rectifier unit supply dc current to battery bank and help them to charge so in
case of emergency or power failure owner can use it. There are two models created
on different software one was on matlab and another was microcap. There is no
particular one kind of diode is available on matlab. In microcap model the diode
name 1N4007 are used as a bridge rectifier. The data sheet for that diode is given in
another section.
Now, the generated voltage is 230v rms. and the forward voltage is 0.7. This means
there will be 0.7 of voltage drop in each diode while conducting. Now according to
diode theory and formulas…..
Vrms = Vp/√2 where Vp is the peak voltage
Let’s say transformer ration is 10 : 1 then voltage at secondary will be ten times less
then primary voltages called Vp2.
VDC is called DC average value also called Vavg which will be…
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VDC = Vp2/π for half wave ideal condition but in real condition for full wave bridge
rectifier, there are two diodes conducts at same instant so there will be a voltage
drop of 1.4 voltages.
VDC = (2× Vp)/π *Ideal condition+
VDC = (2(Vp-1.4))/π
Now the output comes from diode is almost equal to VDC which is less then rms
value. But steel it is not good enough as it has many ripple in it. To smooth, it is
necessary to filter it and this can be done by adding filter circuit. In this model RC
filter is used which has following formulas.
After removing ripples from out put the smooth dc output will smooth enough for
batteries to charge
Calculation for ripple voltage is….
Vripple = VDC/ (2 × R × f × C); where R, f and C are resistor frequency of ripple voltage
and capacitance in micro faradays respectively.
The final output of the voltage is VDC = VDC + (Vripple/2)
This device was tested on microcap software.
The rectifier unit on Microcap

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Rectifier unit of MATLAB
5.3 DFIG
The DFIG is the kind induction generator with slip rings so here the generated power is
dragged by two sights stator and rotor. There are power electronic devices like rectifier
and inverter unit is connected on rotor and grid side respectively. Between this DC link a
dc capacitor is connected as a filter unit which can be helpful to remove the ac
component from the rectifier voltage and also helps to maintain constant voltage levels.
The inverter unit converts this smooth DC to Ac at the required frequency close to 50Hz
and then feeds to the main grid. While the output from stator can be directly fed to the
main grid where another generators are already synchronised. As per earlier discussion
neither wind speed nor does load remain constant at any instant because of what it
because a change in frequency and as the frequency varies the impedance of the
transmission lines also varies by equation 2πfL and 1/2πfC. Which means voltage drop
varies. Finally it can damage the instruments connected on grid.
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In DFIG technology, the harmonics injected in the grid can be removed by the rotor side
converter. Not only has this, it transmitted reactive power to support grid.
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In this model DFIG generates power at 60Hz 575 Volts. Though normally generation
take place on 11kv.gererated voltages comes at terminal A, B, C. 400volt is the line
voltage. This block has two inputs wind and trip. The wind speed in Kmph has to be
entered in the system. If someone wants to fed external power then need to check
external mechanical torque option given in block parameter Turbine data. If that
option is selected then wind terminal from main block will disappear and Pm
terminal will be enable through which it is possible to feed external mechanical
torque generated by turbine. Here in this model a variable wind speed model is used
which varies the speed of wind with respect to time.
The trip is stand for the getting signals for tripping the whole unit. It is not necessary
to feed this signal manually. In this model this tripping device gets signal from
[Trip_WT]. Now once the voltage generated and there is no problem in the circuit
then DFIG keep giving output on 575V 60Hz. With the help of the three phase two
winding transformers of ratings 12 MVA. As it is necessary to provide reactive power
to DFIG as it absorbs that reactive component and provide the active power. And in
this model this power is provided by means of three capacitors connecting in star
which provides 500kw of power to the grid. The neutral of this star point is
connected directly to the ground to make the system more reliable. Once this
generated voltage is good enough to transmit to the load centre which is almost
10km far from DFIG generating station. The transmission line can be overhead or
underground or could be made of copper or aluminium. The aluminium provides less
weight and cheap solution, but it has more impedance with respect to copper
conductor. Not only has this, but to transmit same amount of power aluminium
conductor had to be more in diameter with respect to copper conductor. With the
help of the pi section line it is easy to transmit voltage on 25kv for 10km far from the
point of generation. This PI- section has parameters of frequency, resistance
inductance and capacitance in both positive and zero sequence. In this model the
value of frequency, resistance inductance and capacitance is 50HZ, 0.1153, 1.05e-3,
11.33e-009 respectively for positive sequence. This data are calculated on the basis
of type of conductor, shape, operating temperature, and distance between two
conductors. Finally this pi section creates impedance of 0.115 ohms (Ω), by equation
Z2=R2+ (XL - XC)2 where, R, XL and XC are resistance, and capacitance respectively. In
this model no need to find the value of XL and XC but it is easy to find its value by
following formula. XL = 2πfL and XC = 1/2πfC where L and C are the values of inductor
in Henry and capacitor in farad. After 30km this voltage is step-down by another Y/Δ
transformer whose star point (on primary side) is grounded to earth this helps to
stabilise the system as well as also helps to remove humming and also provide
neutral point. Then it is ready for the further distribution.
The grid is fed power not only by DFIG, but also by another source which has ability
to provide electricity supply as backup or extra electricity to the load in case of peak
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period. This three phase programmable voltage source provides electricity on 120kv
which is further step-up to 25kv so that can be synchronised with another source.
5.3.1 The criteria for synchronising two generators

The generated voltage should be same. If these criteria do not match then reverse
current flows from one generator to another from high voltage to low voltage. This
reverse current can damage the windings of the generator.
Frequency of the both generator should be same.
While synchronising two generators it is necessary to check phase sequence if the both
generated. The face sequence of the both generator must be same.
Although, it is hard to build a devices which have same impedance. But if the impedance
of two generators matches then it gives optimum performance.
To check the data and flow of power three phase V-I measurement both is installed near
to the both generator DFIG and programmable source. Here in this model the output
graph can be shown with help of scope. The term Vabc and Iabc provide this data to wind
turbine data acquisition which check the data at each instant of the time and if there is
any error found in that then this device will isolate the turbine section from generator.
It is very difficult to generate electricity without load. While designing a whole system,
engineer has to consider the point of impedance matching for optimum output of the
generator, as impedance plays important role in the system. In this model 2MVA of load
is used to stabilise the whole system. This load is consisting of three phase delta star
transformer which step-down the voltage to 2.3kv. a three phases breaker is used as
buffer between line and motor. The motor consumes 1.68 MW at 0.936 power factor. To
maintain power factor 200kw of capacitors are connected to grid. The plant and motor
connection is also installed in this system.
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Model generated for analysing and testing
5.4 Solar Panel
There is no particular model is available for solar panel. But that is sure that the whole
system works on photovoltaic system. By looking at fundamental theory it is easy to say that
the simplest equivalent circuit of a solar cell is a current source in parallel with a diode.
The output of the current source is directly proportional to the intensity of light falls on the
surface of cell (photo current Iph). If the light is not available let’s say in night it works as a p-
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n junction diode. It produces neither a current nor a voltage. If it is connected to large
supply voltage, it produces the diode current which determines the I-V characteristic of cell.
This current called dark current.
It is already known that the output of the photo cell varies as the temperature varies. In
above circuit the series resistance Rs gives more accurate shape between maximum power
point and the open circuit voltage. It causes the voltage drops.
The shunt resistance Rsh provides the leakage current to the ground which ie very less with
respect to load current so that will be good to neglect it.
In an ideal, it is assumed that cell has Rsh = Rs = 0.

In above model the output current I is the difference of IL and normal diode current Io:
As per Shockley diode equation I = Is ( - 1) where I is the diode current, Is is the
reverse bias VD is the voltage across diode. And VT is the thermal voltage which is consider as
the voltage at normal temperature which is 25.85 mV at 300 K.
VT =
Where
q is the magnitude of charge on an electron 1.602 × 10-19,
k is Boltzmann’s constant,
T is the absolute temperature of the p-n junction in Kelvin.
I =IL- Io ( - 1) [for solar cell model]
The model included temperature dependence of the photo current I L and the saturation
current of diode Io.
IL = IL (T1) + Ko(T-T1)
Where
IL (T1) = Isc (T1,nom)
Ko =
I = Io (T1) ×
Io (T1) =
A series resistance Rs was included; which represent the resistance inside each cell in the
connection between cells.
Rs = - –
Xv = I0 (T1) -
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The current voltage curve for solar cell:
This characteristic shows the relation between voltage and current on the graph.
Current voltage I-V curve for a solar cell
As we know if the R is small then solar cell is suppose to operate in between region M and
N. where it delivers constant current to the load. In case if the R is large then the cell will
operate in region P-S. Then the solar cell will give constant voltage as the output which is
almost equal to Voc. [open circuit voltage]
Description:
This model is known as MSX60 PV. It is chosen because of its well known use and
application. In this model if the user change parameters according to new kind of
cells then he will be able to change an output of cell.
5.5 Combined Model

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Combine model single phase backup system
The whole model consists of variable voltage source rectifier charger unit, batteries to
Provide backup, inverter and single phase load.
The description of the whole model is given below:
In this model DFIG generates 400v 3 phase A.C. which will be transform to 230v Ac by using
Δ/Y transformer by the formula 400/√3 = 230.9 say 230 volts single phase. This electricity is
fed to linear single phase transformer which gives an output of 15.42 volts. Though it is not
the normal ratio of 10: 1 or something but no need to consider at this stage.
The output comes from charger [rectifier ] unit is pure dc and is feed to battery bank which
are 10 batteries connected in series to charge which are lead acid and has nominal voltage
of 1.2 volts and 1.5 Ah of capacity and internal resistance of 0.02 ohms(Ω) . In this model
those are fully discharged.
There is a current limiting resistance of 200Ω is added to limit current as well as it is a part
of RC filter. Remember that the rectifier unit can be work as both constant current charging
and constant voltage charging.
After that the same dc supply is connected to 3 levels IGBT inverter which converts Dc
current to Ac current. This unit will provide the output of 12v Ac which is not enough to
connect to the main bus. So there is a step up transformer is used to transform 12v to 230V
ac with 50 Hz frequency. There is no particular VA ratings are available for this system.
Now this 230v Ac is synchronised with main bus of owner’s house. And as we know there is
already a load connected there so whenever there is an electricity generating near to the
load, then the load is supposed to use the generated electricity. And if the load is off then
that electricity will charge the batteries apart from that if the batteries are charged and load
is off then the generated electricity will transmitted to power grid so that the other user can
use it. There are some assumptions taken while creating a model.
Now, the calculation for above descriptions is as below:

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Somehow, the generated voltages are 230V rms. And is fed to 230v/15.42 step down
transformer. So the peak value will be ….
Vrms = Vp /√2
Vp = 27.33 × √2
Vp = 38.6 V
Now, Avg Value VDC = Vavg
VDC = (2(38.6 – 1.4))/π
VDC = 25.5 volt.
Now the current limiting resistor R of 5100Ω is used as filter and capacitor of 100µF. With
small amount of capacitance matlab takes too much time to run the model.
Now, Vripple = VDC/2 (R × f × C);
= 25.5/ (5100×100×0.0001)
= 0.5 V.
So as per formula the final output is 25.75 say 26V as shown in test results.
Actually that would be best option to provide regulated power supply by using Zener Diode
or voltage regulated IC normally IC 78XX where XX stand for output voltage here we can use
7812. To get exact output regulated supply
6.0 Simulation Results

6.1 Rectifier
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VDC with ripple

voltage of 0.5V
Fig. 6.1.1 The out of rectifier unit tested in Microcap
The above waveform is the output of the rectifier unit tested in microcap. The blue line
shows the input AC voltage which has zero average value. And as discussed in the rectifier
theory it gives the output of 25.899 V, which is shown in red line.
Fig. 6.1.2 Output waveform of variable voltage source.
The above waveforms are of variable voltage device which generates voltage and changes
its amplitude with respect to time. The parameters are entered such as the output voltage
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start at 255V at 0 seconds, At 0.25 S the voltage set to 230 V and once again increase to
285V and after 0.10S, the voltage level again set to 230V.
6.2 DFIG
Fig 6.2.1 The output of DFIG
As shown in above waveform, the grid and DFIG are same voltage levels 565V. The output
voltage of the Grid is 326V which is phase voltage. Though there is a variation in the current
waveform of the both DFIG and grid, but still it varies between 2.724 and 2.724, and 0.8363
to 0.8363 Amps respectively. This waveform shows the values in respect to magnitude. It
does not show frequency. After 150 seconds the average value of the current remains
constant and does not varies with time.
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Fig 6.2.2 Testing results of DFIG [High grid voltage]
The output voltage of the DFIG increases as the Grid voltage increase. And the current of the DFIG
increases to 4.5A, which is almost double than the normal condition (2.7A).
Fig 6.2.3 Testing results of DFIG [Low grid voltage]
Fig 6.2.3 shows the output of the DFIG in low voltage condition. as the grid voltage drop by 15 V
current of the DFIG also reduces and set to nearly 2.15 V.
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Fig 6.2.4 Output of Load @ 565V
The above figure shows that the two loads of 1000W and 833W drags the current of 1.023A and
0.85A respectively. It remains costant during the whole period and chages only when the supply
voltage changes.
Fig 6.2.5 starting of DFIG
From figure 6.2.5 it can be shown that the DFIG stats delivering current after 1 second. Before that it
act as a motor and absorbs current from the grid which helps to charge the stator windings of the
system.
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6.3 Combined Model
Fig 6.3.1 The output of combine model with variable voltage.
As shown in figure the output of the inverter varies as the input DC voltage varies. In first
few seconds as the DC voltage is not smooth enough and is also rising, the output voltage of
the inverter also increases. And set down to the certain value only when the DC voltage
becomes stable.
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Fig 6.3.2 The output of combine model without variable voltage
In the above figure it is easy to conclude that the output voltage of the inverter set to 230V
AC, only when the DC voltage of the battery is set to about 38V. The whole system takes 0.1
second to set the DC and AC voltage level. The vertical white line in the output of the
secondary windings shows the power loss cause because of the copper and iron losses in
the transformer.
7.0 Discussion
The model used in this project emits 1.525 KW of active power at 565 V which is shown in
figure 6.2.1
The background material presented in Section 5.2 shows that...
The generated voltage is AC and also does not remains constant as the wind speed varies
every second. Therefore it is necessary to convert it in to DC so that energy can be stored in
batteries as a backup. The input and output wave forms are shown in figure 6.1 the output
DC has ripple of 0.5V only. Thus this unit provide smooth DC voltage of 25.904V, which will
charge the batteries only when the demand is lower than generation.
The load of the house does not remain constant it can be vary every hours, minutes and so
on. As the load varies it drag more or less current from the inverter hence, the load current
changes. Thus by the formula Vripple = IL/2fC the ripple voltage changes and thus the output
of the rectifier varies as per the load varies.
According to the law of energy conservation “Energy neither be created nor be destroyed”
thus the generated electricity must be utilise or should be stored. In the model named
Domestic purpose DFIG.mdl, if the load is not available or somehow the generation is more
than demand then the generated electricity will stored in batteries in the form chemical
energy. As the batteries have their own capacity and it cannot be overcharged, in case if the
batteries are fully charged then this generated energy will be transmitted to grid.
The models creation as the part of simulation revealed that...
To make DFIG working it is necessary to connect a load with it. Two loads of 1000W and
833W are selected randomly. Hence this load of 1000W and 833W drag current of 1.023
and 0.85 ampere respectively at 565 V. This is shown in figure 6.2.4. The amount of the
current drag by the load can be found from the formula P = √3 VL IL Cos ø where VL and IL are
line voltage and line current respectively.
The models created as a part of the simulation proves that...
In normal condition the maximum output current drag from the computer can be 2.7A.
From which 1.023 + 0.85 A flows in to the load. And the rest of the current flow back to the
By: Chanakya
grid. This theory can be solved by the applying Kirchhoff’s law of current. Thus, IDFIG = ILOAD1 +
ILOAD2 + IGRID. The results says that in peak hours if the load drag more current than generated
then DFIG provides the same output at 2.7A but the rest of current will be drag from the
grid thus this model also comply with peak hours.
From the tests shows that when DFIG is connected to the grid then the output voltage does
not varies with wind speed just because of connected directly to the grid. But the output
current of the generator becomes zero for few seconds. After that generator starts acting as
an induction motor of 1500W [2 H.P.] and drag current of 2.7A from grid. On the same time
if the wind starts again then it can damage the windings of the generated as the block rotor
condition. To secure this unwanted condition it is important to install circuit breakers which
can isolate the device whenever the reverse flow of current occurs or wind speed varies.
This device also known as STATCOM.
The tests also results that... In such condition if the grid voltage varies then the output of
the DFIG also varies as the grid voltage increases the flux related with stator and rotor
winding increases by formula (φ = L×I) where I = V/Z *windings+. Finally the energy stored in
coil increases by 0.5 LI2 and the output voltage as well as current increases for fraction of
seconds and then as the grid voltage set to its original value the whole system balanced
itself. But during this period DFIG provides output on 4.5A which is almost double than the
2.7A. This situation can cause damage in DFIG windings. So, it is important to keep an eye on
grid voltages. apart from that when the grid voltage increase the small amount of reverse
current also flow in generator for fraction of second which has enough ability to damage the
winding. But somehow if the condition keeps continue than the above event occurs and
DFIG delivers more current. The whole event showed in figure 6.2.2.
The model demonstrates that
As per the value of the stator and rotor impedance the DFIG generates 565.6 V and delivers
1.525 KW which means maximum amount of the current can be drag from this generator is
2.7A at 565V.
By looking at the wind turbine characteristic of the minimum Turbine requirement of the
wind speed is 8 m/s. And it should remain in between 8 and 11 m/s. The mechanical power
varies as the wind speed varies it can be define by the formula Pmech. = 0.5 πρR2CpV3
where, Cp and R is the power coefficient and Radius of turbine respectively. If the DFIG is
not synchronised and if the wind speed varies then the terminal voltage of the generator
also varies. Once the generator is synchronised with the grid then voltage does not varies as
per the speed but the output power of the generator varies as per the torque varies. Where
torque can be define by the formula Pmech = 2πNT/60 where, N is RPM ,T is torque and Pmech
is mechanical power
By: Chanakya
Another requirement for the DFIG is to connect it to the grid because it does not contain
any PMMC device. Only the stator of the DFIG can be connected to the grid. Engineer must
not connect the rotor windings to the grid because rotor contain electronic device such as
rectifier and inverter. This generator absorbs reactive component from the grid and delivers
active power.
Va = -Ria -
=–
where,
Ls &Ms are self and mutual inductance of armature coil. λa is the flux linkage with coil.
(Grainger and Jr.) So if the grid is not connected then there will not be any ia [rotor current]
so there will not be any generation.
Losses: In this project the loads are used near to the generating station so there should not
be any transmission losses. But as shown in fig 6.2.4, the voltage of the 1000w load is
0.0816V less then generated voltage. The reason behind that problem is the transformer.
This linier ground transformer is used to get the neutral point, which means it does not
step-up or step-down voltage level but by locking at the parameters it can be said that the
impedance of secondary winding is smaller than primary. Apart from that it is impossible to
build a transformer without losses [hysteresis-Iron-copper losses]. So because of that iron
and copper losses the voltage on the secondary side reduced by 0.0816V.
From figure 6.2.5 it can be define that DFIG takes almost 1 second to stable the current. At
zero seconds windings are fully discharged and the grid is providing current to load. At 0.01
second DFIG start generating electricity and deliver to load and grid, because of what the
current drops down after few seconds and DFIG start absorbing current back from grid. The
whole process occurs till 1.1 second and after that the current stops fluctuating and start
developing from 0.6 A to 2.7 A full load.
Normally grid voltage and frequency remains constant through the time, but in case such as
the sudden increase in load or somehow, the generators stops delivering power. If the grid
voltage drops suddenly then DFIG will start delivering more current in respect to set the
voltage back to the normal. Apart from that at low voltage, load will drag more current from
the system. Hence, after few seconds DFIG will be overloaded and stops working. But if the
grid voltage drops linearly than the output of the DFIG also decrease as stator drag less
current for excitation. This is shown in figure 6.2.3.
Finally the tests done on combine model contain generator, backup system and inverter
shows that…
By: Chanakya
Considering the batteries are full charged… and if the load demand is more than the
generation then the rest of the current will provided by the batteries. In condition such as
the batteries are completely discharged than the rest of the current will be provided by the
grid. Same way, if the demand is less than the generation then the rest of the current will be
used to charge the batteries. If the batteries are fully charged, than the rest of the current
will be sent to grid.
As shown in the figure 6.3.2 if the DC voltage, fed the inverter remains constant than the
output of the system remains constant. But in case if the DC voltage of the system varies
than the output of the rectifier also varies. This is show in figure 6.3.1. If the filter capacitors
are not fully charged than as the voltage varies the output of DC rectifier also varies. If the
filter capacitors are charged enough, it can help to maintain voltage level.
7.1 Power Factor Analysis
Power factor is the cosine angle of difference between voltage and current drawn by load
from source. When current leads the voltage p.f. is called leading otherwise lagging. When
the value of Cos θ = 1, the power factor called unity and that means both the voltage and
current are in phase with each other.
The facts related to power factor are given below.
If the circuit is purely inductive then the current leads voltage by 90o and the average power
is zero. Same way, if the circuit is purely capacitive then the current lags voltage by 90o and
the average power is zero. It is impossible to build purely inductive or capacitive circuit and
that is why when the capacitors of large amount are kept on for long time absorbs active
power because of the resistance. And user has to pay for that.
In this project the load is purely resistive hence, the power factor is unity for the whole
system.
7.2 Fault tolerance
The output of the DFIG does not remain constant. The variable voltage source was used in
this model to make it more realistic. That is why the variable voltage source was built.
By: Chanakya
Variable voltage source
This model varies the output voltage by every pulse as shown in test results. In first wave it
gives an output of 255 V. on 0.25s [third pulse] its output set to 231 V. again on 0.3 seconds
it’s output varies to 285V. And on 0.35 second it set to 234 V. and then remains constant.
The output wave form is shown in figure 6.2
8.0 Further Work

In any system the load of the system does not remain constant at any time and as the load
changes the load current also changes. Thus, it changes the ripple voltage and the output of
the DC voltage changes. Thus it would be wise to build a control system for filter, used in
rectifier unit which can changes the value of the capacitance, by which the amount of the
ripple can be set to suitable value.
Same way in this model the protection system is not installed to isolate the generators from
the grid in faulty conditions such as over voltage or under voltage.
By: Chanakya
9.0 Conclusion
As discussed in earlier topics the project gives the output based on theory which is already
discussed in the part of discussion. As per the theory the generator works as a motor for
first few seconds. And then start delivering power. Same way it does not generate electricity
until it is connected to the grid. And the output of the generator varies as the wind speed
varies.
On the back up side the rectifier unit gives exact output as per the theory mentioned in
topic 5.5. The parameters set for the diodes are same as per the datasheet of 1N4007 p-n
junction diodes.
At the end, this project gives a complete definition to the power system analysis and the
problem related with the wind energy generation.
10.0 Appendices
To create a new model in matlab, One has to follow the below procedure.
Go to file menu create new model *.mdl. That will open a blank window. Then click on
simulink which open a new library. Go to simpowersystem and follow Electrical Sources,
Electric Drives/Extra Sources when you press ctrl I that will import that particular block on the
model. That battery has its own parameters discuss below.
Battery type
Provides a set of predetermined charge behaviour for four types of battery:
Lead-Acid
Lithium-Ion
Nickel-Cadmium
Nickel-Metal-Hydride
Nominal Voltage (V)
The nominal voltage (Vnom) of the battery (volts). The nominal voltage represents
the end of the linear zone of the discharge characteristics.
Rated Capacity (Ah)
The rated capacity (Qrated) of the battery in ampere-hour. The rated capacity is the
minimum effective capacity of the battery.
Initial State-Of-Charge (%)
The initial State-Of-Charge (SOC) of the battery. 100% indicates a fully charged
battery and 0% indicates an empty battery. This parameter is used as an initial
By: Chanakya
condition for the simulation and does not affect the discharge curve (when the
option Plot Discharge Characteristics is used).
Use parameters based on Battery type and nominal values
Load the corresponding parameters in the entries of the dialog box, depending on
the selected Battery type, the Nominal Voltage and the Rated Capacity.
When a preset model is used, the detailed parameters cannot be modified. If you
want to modify the discharge curve, select the desired battery type to load the
default parameters, and then uncheck the Use parameters based on Battery type
and nominal values checkbox to access the detailed parameters.
Maximum Capacity (Ah)
The maximum theoretical capacity (Q), when a discontinuity occurs in the battery
voltage. This value is generally equal to 105% of the rated capacity.
Fully charged Voltage (V)
The fully charged voltage (Vfull), for a given discharge current. Note that the fully
charged voltage is not the no-load voltage.
Nominal Discharge Current (A)
The nominal discharge current, for which the discharge curve has been measured.
For example, a typical discharge current for a 1.5 Ah NiMH battery is 20% of the
rated capacity: (0.2 * 1.5 Ah / 1h = 0.3A).
Internal Resistance
The internal resistance of the battery (ohms). When a preset model is used, a generic
value is loaded, corresponding to 1% of the nominal power (nominal voltage * rated
capacity of the battery). The resistance is supposed to be constant during the charge
and the discharge cycles and does not vary with the amplitude of the current.
Capacity (Ah) @ Nominal Voltage
The capacity (Qnom) extracted from the battery until the voltage drops under the
nominal voltage. This value should be between Qexp and Qmax.
Exponential zone [Voltage (V), Capacity (Ah)]
The voltage (Vexp) and the capacity (Qexp) corresponding to the end of the
exponential zone. The voltage should be between Vnom and Vfull. The capacity
should be between 0 and Qnom.
By: Chanakya
Terms related to Solar cell
Short circuit current:

Ish =Iph. It is the greatest value of current generated by cell. When R is small V is
almost zero hence Iph becomes Ish
Open circuit voltage: as we already discuss it occurs when R is large. At Voc I ph = 0
Voc = VT ln
Maximum power point: it is the operating point A (Vmax, Imax). It delivers maximum
output at this point which is given by simple power equation P max = Vmax × Imax.
Max efficiency is the efficiency at max power point A in graph
= (Vmax ×Imax)/(A Ga)

Where A is the cell area and Ga is the ambient irradiation
Fill Factor:
It is the ratio of maximum power to open voltage and short circuit current
FF =
The fill factor gives the most data in I-V characteristics its value is higher than 0.7 for
good cells. As the temperature of the cell increases this value decreases.
By: Chanakya
And as the Ga [ambient irradiation] increases the Voc as well as I sh increases. But Voc
decreases with increasing temperature of the cell. Thus overall efficiency decreases
as the temperature increases.
Assumptions about this model: 1 sun = 1000Watt/m2
MATLAB Programming:
function Ia=solar(Va,Suns,TaC)
A = 10;
Va = 12;
TaC = 30;
Suns = 1000;
% Data of the solar adjustment MSX-60
% It calculates the given current the voltage, illumination and the
% temperature
% Ia = solar (Va,G,T) = voltage vector
% Ia,Va = vector of current and voltaje
% G = number of Suns (1 Sun = 1000 W/mˆ2)
% T = Temp in Celcius degrees
k = 1.38e-23; % Constant of Boltzman's
q = 1.60e-19; % Load of an electron
% Between the following constants here, and the model sera
% calculated on the basis of them. Para 1000Watt/m^2
n=1.2; % Factor, quality factor of the diode
% n =2 for crystalline, , <2 for amorphous
Vg = 1.12; % Voltage of the band, 1.12eV for Si,
% 1.75 para Si amorphous.
Ns = 36; % number in series of cells (diodos)
T1 = 273 + 25;
Voc_T1 = 21.06 /Ns;
% Voltage of circuit abierto by cell to temperature T1
Isc_T1 = 3.80;
% Current of short circuit of the cell to temperature T1
T2 = 273 + 75;
Voc_T2 = 17.05 /Ns;
% Voltage of circuit abierto by cell to T2 temperature
Isc_T2 = 3.92;
% Current of short circuit of the cell to T2 temperature
TaK = 273 + TaC; % Temperature of work of the adjustment
K0 = (Isc_T2 - Isc_T1)/(T2 - T1); % Equation (4)
IL_T1 = Isc_T1 * Suns; % Equation (3)
IL = IL_T1 + K0*(TaK - T1); % Equation (2)
I0_T1=Isc_T1/(exp(q*Voc_T1/(n*k*T1))-1);
I0= I0_T1*(TaK/T1).^(3/n).*exp(-q*Vg/(n*k).*((1./TaK)-(1/T1)));
Xv = I0_T1*q/(n*k*T1) * exp(q*Voc_T1/(n*k*T1)); % Equation (8)
dVdI_Voc = - 1.15/Ns / 2;
% dV/dI a Voc by cell from the garficas of the manufacturer
% Rs resistance series by cell
Rs = - dVdI_Voc - 1/Xv; % Equation (7)
Vt_Ta = A * k * TaK / q; % = A * kT/q
Vc = Va/Ns;
Ia = zeros(size(Vc));
% Method of Newton
for j=1:5;
Ia = Ia - (IL - Ia - I0.*( exp((Vc+Ia.*Rs)./Vt_Ta) -1))/(-1 - (I0.*(
exp((Vc+Ia.*Rs)./Vt_Ta) -1)).*Rs./Vt_Ta);
By: Chanakya
end
end
Fig 6.2.2
The above chart is taken from the data sheet of the manufacturers of MSX-60. This curve
shows the effect on the output of the cell with respect to temperature difference. It can be
shown that as the temperature increases, the current also increases but the voltage drops.
By: Chanakya
By: Chanakya
By: Chanakya
11.0 References
AUT (2009). CH 1. Electrical Utilization. Auckland, AUT University.
B.L.Theraja and A.K.Theraja (2005). Electrical Technology.
B.L.Theraja and A.K.Theraja (2005). Electrical Technology, S.Chand.
Breeze, P. (2005). Power Generation Technology, Newness.
Energy, W. (2009). "Anhui Hummer Dynamo Co. Ltd."
Geest, A. d. and L. Yeaman (2005). "Wind Energy Integration in New Zealand." 1: 78.
Grainger, J. J. and W. D. S. Jr. Power System Analysis, Tata Mc Graw Hill.
Saadat, H. (2002). Power System Analysis, Mc Graw Hill.
Solar, W. (2009). "Wholesale Solar." from

http://www.wholesalesolar.com/information.html.
T.R.Crompton Battery Reference Book.

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Alternative Energy Distribution

3.1 Traditional Generation Model

There are other concepts of generating electricity by….

3.1.1.1 Coal-fired power plants:

3.1.1.2 Gas turbines and combustion cycle power plants

3.1.1.4 Fuel cell

3.2 Traditional Transmission Model

In single phase two wire system……

Total inductance for conductor 1 is then

L1 = 2e-7 + 2e-7 where, r1’ = H/m

L2 = 2e-7 + 2e-7 where, r2’ =

In balance load condition λa = λb = λc. As

For three phase asymmetrical distances….

Line inductance of each line can be found from following equation…

if is a reference means and where = 1(120o and = 1(240o

a = λa/Ia it is easy to find a value of inductance.

Since, V12(q2) = -V21(q2)

Now the potential difference due to presence of both charges will be

V12 = V12(q1) + V12(q2) = +

For single phase line -q1 =q2 = -q

3.2.2 Corona effect

3.3 Solar power

(Fig 3.1) Solar power

3.4 Wind power

Wind turbine can be horizontal axis or vertical axis.

3.4.1.1 Wind Turbine Issues

Short term variation in wind farm output;

In New Zealand, Electricity is transmitted on 50Hz of frequency. If the frequency

The change in frequency f in a short time interval Δt is given approximately by;

Where, H is the constant of inertia of turbine.

Short term variation in wind farm output

Asynchronous – Induction Generator

Asynchronous – Double Fed Induction Generator [DFIG]

This technology uses either permanent magnets or a standard excitation system,

As per earlier discussion I am going to discuss some point about Matlab.

4.1.1 Types of Batteries

Vehicle Traction Battery:

4.1.2 Batteries in Series

4.1.3 Batteries in parallel:

4.1.4 Battery Ratings:

4.1.5 Battery charging

Constant current charging

Constant current charging

As the battery start charging the amount of charging current decreases.

Constant voltage charging

Constant voltage charging

4.2 Induction Motor

Here Ф1 ,Ф2 and Ф3 are in black red and blue colured.

Fundamental concept of Rotor:

4.3 Induction Generator:

Pele = 1.5 × Pmech

5.0 Models Created

5.1 Home Usage Estimate model

The instantaneous power P(t) = v(t) i(t) =

Apparent power (S) =

Three phase load

For Y-connected Load

VL = VPH & IL = √3 IPH

The three phase instantaneous power is ....

P3ø = 3 VPHIPH Cos θ

Same way reactive power is

Q3ø = 3 VPHIPH Sin θ

Vrms = Vp/√2 where Vp is the peak voltage

VDC = (2× Vp)/π *Ideal condition+