fetus ea Tue Thermal and Fluids Systems Reference Manual for the Mechanical PE ExamThermal and Fluids Systems Reference Manual for the Mechanical PE Exam Jeffrey A. Hanson, PEBenefit by Registering This Book with PPI Get book updates and corrections, Hear the latest exam news, Obtain exclusive exam tips and strategies, * Receive special discounts, Register your hook at ppi2pass.com/register. Report Errors and View Corrections for This Book PPI is grateful to every reader who notifies us of a possible error. Your feedback allows us to improve the quality and accuracy of our products. You can report errata and view corrections at ppi2pass.converrata. oc te Readers ofthe Dis ook Dat on are note eprint bach, Aces iit woe oral saersngnce an son tanserable PP as a ts tu san eo la cont an ny eve acceso prs dans ar tes ‘THERMAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENC! MANUAL FOR THE MECHANICAL PE EXAM Comrent printing of this edition: 2 (electronic version) Printing History edition printing date number number __update Jan 2017. 1 ‘New book, Aug? 1 2 ‘Minor cortections. Minor cover updates. © 2017 Professional Publications, Ine. AUl rights reserved. All content is copyrighted by Professional Publications, Tne. (PPI). No part, either text or image, may be used for any purpose other than personal use, Reproduction, modification, storage in a retrieval system or retransmission, in any form or by any means, eleetronic, mechanical, or otherwise, for reasons other than personal nse, without prior is strictly prohibited. For written permission, contact PPI at written permission from the publish pe nissionsSppi2pass.com Printed in the United States of Amevica. ppl 1250 Bifth Avenue Bolmont, CA 4002 (G50) 598-9119 ppi2pass.com ISBN: 975-1-50126-523-8 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016059808 FEDCBATable of Contents Preface and Acknowledgments v Introduction vii Codes and Standards Used to Prepare This Book... ix Topic | Thermodynamics Chapter 1. Thormiodynainies La Chapter 2 Thermodynamic Properties 21 Topic Il Thermodynamic Cycles Chapter 3 Vapor Power Cycles screed BL Chapter 4 Gas Power Cycles ut Chapter 5 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles, a Chapter 6 Combustion... aie 1 Chapter 7 Thormodynamie Cyelos Problems a Topic Ill Heat Transter Chapter 8 Fundamental Heat "Transfer st Chapter 9 Convection mo Chapter 10 Thermal Radiation won Chapter 11 Heat Exchangers Let Chapter 12 Heat Transfer Problems A Topic IV Fluid Mechanics Chapter 19 Fluid Mechanics 13 Chapter 14 Fluid Machinery ua Chapter 15. Compressible Flow 164 Chapter 16 Fluid Mechanies Problems et Topic V Supportive Knowledge Chapter 17 Supportive Knowledge : 7 Index 1HMateriale protetto da copyright4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.viii THEWMAL_AND FLUIDS SVSTEME REFERENCE MANUAL © Hear transfor principles (convection, conduction, rasliation; 6 problems) © Mass balance principles (evaporation, delumidifiea- ‘on, mixing: 4 problems) © Thermodynamics (properties, eyeles, energy. bale ances, combustion; 6 problems) © Supportive knowledge (pipe system analysis, joints, payehrometries, codes and standards; d problems) Hydraulic and fluid appli (24 problems) Hydraulic and fluid equipment (pumps, fans, com- pressor, pressire vessels, control values, actuators, connections: 15 problems) © Distribution systems (pipe flow; 9 problems) Energy and power system applications (24 problems) © Energy and power equipment. (turbines, boilers, stearn generators, internal combustion engines, heat exchangers, cooling towers, condensors; 8 probleme) heating (capacity, loads © Cooling and eyeles 6 problems) # Encray recovery (waste heat, storage: 5 problems) © Combined cycles (components, efficiency; 5 problems) ‘Many of these subjects are not given their own topic or Cchapler in this book, but are covered as part of other subjects. Por example, there is no separate chapter on the principles of mass balance, but those principles are covered and used often in the chapters and problems pertaining to thermodynamic cycles and fluid mechanics, Bear in anind that the numbers given by che NCES are approximate. Moreover, many problems ean be classi- fied in more than one way. In practic, it’s not possible to know with grant aceuracy what to expeet, and one of the most common comments from those who take the exam is that various subjects came up more often or less often than they expected, It's prudent to prepare your- self for as wide a range of subjects as you can manage.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Materiale protetto da copyright4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.1-4 THERWAL_AWD FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL system energy in terms of the average rate of change for Heat transfer anel work AE_ QW ‘At At At 17 To obtain the instantancous rate of the eneray balance equation for a elosed system, Bq, 1.7 em be evaluated ns Al aproaches zero, AE aq aw dyae 7 Bac” Bb ae ad ae 2 0-W 19 Equation 1.0 expresses tho energy balaneo for a closed system as a time rate of change at time Equation 1.3 can be expressed as a time rote of change as wel. as) | a(PE) | at aa a at 110 Substituting Ba 110 into By, 1.9 provides another expression of the closed system energy balance equation in the form of a time rate ef change. aKE) | d(PE) | ate ada fae w un The equations in this section are often the starting point for the thermodynamic analysis of a closed system. They will be used heavily in this and ater chapters as system snalysis examples are presented. 4, THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES A cyele is a sequonce of processes exccuted on a system that ultimately retinas Uhe spstern to. its initial state. The energy balance equation for closed systerns (see Eq, 1.4) ean be written for a eycle as, AB geo = Qeyse ~ Wert 112 Fach term here represents the set energy change that results from the complete cycle. Because the initial and final states for a eycle are the same, AE,,., i$ zero and Eq, 112 ean be reduced to Vite Qa 18 Equation 1.13 is derived without regard to the type of cyele, and it applies to all thermoely amie eycles Figure 1.3 illustrates the two general classes of thermo. dynamic eyeles that will be reviewed in this book © power cycles, which are used to deliver work. © refrigeration and heat purnp cyctes, wiiich are used to ‘transfor heat Both types of eycles involve heat transfer between two objects, one hotter than the other, These objects are themselves systems located near the eyeling system. By convention, Qand Ware considered to be positive in the Girsetion of the arrows. Figure 1.3 Power Cycie ard Rehigerator Veet Pump Coe ot hat body body 2, co cows cot body body powor eyelo rofrigoration’ heat pump evele Power Cycles A power cycle is used t0 deliver work to its surround- ings. By applying Ey, 1.13 to the power eycie illustrated in Fig. 1.8, the net work deliverad eam be expressed as Wor = Qu — Q 104 In a power eysle, the heat entering the system (Q,) comes from the hot body and the heat leaving the systean (Qj) g0es to the coki body. The heat entering "may be obtained from fuel combustion or from an alter native sontce stich a8 nuclear or solar energy. The cold Deady in'a power eyele is often the atmesphere sarramnd- ing the system or « large body of water. ‘The thermal efficiency of a power cyele is a measnte of how efficiently the heat that enters the system is cot verted to usoful work. A eyelo’s thermal efficiency is 15 Combining Bag. 1:14 and Ba. 1:15 gives Qa ts — os 116 ‘ Qn Refrigeration/Heat Pump Cycles. A refrigeration eycle is used to cool something, while a hheat pump cycle is used to heat something. Although these two Kinds of eycles have opposite fimetions, they4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.1-8 THERWAL_AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL 7. CARNOT CYCLE The Carnot eyole isa theoretical power eyele operating between tivo heat reservoirs. It is an sideal eyele, in the sense that itis not practical for actual use. 1s assumed to operate with perfect efficiency. and therefore the amount of work it puts out gives a theoretical maximum for the work available from a heat engine A Camot cycle consists of four internally reversible processes, Figure 1.7 shows an example of the four pro- cesses, a pistom-cylinder that uses a gas. A Carnot eyele contains two arliabatie processes and two isothermal processes. In this example, the adiabatie processes accu on an insulated stand. Pigure 18 shows the p-v diagram (pressure versus specifie volume) for this Camot cycle. provess 1-2: The cylinder is placed! onan insulates stand, and the gas inside is compres] adiabatically. ‘The temperature of the gas ws from Toto Tae ‘The eylinder is placed in comtact with the Iiok reservoir operating ab temperature Ty. ‘The gas receives energy Qin the form of heat transfer from the hot veservoir, and the gas expands isothermally. In Fig, 17, the expansion occurs along a line of constant temperature. The cylinder is placed on the insulated stand, where the gas inside is expanded adiabatically. ‘The temperature of the gas avops from Ty to To. ‘The cylinder is placed in comtact with the cold reservoir operating at’ temperature Te. The gas is compressed isothermally, discharging energy Qjy, in the form of hhoat transfer to the cold reservoir process 23: process Sef provess fl Figuro 1.7 Carnot Cycle Executed by 2 Psion Cykindor isotnormet lsat adiabatic ‘expencion 7 isothermal compression ‘ “_— ow ns es i om Voc insulted rot | insulated | | _ cow send | | recor | | "stand | | cecervoir Tu Te process 12 proccss? process3.4—proceee 1 Figure 1.8 Carnot Gas Cyole pw Disorarn > The Carnot cyele can also be conceptualized as a trod tional power eyele, sueh as an expansion turbine using steam, as shown in Fig. 19. The steps of the process parallel these in the previous example process 1-2: ‘The liquid-vapor mix is pumped or com- pressed adiabatically to the inlet state of the boiler. The pumping or compression process increases the temperature of the liquid from Tete Tr: Bhergy transfer occurs in the form of heat transfer from the hot reservoir operating at Ty. As the pv diagram illustrates, the Tiquid ends this process as saturated vapor at Te Work is generated by expanding the steam adiabatically: thro The fluid’s temperature decreases to To. and it becomes a liguid-vapor mis. ‘The liquic-vapor mix at constant pressure undergoes a heat transier to the cold reservoir operating at Zs The mixture’s quality decreases as some of the vapor process 2-3: process 3-4: the turbine. A Camot cycle can be used to give an ideal representa: ton of eyeles exeenting four internally reversible steps, {wo isothermal and two adiabatic. The efficiency of such a.cydle is always given by Eq, 1.37. This equation, then, falves the maximum eiliciency for an ideal power eyele 8. ENTROPY Consider an arbitrary reversible eyele between two states, with two possible paths from state 1 to state 2 and one path from stare 2 to state L. (See Fig, 1.10.)4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.1-12 THERMAL_AND FLUIDS SVSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL The net heat transfer of a eyele will also be the net work. realized hy the cycle, The thermal efficiency of this eyele can be stated graphically as Warie _ Avaeer Ong Aeewiee (P= ToS = 5) 176 This is the same efficiency statement that was developed in Eq. 1.37, 12, ENTROPY GENERATION FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS Figure 1.12 shows an arbitrary eyclo in which process 1-2 contains internal imveversihilities and process 2-1 is reversible, Figure 1.12 Acotrary Cyclo Applying the sccond law to this eyele gives Equation 144 gives a statement for the integral for the reversible process from 2 to 1. Substituting it into Bq t MOO gb [Biss <0 (-s)- fF 20 t 17 If a eycle contains @ process with irreversibilities, as represented by the integral in Eq. 1-78, then the leit side of that equation will have a value. This value is the entropy generation of a eycle, and it must al treater that or equal to zero, Son = (82-8) ~ [82 [5204 17 If the process from states 1 to 2 is reversible, then the entropy generation will bo zor. = (S2~ 81) ~ [2 ~ 8) =0 1.60 Entropy change for a cycle or system is a combination of entropy transfer (accompanying heat transfer) and entropy generation, While entropy change can aye a value equal to, greater than, or less than zero, entropy generation can only have © value equal to oF greater than nero, The entropy generation is due to irrevorsibilties witin the eyele or system, When there ate no irreversibilities present, there will be no entropy generation. Entropy generation is therefore not a property; its value is depen- dent on the process Forms of Entropy Generation ‘Tho expression for entropy generation on a time rate basis is ds PQs ai, 3* 0 tar ‘The entropy generation related to heat transfer ean be expressed as a sum if it ocours over several locations. ri 85a as From Eq, 1.81 and Ea 182 Sea = (82-8) -L&>0 189 The diferental frm of Ba, 1.79 by = as 29 vee 13. SECOND LAW STATEMENT FOR OPEN SYSTEMS From the closed system statement in By, 188, the second law for an open system can be developed. With tao understanding that entropy is an extensive property that can be transferred across systam houndavies,4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.116 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE WANUAT Nozz! An expression for nozzle isontropie efficiency can also be derived. The first aw expression for a naczle is aE Eo Ws v(m n+ cl 16 Assuming steady-state operation, negligible heat trans: fer to the environment, negligible potential enerzy and work, and that for a nozzle v; is negligible compared to vz, this ean be simplified to O= t= ha Balm 116 Equation 1.116 equates the change in enthalpy to the change in Kinetic energy. Because the inlet state is fixed, only state 2 is variable. Tho volocity leaving the nozzle, vp, Will be at its maximum when the value of hy Isat its ‘The second law of thermodynamies can be used to eval- uate state 2. With no heal tnisfer present, one inlet and one outlet, and operation at steady state, Eq. 185 ccan be ured agai. Boy = tis, — 91) 17 The enthalpy difference will be greatest, when the entropy generation is zero; that is, erhen an isentropic process occurs through the nozzle. Equation 1.116 can Je stated for an isentropic process as fox 11e With the inlet state fixed, the isentropic nozzle effi- Gioney ean be stated as Nosule efficiencies ean approoch OF proper design, 1119 or higher with a Pump The analysis for a pump is similar to these for a turbine ond a compressor. Figure 1.16 shows the h-s diagram lor 8 pump. The inlet state (state 1) and the outlet state (state 2) are shown Figure 1.16 hs Diagram of Purroing Process actual pumping isentropic "Yee pumping“ results| ‘The first Law of thermodynamics applied to a pump is a8 _y_winln—m+ti8 aha aam ( mote wa ») Assuming steady-state operation and that ‘and kinetic and potential energy are negligible, this Simplifies to. o=-W, We =hy— hy Laer ‘The quantity of work needed by the pump is dependent on state 2 only, because state 1 is fixed. The amount of work needed to achieve the ontlet state of the pump will be at its minimum when the value of fz is at its mini ppiuin. The second lavy of Hhermorlymamaies ea be wsed to evaliate state 2. With no heat transfer present, ome inlet ‘and one outlet, and operation at stendy state, Eq. 185 ccan be used again. When the entropy generation is vero, the enthalpy difference will be minimized, resulting in the minimum work needed to arrive at state 1. The isentropic work required for a pump can be stated as el tropic work in Eq. 1.122, The isentropic efficiency of the pump can be stated as Ww a) 1482 easy =4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.image not available4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.2-4 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS WEFERENCE MANUAL absolute prassure pressure ze _- atmospheric proseure Avacaurn proscure absolute pressure pressure Js loft na substance. (Absolute zero is the lowest possi ble temperature.) The other is the triple point of water, the uniqne combination of temperaime ane pressure at which steam, iee, and liquid water ean exist together in equilibrium, The unit of the Kelvin seale is the kelvin (abbsoviated IK), whieh is also the ST base unit for temperature. The temperature at absolute zero is OK and the temperatnae at the triple point of water is 273.16K. The Kelvin scale Js an example of a thermodynareic temperature scale (also called an absolute temperature scale) because it floes not depend on the properties of any substance, The Kelvin scale is derived from the second law of thermodynarni The unit of the Colsius sealo is tho degree Coterus (abbreviated °C), The temperature at absolute zero is =278.15°C and the temperasire at the triple point of water is 0.01°C. A temperature change of 1°C has the samme megnitude fas a change of LK, so diflerenees in temperature are the sane on both scales; a rise of 25°C, for example, is equal to a rise of 25K. This equivalence also means that tem erat by adding or subtracting a constant of 273.15 rounded to 273" 's can be converied from one scale to the other often Te= Tk T= Te 27aas" 28 29 ‘The Celsius seale was once defined by setting the freez- ing and boiling points of water at standard atmospheric pressure at 0°C and 100.0°C, respectively. This defin tion is no longer usod, and those temperatures are now only approximate. ‘The Rankine and Fabrenhoit scales are used primarily in the United States. Like Une Kelvin seale, the Rankine scale is thermodynamie tenperatame scale, as tt gives 2 value of °R. to absolute zero. Tho tomperature of the triple point of water is 491.688°R. On the Fahronheit sealo absolute zero is at ‘nd the triple point of water is at 32.018°E. 459.67°F ‘A temperature change of 1°R bas the same magnitude as one of °F, = differences in temperature are the same ‘on both sales. Temperatures can be converted between the two seales by adding or subtracting a constant of 459.67", often rounded (1 460° Ty = Top ~ 45967" 2.10 Ta = Ty + 459.67" at The relationship between temperatures on the Rankine and Kelvin seales is are 213 The relationship between temperatures ou the Celsius ‘and Fahrenheit scales is Dp =18T 6 +32 Te= TS Figure 2.2 shows all four temperature scales and their relationship to absolute vero, the triple point of water. ‘and the stear point. Figure 22 Tencoratire Scaiss + a6" a +. A k 212 1 672 steomformation 100 |. 979 32 492 wiple point ot as aso L absolute zero -273 Lo Specific Heat Specifie heat is an intensive property defined for a pure, compressible substance as partial derivatives of the funetions for specific internal energy, u(T! uv). and spe- cific enthalpy, MT, p)- & 216 on Hl an4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.28 WEFERENCE MANUAL The specific internal eneray is then calculated from. u=h= po. Tabmlated data and pressuceenthalpy graphs fir refrigerants R-12, 1-22, and HPC-Tida ean be found in MERM, INCOMPRESSIBLE SUBSTANCE PROPERTY FUNCTIONS AAs is elear from tho tables for eubeooled (compressxd) water, the specific volume of a substance in this state cloesn't vary much with changes in temperature or pres- sure. Internal energy, on the other hand, varies greatly with changes in tomperature, but varies little with changes in pressure, This is common behavior for many substances in the liquid and solid phases. To make analysis easier, then, incompressible sub: stances ean be idealized by assuring that specific vol ume is constant and that specific intemal eneray varies with temperature alone, w= u(T) 224 With these assumptions, the equation for specific heat (see Eq. 2.16) ean be simplifice to du eof) = ot 2.5 Because spovific heat is now a function of temperatnte only, the partial derivative in Eq, 2.16 is now an ordi- nary derivative The specific enthalpy of an incompressible substance is fa fimction of pressure and temperature; it can be exprnscod as Mp) = WT) + po 226 Differentiating Ho, 2.26 with vespect to temperature at a sure gives an) _ dw 5a na du oN =F 228 From Faq. 2.25 and By. 2.28, then, the sperifie heats for an ideal incompressible substance are equal, and the subscripts in ¢ and ¢, ean be dropped. ‘An exprossion for internal energy and enthalpy can be Ulerived based on constant specific heat, Solving, Pq. 2.25 for internal energy du= (1) aT wwe [ear =dT-M) 2a “The enthalpy change can be expressed as fy = wz — mn + U(P) — Pi) 2.50 Substituting Bq. 2.29, Iy~ hy = Te Ti) +m) 2st Por a compressed liquid at a fixed temperature, spocific volume und incernal energy ehange little with changes in pressure. This means that the values for a saturated liquid at the sane temperature ean be used as an approximation Typ) = (7) 222 a(Pp) = f(T) aaa ‘An approximation of the enthalpy of an incompressible liquid can be made using Eg. 2.32 and Eq. 2.33 and the efinition of enthalpy in Fq. 2.26. CT, p) = ul T) + pay) 234 Enthalpy ean also be expressed os MT. 9) % ly(T) + 4T)(P= DaelT)) 235 ‘The contribution of the yp tem in Bq. 2.85 is usually small, so the enthalpy can be approximated as hy(T) AT, p) 10. COMPRESSIBLE SUBSTANCE PROPERTIES Consider «gas in a cylinder held at constant tempers tte. A piston is moved to different positions and che gas is allowed each time to reestablish equilibrium, At ach equilibrium state, the preseure and molar specific volume, ©, ate measured. The ratio po/T is ealeulated a each state and plocted versus prescure. Au example of this kind of plot is shown in Pig. 2.7 When the ratios are extrapolated to zero pressure, the sarne limiting value is obtained for each eurve, Expressed ‘mathematically, the lmait is e mre 2s74@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.2-12 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SVSTEME REFERENCE MANUAL When 1 oquals 1, tho relationship is J pdV=pViin # an Equation 2.69, Bx. 2.70, and Eq. 2.71 apply to any Mid, cither ges or liquid, undergoing a polytropie process. li the fluid is an ideal gas, the ideal gas equation. of state (Gee Bq, 2.48) ean be substituted Inte these three eqhae b eat gs) 272 Th ‘9, x [sav lea! ws, an Tin 2 3 pav = ruerin ¥2 cago nt) 276 Whon the specific heats of the gas are assumed to be constant for an adiabatic polytropie process, the con- nis equal to the specific heat ratio & For an ideal gas, when n= 1. the process occurs at constant tomper: ature as shown in Bq, 2.74.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.F H 5 3-2 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL Applying the assumptions, 0 tg + Hy — a) bee, h a4 Turbine ‘The turbine process produces the work that generates the eyde poner. The vapor flow from the boiler is expanded to a lower prcseure throush the turbine, which drives a shaft, Tho rotation of the shaft is transmitted through 2 generator to create electricity, The first law of thermo- dynamics applied to the turbine gives B= Q- Wane SE der -2) 98 Applying the assumptions, 0= —Wragtine + Has ~ fs) Waris — py — py 46 Condonsor The turbine expands the vapor to two-phase state (part saturated liquid and part saturated vapor). ‘Ihe conden- ser cook the fluid so that it is entively saturated liquid and cm be pumped, The first law applied to the con- denser is HE. QW ai(— mtSe Lda) 37 = Oy + tis ~ hy) Qu = ha he 38 2, THERMAL EFFICIENCY The thermal efficiency of a eycle compares the enerey that the boiler alls to the fuid to the enenay that can be extracted in the form of work. ‘The equations just developed (see Eq. 3-1 through Eq. 3.8) ean be used to cexpross the thermal officieney. | W, _ output _ ye 6 Saal Warnine Won _ lp = hn) = a = hs) 38 may Alternatively, the entire eyele can be viewed as a pro- cess. The first law applied! to a control volume around the entire evele gives Qn Gan = Wont 3.10 Equation 3.10 can be used to express the thermal elf ciency in a different way Wau Qin ons output ha inpatO, Oy a= Rost Qn hg — hy Ip y 3. IDEAL RANKINE CYCLE Acstudy of the ideal Rankine cycle can give a theoretical limit for the thermal effieiency of a vapor power evele. ‘The ideal Rankine eyele is fee of irreversibiliries, reas izes no frictional Josses in the system piping, and has no component that undergoes heat transfer to the sur roundings. Figure 3.2 shows the T-s diagram for an ideal Rankine evel, Figure 32 Ts Diagram for an kleal Rankine Cycle 7 ‘The following steps are encountered as Che uid goes through this cycle process 1-2: The Mid flows through a heat exchanger, whore lent is transferred to Uhe fluid. This process oceuts ab a constant pressure, py At state 2 the fluid is a saturated vapor. process 28° ‘The uid is expanded Isentropically Unrough a turbine. The Muid flows through a heat exchanger where heat is removed from the Mid, This Droeess ocenrs al a constant pressure, py At state 4 the fluid is a satmeated liquid process 4-12 ‘The Suid is pumped isentropically incewasing the fluid pressure. process 344@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.F H 5 3-6 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL REGENERATION Regeneration, also called regenerative feedwater heat {ng is 8 method of inereasing the thermal efficieney of Rankine eyele hy increasing the temperature of the work ing fluid between the pamp and the boiler or supesheater (Sco Fig. 3.12 and Fig. 3.13.) There are two ways to accomplish regeneration. Tn a open feedwater heater, the fluid is heated by mixing i with steam, In a closed feedwater heater, a beat fexelianger heals he working Maid before it enters the Doiler or superheater Figure 3.12 1s Flot of Open Fasawater Heater in Rankine Cycle Open Feedwater Heaters The regenerative cyelo can be analyzed by using the conservation of mass for His eyele ting = tng + tg 1 424 Letting y represent tig/thig, ke mass fraction that flows throuzh the second-stage turbine is 325 The fractional mass flow rates ate shown in Fig. 3.13. To obtain y, the first Iaw of thermodynamics can he used by drawing a control volume around the feedwater healer. Deeanse this application will be for the ideal case, the assumptions stated earlier will apply: no heat Qe 1m: fT toga tase pump ee San heater —_— ieeno: . wie B= 0 al a, transfer to che surroundings, Kinetic and potential energy negligible, and steady-state operations, O= yh + (1 — has — hy thy + by — uh ws — hs) Ip he y 328 1 Tiga he 4y can be solved if the enthalpies at states 3, 6, and 7 are known, The turbine analysis must account for both stages of expansion and in particular the different mass flow rates through the stages, From an earlier analysis, the turbine work produced is calculated from the difference in the cntering and exiting enthalpies. Tho same analysis ean he the basis for analyzing a two-stage expansion through a turbine. The equation for the two-siage Wace — (hy ag) 4 (1 ~ 9) es — a) 327 ‘The total pump work ean be analyzed in the Same mane ner. The first law applied to both pumps shows the total pump work is Wows (hh = Ay) + = yl (te = bs) 328 The total enorzy added to the working fluid through the boiler is4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.image not available4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.F H 5 4-6 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL The cold ait-standard analysis requizes that the specific heat of the gas is constant and that the ges is eonsieeres| ideal. ‘Therefore, the internal encrsy and enthalpy Values are a fumetion of temperature only. The efficiency equation, Eq, 4.34, can be modified to reflect this, ays uy od Ts~ Th) fea ha | es(Ts= Ta) ty = 1 The mtio of specie hoats is k= ey/¢,. Purther simpli cation gives other temperature ratios. m=1-@(F=4) Prom Fa, 438 r us Pr Ea 4 y= 15 (tasl 1 Combining Fa 8 ant Bq 4.1 us us to Substituting Eq, 4.47 into Eq. 4.46 removes the remain- ing temperature terms 446 From Fa. 4.48, the thermal efficiency of an airsstandard diesel cycle is a fimetion of the cutoff ratio only. Pig- ure 46 shows Eq. 448 graphed for different cutoil ratios, with # as L4, When the cutoff ratio is one, the efficiency of a diesel eyele matches that of an Otto evele, Figure 46 Diese! Cyes Thermal Eletry ler Calg Ar-Stendans Anayse omy omy ll 0x10 oF Ales eye, Faye = 1 digaeleyelo,Fyes ~ 2 diesel ele, yet = 3 = diesel Velo, yar 46 8 0 WW 4 16 10 20 compression ratio, + . AIR-STANDARD DUAL CYCLE ‘The air-standard dual eycle combines features of the Otto and diesel cycles. It represents the actual processes of an internal combustion engine better tan either. The pv and T-s diagrams for the air-standard dual cyele are n Fig. 47. shown Figure 4.7 pr ard Ts Disgrams fr At Star dard Dual Oyele ° 7 4 bie a = oo is 2 ; . Ve4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.F H 5 4-10 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SVSTEME REFERENCE MANUAL the ideal gas law for isentropic compression, with con- stant sperific heats assumed (ser Eq. 1.102). grag The efficiency equation for the air-standard Brayton cycle, Eq. 1.61, can also be used for the ideal air-standard Brayton evele. Specific heat is assumed! to be constant, 0 the ratio of speific heats, & is constant as well. Prom Eq. 2.64, for an ideal gas and constant specific hent 1 (Da) — AUD) = eg Ps = Pi) 407 Substituting Eq, 4.67 into Eq. 4.61 iy, = T= TH) = Te T) ha ets 1) — (a= 1) - (T= Ts) “i 7 n( a (eay 400 G-) From Eq. 4.64 through Bq. 4.60, Ty ‘ Ti To 7 Substituting By, 4.70 into Eq. 4.69 ancl simplifying, 472 Equation 4.72 shows that the efficiency of the ideal air- standard Brayton eycle inereases as the pressure ratio increases. Figure 4.04 shows the relationship between cthicieney and pressure ratio with b As the compression ratio increases, so does the air tem peratnre at stato 2 (post-compression}. Consider the two eyeles shown in Pig. 4.15, Cyele A is shown by Figure 4.14 Thermal Efixency for looal Braylon Cyclo (k= 14) 070 000) ‘thermal eficioney Loos pp asi, 2 4 6 8 0 12 4 1 1 20 12341. Cycle B is shown by 1-2.34'-1. Cyele B hs 1 higher compression zatio than eyele A; hence, it also bas the higher (hermal efffeloney. ‘The area enelosed by cevele A is larger than that enclosed by cyele B, indlical- ing that it produces more not work. Increasing the net ‘work output of eyele B to the same level would take an increase Tr mass flow rate, for which Larger system com ponents would be needed. Details such as these are considered by engineers when designing gus turbines. Figure 4.18 Comparison of faba! Brayton Cycles win Diteront Compression Rates __ turbine inten temper 10. EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS FOR GAS TURBINE CYCLES: REGENERATIVE GAS TURBINES: Eifivieney con be improved in a turbine eyele by making ‘maximum uso of the available energy. The hot turbine exhaust gas, for example, can he used to warm the compressor discharge air, so that the combustion pro- cos will roqnire less fusl. This improves the effickency of the cyele by using energy that would ntherwise be lost te the sustoundings, ‘To accomplish this, a Kind of heat exchanger called a regenerator is used. Figure 4.16 shows an air-standard Brayton eyelo with a regenerator. Figure 4.17 shows the offect of the regeneration process on the T-s diagram,4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.F H 2 4-14 THERMAL_AND FLUIDS SVSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL Figure 4.25 shows the Eriesson eyele with indefinitely many steps of reheat and intereooling, Heat is added to the working fIuid when it is ab Ty, and heat is rejected from it when it is at To. From Eq. 1.37, tho thermal efficeney for the Eriesson eyele Is Te Tr "xan = 2 476 Equation 4.76 is the same equation for any reversible power cycle operating between two thermal reservoirs at ifforent tomperatrres. The processes for the Briesson eyele are process 1-2: isothermal compression of gas with intereooling process 2-5: beat transfor to. gas (heat from turbine exhaust regeneration) process $4: isothermal expansion of gas through lurbine with reheat heat rejected from turbine exhaust (heat sont to gos heating process) process 4-1 Figure 4.26 shows the T-s and p-v diagrams for the Stirling eycle, which also makes substantial use of regen- eration. Phe processes for the Stirling cycle are as follows. process 1-2: isothermal compression at temperature To process 2-3: beating at eonstent volume process 3.42 isothermal expansion at temperature Ty, process 4-1: cooling at constant volume Figure 426 pv and T-s Diagrans for Siting Cyoio The rogenerator, oparating at 100% efficiency, takes the heat rejected from process 4-1 and transfers it to the working fluid during process 2-3. All the addition of hent to the working fiuid occurs at 7'y3 all tho rejection of beat to the surroundings oceurs At Ty. As with the Ericsson eycle, the thermal efficiency of the Stitling cevele is given by Ea. 4.765. ‘The Seivfing eycle has been applied as an engine tn practical studies. The Stirling engine would work as an extemal combustion engine: the energy liberated in tho combustion process would be transferred to the working fluid (yas) of the engine. A Stirling engine can make use of any external heat source. In addition to combustion sources, other applications inchide the use of solar and geothermal heat sources. The cycle employs a eylinder that is driven by the compresion and expansion of a gas, driven by a temperature difference supplied by a heat source and sink. The Stirling engine is limited in application due co having a higher eost per unit of power developed relative to other engine types. The cost is Griven by the additional materials neoded rolative to other engines.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.F H 5 5-4 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL Figure 5.5 shows eration eyele. e components of an actual refrig- Figure 5.5 Components of Actual etigeration Oycle o, t sens ‘expansion compressor 0, Another difference between an setual cyele and the Camot cycle is the composition of the refrigerant at state 1. In the Carnot eyele, the refrigerant at state 1 Is a two-phase mixture; in an actual eycle, it Is a vapor. The process of compressing a Tiquid-vapor mix- ture is called wet compression. Wet compression is eyoided boconso it inereases both the amount of wear on the compressor and the risk of damaging it. The process of compressing pure vapor is called dry compression. 6. VAPOR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE Figure 5.6 shows the T-s diagram for an ideal steady state vapor compression evele. (This is considered the Ideal fornt of this eyele even though the throttling peo- ces from stated Lo siate 4 contains imeversibilities.) For the analysis of a vapor compression reirigeration system, Kinetic and potential energy changes are neglected. Figure 5.6 Ts Diapya for lea Vapor Comeression Reigeretr Ole ‘The processes of the ideal vapor compression relrigera- tion cycle are as follows. isentropic compression of refrigerant in gas state process [-2s: process 25-9: oat transfer from condenser to sux romdings (both heat removed from cold space and heat gained from com- pression); refrigerant leaves condenser in Tiquil state isentropic throttling process to two. phase liguid-vapor mixture in state 4s: temperature of reftigerant is reduced, allowing heat to be semoved from cold space process 3-48: hhoat transler from old space to relrige ferant in evaporator process 4s DEAL VAPOR COMPRESSION CYCLE PERFORMANCE, A theoretical limit for a vapor compression veftigeration eycle ean be obtainod by regarding as negligible bot tio inreversibilities of the system components (compressor, evaporator, and condenser) and the frictional losses encountered as the refrigerant flows through the system piping. The heat transfer from the compressor to the surrotindings fs ignored, making it an isent opie process ‘The evaporator’s fumetion is to remove heat from the cold space. As heat is removed from the cold space, he refrigerant flowing through the evaporator is vaporized, Applying the first Inve of thermodynamics to the evap: brator gives Gh = tay =) 53 The beat transfer rate, Qy. is the refiigeration enpacity of the cycle. A common unit of measure of reftigeralion capacity is the ton of refrigeration, which is equivalent to 200 Buu/min (211 kW), ‘Aiter evaporation, the refrigerant goes to the compres- Sor ag a saturated or superheated vapor. Assuming that Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible and that compression is adiabatic, the first law applied to the compressor wives Ween = Yn(Pg — hy) 54 After compression, tbe refrigerant flows to thie conde set, where the heat adsorbed by the refrigerant and the heat of compression are rejected. With the same assumptions, the first law applied to the condenser gives ons = Till hs) 55 After leaving the condenser, the refrigerant is expanded through the expansion valve. The expansion process is analyzed as throttling process, A throttling process is4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.F H 5 Et 5-8 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL 12, VAPOR COMPRESSION HEAT PUMP. SYSTEMS Most installed heat pump systems are vapor com pression systens. The analysis for a vapor compression refrigeration cycle can be applied to a vapor com- pression heat pump system as well Pigure 5.13 shows the components of a residential vapor compression heat pump cyele. ‘The function of any heat pump cycle is to transter heat from a cold space to a wartn space, and work snust be put into the system to make this happen, The coefficient of performance for a ‘vapor compeession heat pump eyele is ayy tha = hs) _ ie — hy Weongrann (RF) yy Figure 5.19 Aesidental Vapor Cormoression Heat Pump Cycle heat rejected to warm space fa 3 condoneer 2 lin house) expansion | Wi, — (ambient — ri curraundings 7 location) 0, est removed tram cole space Te Often, a reversing valve Is installed on a vapor com- pression system so that the same system ean be used for cooling in the stanmer and heating in the sinter. The most comm 1 souree of heat for the evaporator & the outside air. Other common heat sources include lnkcs and rivers, the ground, and waste heat fom other processes,4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.F H 5 G4 THERWAL AWD FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE WANUAT C, No, Os, and Hy. At the standard reference state, these clements are considered to be chemically stable and to have an enthalpy of zero Using. this reference state, enthalpy values for eom- mi be assigned. The enthalpy of e compound canard reference state sits enthalpy of forma. tion, Ty’. The enthalpy of formation is the enorsy reloased or absorbed when the compound is formed frem Iiselerents, with the compound and the elements at the standard reference state. Statistical thermodynamics and analytical tools such as spactrascopes are used to Gietermine the enthalpy of formation. The sign (+ or —) for a given enthalpy of formation value indicetes the direction of heat transfor. Bor an exothermic reaction, in whieh heat transfer 5 from the reactor to the surroundings, the sign is negative. For an endothermic reaction, in whieh heat transfer is from the surroundings lo the chamber, the sign Ss positive. The compounds of interest are not always at Tae and Pot HE the compound is at a state other than the stan- dard reference state, then the specific enthalpy can be found by adding the specific enthalpy change between the standard reference state and the state of interest (Ahi) to the enthalpy of formation at the standard refer- ence state ACL, p) = hy + Oh =F + (HPs) — Bees Pua) 64 Another method of deteemining the enthalpy of forma- tion is to measure the heat transfer during the formation of a compound from its elements, For example, Fig, 6.1 shows a reactor with elements (in this ease, earben and hydrogen) entering and a molecule of fuel (methane) Ioaving. The cloments and the molvcuto are at the stan ard reference state, Figure 6.1 Host Irarefor During Combustion Reaction ay co reser | > chy al The reaction is, C+ mh = CH, 6s This reaction is exothermic; it will result ina. beat transfer from the box to the surroundings. ‘The heat transfer must occur for the fuel to exit at Ti. A first law analysis of the system control volume gives 0 Qe + thee + Hing Fac, ~ ten, Rem 68 This first lnw analysis ussumos 0) © no work is involved (IF © thore are no kinetic or potential energy effects, Ona molar basis, the energy balance will be 0 Qy Highe + flea — fon Few er ‘To find the specific enthalpy of methane, this equation becomes: Een ‘At the standard reference state, the enthalpies of carbon and hiydrogen are zero, so this simplifies to Fon = ee eo This equation states that the enthalpy of formation for mothane at the standard relerence state equals the heat transfer per mole of methane between the reactor and its surroundings. This value has been found to be 10 Buu /Ibmol or ~74,850 kd kal . OPEN SYSTEM COMBUSTION REACTION ENERGY BALANCE Tu order to smalyze a combustion reaction, eertain infor- ‘mation is needed ‘© the amount of work oF hoat transler involved the phase of the fuel (slid, liquid, or ges) {© the state of the combustion products and the air ‘© water formation in combustion products Also, certain assumptions are made to make the analysis possible. # kinotie and potential encriy neglected © steady-state operation © alr considers] as am ideal gas The same reactor concept can be used as svith the calculations for the enthalpy of formation. Figure 6.2 shows a reactor operating at steady state,4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.6-8 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL Table 6.2 Standard Enhatves of Fornatian theatre! at 250) iy lomenifewmponnd (Seal mal) Alo 00 ALO: 6) 99.09 © (grophite) 00 C (cnn) oss = cw) m0 Fy co @) 2612 FH o) -9405 3 ore (9) 90 2 Cals iy) a 3 2s (9 en Et Coie (9) 20:24 i Gel) cuenta) CHC (9) crcl) =a 33 (0) ars COS (0) 280 (cays (9) S80 CHO () 48.08 Cali011 (0) 5.68 (CH).0 443 CH (9) 90 Gotha 2998 Cath (3) 1. CoH (8) wa Pe(s) 00 Feta) “9.5 es0s (9) 196.8 Fe,04 () 2078 ©) a0 H.0 (9) art 10 (0) ~6881 1.0 (9) “3183 ILS (9) Ais? Ng) how xo 2160 NOs (9) 809 NOs () 8 NH (9) 1.04 03) 00 03.0) so sia) im $09 70196 $05 (9) $4.45 Ta gia tte = old state (Sfleipy Aratnl by 4.183 va obtain 49m) (Mp kealanol ay 1809/40 to btn Beam,4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.F H 5 7-4 THERWAL_AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE WANUAT 4A. The ideal Rankine eyele shown operates with sat- uraied vapor entering a turbine at 9 MPa, Saturatee liquid exits the condenser at a pressure of 0.1. MPa. The niet powor output of the cyele is L20 MW. ‘The tarbine has an isentropic effleieney of 85% while the pump has aan isentropic efficiency of BO% boiler 1 turbine pump (oat &: condenser ‘old Assumptions © Opemtion is at steady state. © The compressor, condenser, and evaporator ate internally reversible, © The pump and turbine operate adiabatically. © Kinetic and potential energy effects are nesligible Determine (@) the thermnal efficiency of the eyele (b) the back work ratio (©) the mass flow rate of the steam in kilograms per hour (d) the heat transfer into the boiler (©) the heat transfer from the condenser (0) the mass Now rate of the condenser cooling water in Kilograms per hour if the waler enters at 15°C and exits at 10°C Gas Power Cycle Problems 42. A piston cylinder contains 4 thm of air at 580°R and L atm. The air is compressed to 900°R and 6 atm. Daring compression, heat transfor of 40. Btn to the surroundings occurs. Treat the air as an ideal gas. Most neatly, the work needed for the compression is (A) 280 Bin (B) -180 Bu (©) 160 Bou (D) 260 Btu 43. An airstantard dual eycle operates with a com- pression ratio of 16. The starting temperature is 280K ‘and the starting pressure is 0.2 MPa. The pressure ratio for Ue constant volume portion of the heating process is L5:L. The volume ratio for the constant pressure part of the process is 1.3: Assumptions: © Thesystem i clase © All processes are internally reversible. © The comprossion and expansion processes are adiabatic © Kinetic and potential energy affoets axe negligible. © The air is an ideal gas. ‘The thermal efficiency of the eycle is mast nearly (A) 5% (B) 82% (C) 09% (D) 74% 44. An airstandard Otto cycle operates with a veh metric compression ratio of 8. At the besiiming of the cycle, the tomperature is 580°R snd the pressure is T aim, The eylinder volune is 0.1 The state 3 teraperature is 3200°R. The pressure ratio is 8. Assumptions, © The system is closed. All processes aro intemally reversible. © The compressor and expansion processes are adiabatic ‘© Kinetic and potential energy offeets axe nealigible. © The air is an ideal ges Determine (a) the temperature and prossure at the end of each sep (b) the thermal efficiency of the eyele4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.F H 2 7-8 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL The flow rate of the reftigorant is most nearly (A) 200 tbm/br (B) 200 thm /ie (©) 510 thm te (D) 660 Yomn/bn 24. Au ideal vapor compression refsigoration eyele uses R-134a as the refrigerant. The eyele aperates between 52°C warm region and a 20°C cold region. ‘The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.2 ka/s. Saturated vapor enters the compressor, and saturated ligutd leaves the condenser Assumptions © Operation is at steady state. © Tho compressor, condenser, and evaporator are internally reversible, © Tho comprosor and expansion valve operate adiabatically © Kinetic and potential energy effec © Soturated vapor enters the comps © Saturated liquid enters andl leaves the condenser © When thermal energy transfer oeenes, the refrigesant temperature is equal to the region temperature. Determine (2) the compressor power requiver, in kllowatts (b) the voftigeration capacity of the eycle in tons (©) the coefficient of performance (d) the coefficient of performance for a Camot cycle operating between the samo two regions 25. Rela is the operating fluid in a refrigeration eyele, The cyele operates between regions at 40°C and 30°C The mins flow rate of the refrigerant. is 0.2 ky/s. ‘The refrigerant enters the compressor at 8°C as sai- urated vapor. The refrigerant leaves the conelonser as a saturated Liquid at 16 baz, Assumptions © Operation is at steady state. © The compressor, condenser, and evaporator are internally reversible, © The compressor and expansion valve operate adiabatically. Kinetic and potential energy effects aze negligible. © Saturated vapor enters the compressor © Saturated liquid enters and leaves the condenser Determine (a) the compressor power required, in kilowatts (©) the refrigeration capacity of the cycle in tons (©) the coefficient of performance (a) the coefficient of performance for a Camot eyele Operating between the same two regions 26. R-13ta is the operating fluid in a reftigeration yele, The cycle operates between regions at 40°C and 20°C. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.2 kg/s. Tho refrigerant onters tho compressor at 8°C as sat united vapor. ‘The refrigerant leaves the condenser as liquid at 48°C. The pressure of the refrigerant, entering the condenser is 16 bar. The compressor has an isentro- pie efficioney of 85%. Assumptions © Operation is ai steady state, © The condenser and evaporator are internally reversible. © The compressor and expansion valve operate adiabatically, inetie snd potential energy offeets ure negligible. © Saturated vapor enters the compressor © Liquid leaves the condenser © There is no pressure drop through evaporator or condenser Determine (@) the compressor power required, in kilowatts (b) the refrigeration capacity of the eyele, in tons (©) the coofficient of performance (4) the coefficient of perlormance for a Camot cycle operating between the same two regions 27. Au ideal vapor compression reftigesation cycle operates with R-I2 as the working fluid, Saturated vapor enters the compressor at —20°C, sn saturated Fiquid exits the condenser, The condenser operating pressure is 9 ber. The mass flow rate of refrigerant is 3 g/min, Assumptions © Op © ‘The compressor, condenser, and evaporator are intemally compressor and expansion valve oparate adiabatically Kinetic and potential energy effects are negligible. Saturated vapor enters the compressor ration Is a steady state. Saturated liquid enters and leaves the condenser.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.F H 5 7-12 From Eq, 2.21, the enthalpy at state 2 is hy + aah, $1.3 kJ/kg Steam tables give the values for fy and fy at 0.5 MPa. State 3 Is superheated as well. From the tables, at 0.5 MPa and 440°C, ig = 3356.1 Kk, y= 7.9182 kel /ke- Ke State 4 can be found using the definition of quality, with values of sand ay for 0.01 MPa talsen from steatn tables. no Hd ky _ Foie eg O00 s.1s02 2 — 6193 = 0.969 Steam tables give the values af fy ad By, for 0.01 MPa, so that the enthalpy at state 4s he= 1 + ly = 191.88 72 + (0.969) ‘peg ~ (ow2s 8) The net power of the evele is given by the contributions of the turbines less the pump work required. 2510.45 KI ky Wore = Wat Wa ~ Wp ‘The turbine and pump work are defined in the following. equations (frst lay analysis), = hs ha THERMAL_AND FLUIDS SVSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL State 5 is defined as a saturated liquid at « presse of 0.01 MPa, From steam tables, fry = 191.89 kI/ke v= 0.010102 m? kg Bor tho pump, iv, “pts wile) ? af ( o1oi02 © xX x (10 MPa — 0.01 MPa) | 10° 2 0 MPa — 0.01 MPa) | 10° ~ 7 im 10° Se i = 10.09 kak Wy y= hg +E = 191.83 4 10,09 1 ky ke 201.92 d/h The total rato of heat transler into the system includes Doth the first pass Uarongh the boiler (state 6 to state 1) and the reheating (state 2 to state 3) Be (ty — he) + (a=) The thermal efficiency ofthe eye is Wea Ba Wa ~ Gi =e) + (y=) on. Losi a (20211 nos!) + (2.1 HY _gsi0.4s ens 5) 1.2 KI 8) a= k + (50 = 0.4052 (41%) Tho answer Is (B).4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.F H 5 7-16 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SVSTEME REFERENCE MANUAL Values for s; and s, are found in steam tables fora First Jaw analysis of the pump, turbine, and boiler pressure of 1 bar ‘The enthalpy can then be leas to calculated as KI 4 (0.722) ig? (0-722) = hy + tap, = 41746 hy = hy Values for liy and fig are found in steam tables for a pressure of I bar. The actual enthalpy value at state 2 is Ing = by — mb, ~ bay) = (0.85) ig = ns. tk State 3 is a saturated liquid at a presse of L bar, 50) = A170 ks kg From steam tables, the specific volume at state 3 is vy = 0.001 049.2 ‘The enthalpy at state 4 is (b) From Bq. 4.62, the back work ratio is (®) wy hoa 7h wwe oe hy J 2907 anza0 & aza.o7 #4 —arzao * f mi “Fi 2 xd 0010432 ota. EL aisi9 2 ( kg, ig ig N = 0.0197 (1.97%) x (9 MPa 0.4 MPa) | 10" (oni = 420.07 fhe, (a) From Eq. 3.9, the thermal efficiency of the eycle is4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES PROSLEME The thermal efficteney of the eyele, then, is kg, mere iy ) + (avaras 2 99.08 BS ( ke =0617 (62% Tho answer is (B). 44, (a) State 1 is fixed by the temperature, Ti, of 580°R, From a table of air propertios, ‘4 = 98.90 Béu/Ibm bn = 120.70 State 2 is determined with the volume ratio. The aie is au ideal gas, so from Eq. 4.10 and Ea. 4.12, wo m= = Qo) = 15.09 Interpolating im the table of air properties «ives the Intemal energy at state 2. ty = 226.62 Btu/lbm Tnterpolating in the table of air peoperties gives the pressure ratio Pe. Pra = 3182 Prom Eq. 4.12, the pre As an alternative method, the pressure at stato 2 ean be found by determining Z) and using the ideal gas law. 17.88 atm 7-19 Using the relative volume ratio of 15.09 and interpolat- 12 in the table of air properties, T,= 1293.9°R nn(#)(P) = cam Bo = 1781 atm Process 2-3 occurs at constant volume, so the ideal gas Inve can be used to determine the pressure at state 3 a 3 i = = (17.84 atm = 44.18 atm For a temperature of 3200°R at state 3, the table of air us = 680.12 Benim vag = 0.9546 State d is determined by using the volume ratios, From Bq. 41 va( $2) = ea (#2) = (ea615y8) = 764 Por a volume ratio of 7.61, interpolating in the table of aie properties gives uy = 204.85 Bru/loma 1) = 1611.06R ‘The volume is constant from state 4 to state 1, $0 the ideal gas Taw cam be used to determine the pressive at state 4 mot TT; 2, n=a(z =(Latm) = 2.8% atm ‘An alternative method for determining the pressure at state 4 is to use the volume ratio and interpolation in the table of air properties to find the pressure ratio, pa = 7980F H 5 7-20 THERWAL_AND FLUIDS SVSTEME REFERENCE MANUAL For a temperature at state 3 of 3200°R, the tablo of air properties gives yg = 1242 Then, (44.19 atm) (b) From Ey. 4.9, the thermal efficieney of an air standard Otto eyele is 20185 BAY 99.9) Ba 21-2 8 th na 2 mao BY = 0514 415. (a) State 1 is found from a table of air properties for a temperature of 880K, The specific internal enorgy and volume ratio at state 1 are ut = 271.09 kd /ke, t= M34 As processes are assumed to be internally reversible, the volume ratios and volumetric ratio are related as per Eq. 1.10, The volume ratio at state 2 is Toterpolating in Ube table of air properties gives the enthalpy aud temperature ab slate 2 hy = 1202.02 b/s Ty = 1135.2K The pressure at state 2 ean he determined from the ideal zs law polis _ mV n= CEE) -nBI() = (03 Ps) (22828) a9 = 17.92 MPa The pees 2-8 aeeurs al constant pressuve, so the ideal sel to solve for Te gas Taw equation ean be nen(G) The cutoff ratio, ra is de ature at state 3 is ned as Va/ Vo, so the temper r 1135.2K)(L.8) = 2018.36 Tore Using the value for TZ, the enthalpy and the volume ratio can be found from interpolating in the table of air properties hy = 2306.3 1 eg The process from 3 to 4 is ieontropio, so from Eq. 4.11, With Vi equal to Vs, this simplifies to o GC This volume ratio ean be used to determine the temper ature and internal enecgy at state 4 by interpolating in the table of air properties. r% ty = 2B kd fg 956.59THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES PROSLEME The pressure at state 4 can be found using the ideal gas law, Because Vi and Vj are equal, pV mV RT, RT, = (03 MPa)| 0.755 MPa (b) From Bq. 434, the thermal efficiency for an air- standard diesel cyele is given by fash 72013 )_or1.g0 1 cis Monga Bl mwa Him = 0.592 (59.295) 46. First, firal the enthalpies of the four states. ‘The teanperature at the compresser inlet (state 1) is given as 315K. From a table of air properties, the state L proper- ties are hy = 315.27 KI kg pa = Lou ‘The compression process is isentropic, so from Eq 4.63, the state 1 to state 2 pressure ratios are related as Pe Pa ary The state 2 pressure ratio is, =pa(2 manm(®) Tnterpolating in the table of air peoperties gives the enthalpy at state 2 hy = 637.95 kJ/kg 7-21 The temperature at state 3 is given as 1600K, so the table of air properties gives ig = 1757.57 bie P= 791.2 As che turbine and compressor operate beentropically from Eq. 4.64, Pas _ Pea A Pe a 3 i = reer) = (79.234) = 65.93 Interpolating in the table of air properties gives the enthalpy at state 4 hy = 809.02 elke (a) From Eq. 461, the thermal efficiency of a Brayton cycle is Ww, inn _(hy~ ha) ~ (hei) & Ty a 757.57 *4— sa9.02 *) (uisrsr sao tt) S79 (17.9% (b) From Eq. 4.62, the back work ratio is = 0.376 (37.6%)7-22 THERWAL_AND FLUIDS SVSTEME (6) The net work of the eyele is We. wan 4) = ale 1) ~(?—t)) The mass Now rate ean be solved for by using the ideal gas Ia @n (7 ®)(v0%0 S) Woon = nha ha) ~ Cn ~) F H 5 reel (sritr sono») 85 sia (sess 12 —sis27 1) = 51346 ifs (5134.6 RW) 417. First, find the enthalpies at all four states as shown in Solution 16, hy = 815.27 kel /eg, fing = 637.85 bee hg = 1757.57 kl fhe, gg = 89902 Fel /ka, ermal efficien (2) From Bq, 461, the of a Brayton vee is From Eq. 1.114, the isentropic efficiency for a turbine is W, Ch), n= REFERENCE MANUAL Prom Eq. 4.58, the work of the turbine is (7%. soo.02 Bo 73) ke ig = 669.67 KI/kg. From 1.109, Using Bq. 1.108, he compressor work is the compressor work is OSS = 379.51 kl/ke Prom Fa. 4.59, the heat transfer ts -hy wr, o.si Kl KI =s79s1 Wh ke = 694.78 kI/ke The heat transfer is thus Qu fy hy = 1767.57 TOOT ie = 1002.79 KI ayTHERMODYNAMIC CYCLES PROSLEME The thermal efficiency ean now be calculated. Jy We eo At ry ct 600.67 2 — 379.51 _ kg kg. 1062.79 hg = 0.273 (27.3%) The thermal efficiency of 47.99% in Prob. 16 drops to 27.3% in this eyele as a result of system irreversibilities (b) From Bq. 4.62, the back work ratio is te arysy Hb BWR=-—= =—__& mm kg = 0.567 (56.7%) The irreversibilities of the turbine and compressor alter the back work ratio as well. In Prob. 16, the back work ratio was 37.6%: here, over 50% of the generated work feo che turbine is constumed by the compressor (6) The net work of the evele is Woe = n( Be M2) = (hsm) — -m) The mass flow rate ean be solved for by using the ideal gas law, in AvP (7) (0x0 A) Nan ‘sia New K (19K) 7-23 The net work of the eyele, then, is Woae=2((o4—h)— hes} (coo or #2) (a = 279.73 kl/s (2779.73 kW) = (058 is 48. First, find the enthalpies at states 1, 2,4, and 5, as described in Solution 16. hy = BUSI kd fig fy = 697.85 KI/ky, 1 = TST. KS ki/kg hg = 809. From Eq. 461, the thermal efficiney of a Brayton cycle is From Bq, 4.73, for a Brayton eyele with regeneration the Ireat transfer is Shimla The the enthalpy value for the inlet of the regenerator. Prom Fg. 4.74, the thermal efficiency of the regenerator is thermal efficiency of the regenerator will provide fa he regenera ag = Mhgenerstee a ~ fa) + he 085) (so9.02 gars (0a (one ores 8) 5 kl bast = 859.85 kI/ke a 3 i =F H 5 7-24 The thermal efficteney of the eyele, then, is ww, jn tn (4 ~ is) ~~ hu} te ahs 757.87 1 sooo EP (i557 sos 2) B Comparison with the similar Brayton eycle without regeneration in Prob. 16 shows that the regencration process inereasos the thermal efficiency of the eycle from 17.9% 10 59.7%. 19. From Eq, 4.61, the thermal cffieiency of a Brayton eyele with regeneration and reheat is Ww V SATE (us) + eho) — Go On (hy = fa) + We = fis) From a table of air properties, the state 1 properties at SISK are ny = 815.27 Kd/hg Pa = e442 The compression process is isentropic, so from Eq. 4.63, state 1 to state 2 pressure ratios are related as Pao Pa > 88 @) = par = (1.6442)(12) = 19.73 Using thls value for pe and interpolating in the table of air properties wives the enthalpy at state 2 hy = 637.85 kd kg The pressure at state 2 is found using the compression ratio, Bb Pm rp, = (12)(120 kPa) = 1440 kPa REFERENCE MANUAL The temperature at stato 4 is 1600K. From the table of air properties, iy = 1757.57 kA/kg Pay = 79.2 The enthalpy at state 5 can be found using the pressure ratio rolationship of the turbine. p, is equal to pa 80 280 kPa TAA kPa ov (SBME) = 53.4 Inept inh a fi propa ges hs 155.04 Ied/ky Because the pracess is isentropic, the second stage of the turbine can be analyzed by using the pressure ratio 839,00 1p (220-KP a leas Interpolating in the table of air properties gives hy = 1404.99 kJ/kg. The regenceator effieiomey is 100% (ideal eyelo), so the enthalpy leaving the regenerator, fy, equals hy. Also. since the temperatures at states @ and 4 are the sarne, ig = hy The thermal efficieney of the eyele is therefore ((4 = fis) +e = ted) = Oa =a) (a= Ie) + ie = Ts) kd s1a5.o4 ko 7 AL iano BE ke %) ~14ga.o9 E ie KI _siaso4 7 KL aias.oa kg i) = 0.669 (66.9%)THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES PROSLEME The thermal efficiency has improved from 47.9% tn Prob. 16 to 66.9% due to the favorable effects of rebeat cond regeneration. 20. (a) Because there is no pressure drop through the intercooler and the compression process is iseutropic, ps and p; ate related by Eq, 1.64, Bas AP men From a table of air properties T,=SHIK and pressure ratio pg for temperature se 9.3475 Pe Interpolating in the table of air propertics gives the termperature and enthalpy at state 4. Tie 238K hy = 926.1 b/g (b) The total work input for the compressors is We = (yin) : (lute) From the table of air properties, for T= 360K, ny = 300.58 KI/g Pas = 2026 1, equal to 7), 80 hy 58 equal to ly, To determine fy the pressure ratio relationship ftom Eq. 463 can De used, Pa _ Pa Pe PA roxm( = 2020 (ire) = 5.252 Interpolating im the table of air propertics gives the enthalpy at state 2. hy = 439.00 ke fg, 7-25 The total work of the compressor, then, 1s W, ee y—i) + tty) KI = (139.06 1 350.58 ( Ig » (oi amas 8) kg ke, 24.6 kI/kg (c) From Eq, 4.57, for a single state of compression, a 5 i = Ww. =m Tho outhalpy at state 2 can be fonnd from the isentropic pressure ratio, Paka Dh ra~mn(2) 7 = (2.626) (1500 kPa (2029) coo era) = 19.095 Tnterpolating in enthalpy at state 2. lable of air properties gives the hy = 687.6 kJ/kg Thus, We _ garg © a6p.59 —ar7 Ty OTS Be0.58 Fa Because of the intercooler, the two-stage compressor roguires less work that the single-stage compressor 2A. First, determine the specific enthalpirs at all nine stages. Prom T= 300K, table of air properties. for temperature hy = 360.58 KA ky 4 = 2.0267-26 THERMAL AND FLUIDS SVSTEME To datermine fy, the pressure ratio relationship in Ba, 1.92 can he noel 2 _ Pa Pa a= In (2 mont) = (2.626) (202 ae = 5.262 Interpolaring in the table of air properties gives the specific enthalpy at state 2s. F H 5 Ing = 439.66 II he, Bocause Tis equal to iy hy i equal to hy. mis equal top» = pal 28) = (2.606) (1500 kPa a= v(t) = (2025 (a = 98175 Interpolating in the table of air properties gives the temperaiure and specific enthalpy at slate 4s, Jog = 526.1 Be [he The temperature at state 6, Te, is 1600K, From the table of air properties, ig = ATS7.57 be flag Pr There is no pressure drop across the regenerator or combustor, #9 p, equal to yo. The specific enthalpy al state 7 can be found using the pressure ratio relation ship of the turbine, Pa Pot Pe vom ae(2) 6 280 kPa = (791.2) (0 EP =107 Interpolating in the table of air propertios gives fap, = 1122.6 eS /eg REFERENCE MANUAL Because the process is isentropic, the second stage of the tuuthine ean he analyzed by using the pressure ratio. Te is equal 80 Ty, 80 pa i8 Catal 10 ve BPs @) po= re( Ps, roi 9) (200 KPa 791.2) 50 kPa) 565.14 Interpolating in the table of air properties gives Frog = 1609.01 lk ‘The specific enthalpies at states 2 ane 4 are fond from the definition of isentropic efficiency for a compressor. hy ~ hg Tis kl _ gos #2 439.66 — gq0.e ig ke OS = 453.02 bl flog Similarly, the isentenpic efficiency of the second-siaze turbine can be used to determine hy and lez Because [i Is equal to Ty, fy 8 equal to hye ya taatin He ig = hay iy = he = nylltg — ho) rrnan (a9 (nanar Bagot #2) = 1638.72 kd fie.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4@ ‘You have either reached 3 page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES PROSLEME The velocity at the exit of the nozzle is 5.8 fe/sec (2600 fi/see) The answer is (0). 23. From 1 table of properties of R-12, ab a tempera. ture of Ty = 20°F, fy = hy = 75.87 Ben/lbmm = 0.17275 Buu/ban- R 160 psia, Buu/lome'R hy, = 94 Buu/lima Ty. = A5°F State 2 is supotheated. Beearse 5) is equal to sinter: polation in an entropy-pressure geaph can be used to find Ty and fo,. Prom the table of properties of R-12, the enthalpy at state 3 (saturated Liquid at 160 Ibf/in*) is, hy = 31.78 Bou/lbm, State d is a constant-enthalpy throttling process, 90 hg = hy = 34.78 Beu/lom Cooling capacity is defined as the heat transfor that focenrs in the evaporator, From By 5.3, Qiu = sinha — ha) a (25 a i: Ibm aan ibm 12.04 Ibm/hr (290 Ibm/hr) Be) The answer is (B). 24, (a) From a table of properties of R-L3a, the enthalpy at state Lat 20°C is hy = 10 kk 7-29 The entropy at state 2 is the same as at state 1 because the compression process is adiabatic and. internally reversible. Prom 0 table of properties of R-Ia, the entropy at states L and 2 is f= 2 = LTISO ka fg ‘The pressure at state 2 is the samo as at state 3, whieh is ‘saturated liquid at 52°C. From the table, the pressure of “Cis the refrigerant at 5 Pa = Py = 18.865 bars From a pressureenthalpy diagram for R-Ma, for the pressure and entropy at state 2, a 5 i = iy = 427.9 kl Pkg State 3 is a saturated liquid at 52°C. ‘The enthalpies at state $ and state 4 are oqual beeanse a throttling process is modeled as having eonstant enthalpy. Brom the table, the enthalpy is hy = hy = 275.1 kel fh ‘The compressor work is ealeulated based on a first lew analysis. From Eq €) (so79 ) (29 a0 =36kI/s GOR) he refrigeration capaciiy is given by the heat wsfer rate 40 the refrigerant as it passes through the cold space (evaporator). From Eq. 5.3, Qin = ty = ha) 0.2 ®8) (410 275.1 #1) (60 2 (02 8) (ooo ws al 7 inin-fon = 7.67 tons. (©) From Ba. 5:7, the evefficient of performance is Qy _ nln ~ hy) TW. mlb hy) oa 8) (uo 8F H 5 7-30 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SVSTEME REFERENCE MANUAL (@) The absolute tomperatures of the two regions are 20°C +273" = 2931 C4273 Te K From Ba, 5.1, the coefficient of performance for a Car not eyele operating between the two regions is «First, calculate the enthalpies at all four states. From a table of propertics of R-L34a, the onthalpy at state Lis iy = 403.4 KT eg The pressure af state 2 is the some as at state J, Wepre 1a he The entropy at state 2 is the same as at state 1 because the compression process is adiabatic and internally reversible. From the table, the entropy at states 1 and 2s = 62 = L728 I kg State 2 is determined from the pressure and entropy. Interpolating in the table gives hy = 482.77 kal fg State 3 is determined from the table as a saturated liquid at 16 bar. y= 284.43 Is fg y= 12750 Id flee T= 57.88C ‘The enthalpy at stated is the same as at state 8, because throttling is a constant. enthalpy process, hy = hy = 284.43 Kale, (#) The compressor work is calculated! based! on a frst Jay analysis, tn(ha — fn) 28) (aser7 2 aoaa (028) (was Hane) = 5.87 I6l/s (58.7 KW) (b) ‘The refrigerstion capacity is given by the hest tcansfer rate 10 the refrigerant as it passes through the cold space (evaporator). From Ba. 6.3. Oy = skh, — hy) = (028) (wa «(00 = 68 tons 284.49 Ltow an SL (©) Brom Ba. 5.7, the coefficient of performance is Gy _ ae(hy =a) = Bn = Hn = hi) Wwe, hi) ke i ks (02 MS) (1024 asus 1) ul a) (4) The absolute temperatures of the two regions are Le = 20°C +278" = 293K Py = 40°C +278 = U13K From Eq. 6.1, the coefficient of performance for a Car- not eyele operating between these two regions is 26. First, find the enthalpies of all four states. From a table of properties for R-14a, the enthalpy at state L is ay = 4034 kd hg The entropy at stato 2 is the sume as at state 1 beeauto the compression process is adiabatic and internally ible, From the table, the entropy at states 1 a = oy = 1.7238 kd fogTHERMODYNAMIC CYCLES PROSLEME The enthalpy at state 2 is found using the definition of the isentropic efficiency for a compressor. From Ea. 58, Solving for ha, 16 bar The enthalpy at state 2s is determined from the pres: sure, ps, and the entropy, interpolating in the table gives 7 kd nny = 482.77 fa y= to go.77 asa.77 08 At state 8, the refrigerant js in the liquid region, The enthalpy at state 3 is hy vy(Ps— tos) From the table, with Ty equal to 48°C, hy = 268.8 KI kg yy = 0.0000 an le Poy = 12.54 bar = 1.254 MPa iy = hy + vl 9, gt si 268, B+( ¥ (1.6 MPa ~ 1.254 MPa){ 10 MPa «(ea) 209.11 kI/ee 7-31 ‘Jy is approximately equal to Ayand s is approximately xual to 4 so from the table, fy = 1.220 kd fk State 4 is defined by state 3, because the expansion process is constant enthalpy. ig = 260.11 eI /ke, (a) Prom Eq. 5.4, the requived compressor power is a 3 i = W, = tila ~ ny) = (02 8) (sxrs6 034 #4) =) (6 FAM = 691 1I/s (6.91 KW) (b) The sehigeration capacity is given by the heat transfer rate to the refrigerant as it passes through the cold space (evaporator). From Eq, 5.3. 0, = tain = ty) 2 #8) (403.4 © — 960.11 ©) (69 22 on = 7.61 tons (0) From Ba, 5.7, dhe coefficient of performance is fin(h — he Talhah) ie kl Ps) (02) (403.4 8 —a60.01 =) ke kg, ) (era FA 3.4 #2) ‘The compressor power needed for this cyele is greater than for Prob. 25 borause of the roversibilities, (4) The absolute temperatures of the two regions are Te= °C 427F = 203 Py = 40°C 4278 = 313K Prom Faq. 6.1, the coefficient of pesformance for a Car not cycle operating between the two regions is 200K 313K — 293K = ieeeF H 5 7-32 The reversibilities lead to a lower coofficiont of perfor: mance than for Prob. 25. 27. Stato 1 can be found from a table of properties of R-12. For saturates] vapor at ~20°C, ny = 343.38 kl /ke, 1 = 1.5696 Kl kal From the assumptions, fg = 9) = 1.5696 K/h An R-12 pressure-enthalpy diagram gives hs ~ 369 kel ke Saturated liguid leaves the condenser. Prom the table, for R-12 at 9 bor, ig = 245 Kes State (isa throttling procoss with constant enthalpy, £0 js Bs equal 10 hy. (a) From Eq, 5.3, the compressor work is We. sha = fn) y KI ) (2a = 76.86 Kd, (b) From Bq, 5.12, the reftigecation capacity is Qy, = tn In = fa) + 8) Coase #2 (028) (ama Ba ~ ii ED a mile (c) From Eq. 5.7, the coefficient of performance is ‘ re dy sens (on SH) Ww. 76.86 © - 28. (a) From a table of properties for R12, for sat- rated vapor at ~10°C, the enthalpy at state Lis hy = 347.56 Ie ee THERMAL_AND FLUIDS SVSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL The entropy at state 2 is the same as at state 1 because the compression process is isentropic. Prom the table the entropy at states 1 and 2 is oS oy = L562 kd kg From an R-12 presure-entholpy diagram, for this entropy and a pressure of 9 bar, the enthalpy is ag = 370 ke} kas Saturated liquid Teaves the condenser. From the same e of § bar, the enthalpy is diagram, for a pressu hy = 296 kha, State dis throttling process with constant enthalpy, #2 Fey aned hy aro oqual Prom Eq. 5.4, the compressor work is W, = tan — tn) = (3 a) (a Et = 67.32 kd fmin From Eq, 5.3, tho rofrigeration capacity is y= ikl — ha) fe 8) (ann is) (1109 (2 BS) (srs a Bt) (i = 1.59 tons From Faq. 5.7, the coefficient af performance is (1.59 ens)(an e732 SE (b) From a table of properties for R-12, for saturated ‘vapor nt ~30°C, tho enthalpy at stato L is fay = 338.76 bf The ontropy at state 2 is the same as at state 1 because the compression process is isentropic. From the table, the entropy at states Land 2 is TT kd fk: K a=aslTHERMODYNAMIC CYCLES PROSLEME From an R-12 pressureenthalpy diagram, for this entropy and a pressure of 9 bar, the enthalpy is dng = 378 K/h Saturated liquid leaves the condenser. From the sane ciogram, for a pressure of ® bar, the ag = 236 keg State 4 isa throttling procoss with constant enthalpy, so Fig and fig are equal Fron Eq, 5, the compressor work is We = sin hy = fx) ~ KI agg 75 BE (5.88) (a0 #1-sssr0 8) = 11772 yf Prom Eq. 5.3, the rfrigeration capacity is Gig = aly — ha) = 1.46 tons Prom Eq. 5.7, the coefficient of pe (1 on} (an . @ [pam oa (©) From a table of properties for R-12, for saturated vapor at —40°C, the enthalpy at stato 1 is hy = 834.00 e/g, ‘The entropy al State 2 is the same as at state 1 because the compression process is isentropic. Prom the table, the entropy at states | and 2is 6) = 0) = LBSTS kd /kee From an R-12 pressure-enthalpy diagram, for this entropy and a pressure of 9 bar, the enthalpy is thy, = 380 kel ke 7-33 Saturated liquid leaves the condenser, From the same diagram, for a pressure of § bar, the enthalpy is iy = 230 KI/ke, State disa throttling process with constant enthalpy, so hay and fy are equal. Fone By 5:4 the comprnor worl W, = tify — In) (3 =) (30 137.73 kd min a 5 i = From Ig. 5.3, the refrigeration capacity is ~ (0 8) (onion tsa 8) (i 1.39 tons, From Ba. 5.7, the coefficient of performance is (2.89 tons) 21 I) a. inin-ton, Qn = 204 Ww. pa 29, First, find the enthalpies at all four states. The fomperacare at state Lis 520°R, From a table of alr properties fy = 124.27 Bin/line paz 127 The pressure ral Eq. 4.63, the pres is used to determine hy, Prom mare ratio between states is Pana (2)p = 3(1.2147) = 6.0735 7 Tuterpolating in the table of air properties gives fis, = 197.06 Bin/lina Av state 3, the temperature is 600°R, From the table of air properties, hg = 143.47 Btu/lbm Pes = 2.0057-34 The enthalpy at stato 4 is found from the pressure ratio Pie (Bn 2.000 aye Interpolating in the table of air properties gives = 0.401 fags = 904 Btu/lan (a) The work of the eyele is given by Wc = tn((rag— fa) ~ (pu) ) F H 5 The mass flow rate fs found by using the ideal gas law’ meun pv = mit? ya mkt = 457.98 Ibf/min The work of the eyele is then Wage (45798 2) vg BY yaya Ba _( (sta u2—ruar 8) 3 Bg 2 = (sar Bang Bi) = 9081.87 Bru/min (b) From Bq, 5.12, the refrigeration capacity is Qe = ta( hy — Aas) = (20798 8) (124 = 15,518 Beu/min REFERENCE MANUAL (c) Brom Eq, 5.7, the eoafficiont of performance is j— Qa _ fillu = hu) Ww, inlls 30. The temperature at state | is given as 520°R. From a table of properties af air hy = 124.27 Biu/lim Pa = 127 The pressure ratio is used to determine hy, The prossure ratio hetween states is nas (2) on = Cotr.aut) = 00s Interpolating in the table of air properties gives fig, = 197.06 Bin/line Al state 3, the temperature is 600°R, From the table of air propertics, hig = 113.47 Beu/lbma Pig = 2.005 The enthalpy at state 4 is found from the pressure ratio. rae (R)po= Tnterpolating in the table of air properties gives 2) 2.005) = 0401 yg = 904 Btuyftbma (a) The work of the eyele is given by Worn = HW, — W.) -o( 2) -0- 40) The rans flow rate is found by using the ideal gas low ayy, pV = maT _mkT » VvTHERMODYNAMIC CYCLES PROSLEME (190 £8) (60 82) (17 BE = 457.98 Ibf/min ‘The work of the eyele is then ) 197.06 wa BG 04 Fe) (0.80) = 19,775.25 Beu/min (b) ‘The refrigeration capacity’ is given by the enorgy transfer from the hear exchanger after the turbine. Qn = ta(hy — hy) “The enthalpy af state 4 is found by solving the frst law analysis of the turbine Wm nfl — a) Ww hg = hy — = y= lle —hs) aan Be Bo. gy Bos = ins7 2 (oa0)(uusar Bons BX) = 101.01 Bia/Ibm 7-35 Prom Eq. 5.12, the refrigeration capacity is hs — a) = (A708 BE) = 10.65261 Bryan (©) From Ea, 52, the coefficient of performance is (inane #8) aa) tn(ds — hg) We thei) Gor Fs 3 i = 0.539 The COP is less than L, which indicates that the roirig- eration effect is Jess than the work required to achieve itMateriale protetto da copyright: Heat Transfer Topic Chapter 8. Fundamental Heat Transfer 9. Convection 0. Thermal Radiation 1. Heat Exchangers 2. Heat Transfer Problems PengMateriale protetto da copyrightFundamental Heat Transfer 1. Heat Transfer 62 altditanceoe » SiGondaghoesearet faannaea er 3 Thermal Conduct £2 aserkal resistin a 1 Other ‘Thermo yiel Broptis 83 Ry trent ata er/en maw 5. Pours Law Bt tae i : : Muticneneonal Condition ‘ak time de ; 1, Bounidary Coutions ot fompetne : : 7 & One Dintesional Steady-Staie Conduction 1 teen tanste Byer wy Through a Pane Wal ss oniea f 0. ‘Thermal Rosstanco SSD ol v v iE 10. OneeDimenstonal Steady-State Conttion tone ” ~ . Prog a Compost Wall 810 He Wohnen = ayer Tk 11. Thermal Contact Resistance Sil capecity ad 12, OneDimonsional Steady Stas Conduction » wan ‘ . ‘Through a Hollow Cylinder on 2 eine & : 18, One-Dimensional Steady-State Contion Snags ate i a Through a Sphoro sus edretion 1M. Conduction with Hear Genaetion E18 dtmnaontccatance 15, Ment Transer fom Extended Sufaces- S18 trom cate 16. Fins with Uniform Crome Sects csvssoes 819 due inthe 0 17 Fin Fesfonmancos ns Osh vdzeton 18 Tine Depenient Hea, Condeton ats antonco nthe ‘ ‘alinection Nomenclature Symbols A area e nt 6 thernnal difisvity 1? soe Ay covlfcient - - 3 coefficient of volumetric 1F Bi Biot wumbor thecal expansion © specie heat Biu/Ibme'F —I/kg."C > thickness of fin t nm Ceapncitanee Bio) "F WK © effersiveness - - constant = = efficiency D— diaaceter ft a 9 excess temperature “rp c Energy Bio J 9 polar distance ft ™ energy rate Bin w Ay coefficient = = Fo Fourier nunber - a density Toan/fe? g/m? heat treusfer coefficient Pu/he®-SP W/mK resistvit on fm ij. unit veetors letrleal conductivity 1m 1/0 1) curven A A tine constant a 5 Jy Basel Function of the = 2 $ —aaimuthal or circumferential fe 0 Bist ind tistance A thormal conduetivity — Bhu-R/aett™*F Wan. 1 kength a nm Subseripts mm squace rool of AP/RA, L/h Yn 0 inst M molar mass Jmn/Ibmol g/mol b base P porimatoe ft nm © characterise of erose-soetionsl 4 eat taser rate Buje w ‘ome condition 4 energy genccation Bru/he® Wt cont contact rato per unit volume leony convection: har fe Binh? W/m? sletrical or eloetron migration @ cumulative eoeray Blu 5 fia teanstor gen gen8-2 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL 1 latte vibrations p constant pressure of profile rim the radial cizeotion vid radiation 5 surloce st steroge sume surrounding 1 total th thermal x in the z-direction y—inthe palireetion = inthe odiection © in the polar dinection in the wimathal or eixeumaforentil diretion. me fige stream 4. HEAT TRANSFER Heot can be defined as cnergy that ean be transforred from one system to another due to a temperature ence. Heal transfer is the study of the = such transfers of enenzy aceur. Jes al, which, Thermodynamics and heat transfer are complementary fields of study, but thore are key difforonees. Thermo: dynamics deals only with equilibrium states. The first and second laws of thermodynamics are the foundation for analvaing heat transfer, but although thermody: names ean be used to determine how much heat enory is newled to change a system from one equilibrium state to another, the heat transfer itsclf is a nonequilibrium procoss and ie thus outside the seope of thermody. namies. A temperature gradient must exist for heat transfer to oveur, just as a vollage difference is needee for current flow, and in an equilibrium state there is no temperature gradient. The subject of heat transfer plays an important role in today’s society. A fow areas where the study of heat transfer is important include © power generation mnicloar power generation fesil fuel combustion magietohydrodynainics geothermal energy waste heat disehar cooling, tower design « from power plants solar enengy applications © industrial and residential cooling and heating © cooling of electronic equipment © internal combustion engines © eat exchangers © boilers, condensers, curbines Whon a tomperanure difference oxists, heat transfer will occur, Heat eau be transferred through three different processes: conduction, convection, and thermal radia- tion, This chapter deals primarily with conduction; con. veetion is envered in Chap. 9, and Usermal radiation & covered in Chap. 16. 2. CONDUCTION Conduction of beat occurs when there is a difference in temperature between two portions of « stationary medium. This medium could be a sold, such as a brick vall whose two surfaces are at different. temperatures, Or it could be a stognant fluid, such as a region of ‘unmoving water or air. (Heat transfer due to the move- rmien¢ of a Mud, suck us the circulation of warm alr in an oven or a warm eurrent in the ocean, is convection.) Heat conduction occurs through molecular diffusion, the random movement of molecules in the medium, Particles with more energy (more heat) transmit some of that energy to nearby particles that, have less energy, ‘This process, whieh is also known as energy diffusion or heat diffusion, continues until the energy ovenly distributed, A familiar example of conduction ig heat transfer through the exterior wall of a house. ‘The eonduction results because the interior and exterior surfaces of the vall aro espoced to different temperatures. Difforont parts of the wall are at difforent temperatures, and this leads to the conductive teansfer of heat, rom the warner parts te the cooler parts, Whonever a temperature graudiont exists, enoeay will be transferred by conduction from the warmer molecules toward the cooler ones. 3. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY Thermal conductivity s a measure of a material’s ability to conduct hent. It is the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of material, per nnit of area, per un't of temperature difference. The symbol for thermal cone tivity is & ond it has units of Bturft/hr-f?-°P (W/mK) ‘Thermal conduetivity will vary depending on the peratnee of the material, and Cempeature changes du- ing heat transfer. ‘This can make conduction analysis difficult. To simplify analysis, thermal conduetivity often assumed to he constant at the value it has at the material's average temperature. Also, the material is often assumed to be isotropic (haying uniform proper ties in all directions), Thermal conductivity is generally highest for solids lower for Hiquids, and lowest for gases. Mechanical Fy neering Reference Manual (MERM) and many engi- neering handbooks contain thermal conductivity values for many common materialsSolids The atoms that make up a solid are bound in an arrange: ment called a lattice In a solid, energy diffusion ean occur in two ways. Tho firet is through lattice wibrations, the ngitation of particles (molecules snd atoms) that retain in their equilibrium positions in the lattice but vibrate ‘pgainst neighboring particles. The second is through ice cloctrans moving from one azom to another The latter way is much more efliciont at transferring energy. In metallic solids, there are many free electrons, and energy diffuses more quickly; in nonmetallic solids, there are fewer fro electrons, and enonay diffuses more slowly. The total theemal conduetivity of a solid can be stated as hem ket hy as A, is thermal conductivity due to electron migration, ‘and ky is thermal conduetivity duc to lattice vibrations. ‘is inversely proportional to the electrical resistivity of the material, p,, For a metal with a low p,, the &, term dominates Fa. 8.1 aud hy is negligible. As electrical resistivity inereases, as with alloys, the contribution of the Isttice vibrations, &, becomes significant. An alloy ff two or more metals will generally have a lower ther mal conductivity than any of its component metals. For a nonmetallic solid, the fy, term dominates Bg. 81 ‘The particular lattice arrangement also has a significant Impaet. Well-ordered (erystalline) materials like quart have higher thermal conductivities tian amorphous materials like gloss. Diamond, which has the highest Imown thermal conductivity at room temperature, is highly ordered exystalline solid Liquids and Gases Liquids and gases ean also transfer heat through con- duotion, However, where molecules are more widely spaced, the inovement of particles leads less frequently to interactions with other particles. "The spacing of molecules is closest for a solid, lass close for a. liquid, and widest apart for a gas, Por this reason, liquids yenerally transfer heat throngh conduction less effi Gently than solids do, and gases conduct heat less well than liquids do. From the kinetic theory of gases, the thermal condue- tivity of a gas will vary divectly with the square root of absolute temperature and inversely with the square root of molar mass, Nitrogen, for example, will conduct heat hetter at a higher temperature than it does at s lower temperature. Also, nitrogen will eonduet heat less wll than helin when both gases are at the same temperature, because holium’s molecular woight is less. ‘Tho thermal condue- tivity of a gas is independent of pressure. 83 The thermal conductivity of liquids is not understood as well as that of gases ancl solids. Heat conduetion in a liquid is more complicated than in a gas, because the molecules are more closoly spaced and they exert a sironger intermolecular force fell. & few generalizations can be nmde, however. The thermal conductivity of a liquid generally © decreases with increasing temperature © decreases with increasing molecular weight ‘© is less than tliat of most solids and greater than that fof most gases 4. OTHER THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES. oat transfer analysis requires an understanding, of the properties of matter, particularly those tha eontrol the temperature of a substance. These are called thermo: physical propertios. There are two distinet elasses of thermophysical proper ties. Thermodynamic properties are those that deseribe a substance as it ha a state of equilibrium: thermod| amic properties include density and specific heat (sce See. 24). Trenaport properties aro those that describe a substance when involved in the movernent of mass or ergy; transport properties include thermal conductivity ‘and Einemativ viseosity Volumetric Heat Capacity Some themmophysieal properties ean be combined to provide useful information about a material. For ‘example, the produet of the density, p, and specilie heat, Gis referred to as the roluinetric heat capacity, VHC = pe, 83 VHC is @ thermodynamic property with units of Bru/ft?E (J/m-K). It measures a material's ability to store thermal energy. Solids and liquids often have high densities, so their volumetric heat eapacities are often high as well. Gases, which have low densities generally have low volumettie heat capacities, indicat” ing that they are not well suited for storing thermal ‘Thermal Diffusivity Another example of combined properties i8 thermal dif fasinity, which is material's Chermal conductivity ided by iis volumettic heat capacity. a4 Pe ‘Thermal diffusivity, a. ig a transport property and has units of £/see (1'/s). This property compares the abil- ity of a material to conduct thermal enerzy against its ability to store thermal enorgy and it isa measure of how quickly thermal energy is diffused through a material peed8-4 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL The higher a material's thecmal diffusivity, the more quickly" the material will change temperature when exposes! to a change of temperature in its surroundings. Thermal Expansion ‘Thermal crparsion is. transport property and bes units of 1/°F (1/°C). It is a measure of how mie « material will change in volume in response to a change in tem- peraiire. Ibis, most commonly applied to liquids and ases. The coefficient of valumetrc thermal capension is defined as pot as Vy is the initial volume. 5, FOURIER’S LAW The rate equation that governs heat conduction is Four ter’s (av. Fowrier’s lav’ was developed from experimen. {al observations. AS an example, Imagine an experiment in which a block of known material is insilated om its surfaces, The ends of the block are maintained at two different tomperatures, Ty and. T;, 7; being the greater The tennperat re difference causes heat transfer by con- duction in the positive rdirection The vate of this heat transfer, g., can be measured. ‘The goal of the experiment is to sce how q, is related to three Variables: the temperature difference, AT, the distauice o, dir amd the cross-sectional area, A. To ate the relationships, two of these three vari tables aro hold constant while the third is changed, anci the effect on g, is measured, Performing this experiment shows that the heat transfer rate varies directly with the area and the temperature, and inversely with the change in distance, Written mathornatically ax a(S2) 36 IT the material of the block is changed, the same experi- ment yields the same relationship, but the value of the heat transfor rato changes. The relationship in Eq. 8.6 cam be made into an equality by introducing a coefi- ieot, k that is @ fimetion of the material This coefficient is tho thermal conductivity of the material (soe Sec, 8.3). The heat rste is fonnd by evale ating Eq, 8.7 as Ax approaches zero. uit ve The minus sign in Hq. 8.8 signifies that the heat transfer oceurs in the direction of decreasing temperature, The heat thax, 2 i found by dividing the host transfer rate hy the area a=g= 09 Por stendy-state conditions, with a lincar temperature distribution, the temperature gradient ean be expressed ns ar tea a0 ‘The Heat hx equation, Ba, 89, then bees a= (22) — -2(42) an ‘The graph in Pig. 81 represents a wall with one imensional hat transfer. The herizontal axis represents horizontal position within the wall, and the veecieal axis represents emmperataure. 7) is the temperature at the wall surface nearest the source of heat, and ‘Th is the ternper- ature of the opposite wall surface. The line between these {wo points shows how teraperat ure vavies within the wall Figure 8.1 One-Dimensional Conaucten n> 4. eo he As Eq. 8.8 Indicates, heat flux is directional, with the direction normal to the eroseseetional rea. Because heat flux has a direction as well as a magnitude, it is a vector quantity. Therelore, a general statement of Fourier’s law can be written as a2 . MULTIDIMENSIONAL CONDUCTION In auder to make use of Fouzier’s law in solving a con- Guetion problem, the temperature distribution must be known, The temporature distribution shows how thetemperature varies with position in the material being analyze “To determine an equation for the tempenatute distribue tion ofa medinm, a differential control volume is defines! for which an encray balance can be performed. So that the temperature at a point within the medium can be determined, Jacations must be specified with an appro priate coordinate system, which may be rectangular cylindrical, or spherical Rectangular Coordinates Figure 8.2 defines the differential control volume of wntcrial. Tho conduetion rates that oeear are perpen dicular to the control surfaces, and from Fouricr’s law these rates are a. function of position within the control volume (2,4 2) Figure 82 Diferental Corto! Volume kar Heat Dison Aceaysis col fw A Taylor series can be used fo represent a function value fata point. ‘Thus, the conduction heat rates at a distance through the control volume of z + dx ean be written asa Taylor series expansion, neglecting the higher orcer terms. As dc represents a very small change int Iocation, the higher order terms will not signifieantly impact the ecuracy of the Taylor soxies 85 The rate of internal energy generation is given by Bg, 8.16. n= ddedyd In Bq. 815, 718 the energy generation raie per unit of vohune. An enemy storage term 8 defined to account for a change in the amount of energy stored in the differential control volume or Ba = pep Gh de dy dz an ‘The conservation of energy relationship (the fist law of thermodynamics) for the differential control volume is + Bye — Ba 8 ‘The conduction process will be part of the By and Bayt torms. Substituting Eq. $.13 through Eq. 8.17 ito Eq, 8.18, then rearranging, gives Wet Gy + G+ Hedy de — dese ~ Gyady ~ Bette i 24, a = pe, der dy tt tr 16g OF ay te ~ Fk Aa, 4 — 24, SE dy SE det pdrdy de By “Ye ey ar " ey OF ae dy de 216 Each conduction vate term can be evaluated using Pourier's law, ge nkdy de ean ra . = -kdeae 2 1 i er #2 = bdr ay exe Substituting Eq, 8.20 through Eq. 8.22 into Eq. 8.19 and dividing out the differential control volume dimensions 2 (42%) 52,20), 2 (422 E09) +2 (02) +2 oc, OF 823 Pee OE Equation 8.28 is the heat affusion equation. The sol tion of this equation will give the temperature distribu- tion of a material, T(x y, 2 f), as a funetion of time. Equation 8.23 states that the not heat rate into a unit volume plus the volumetric rate of thermal heat gener tion must equal the rate of change of thermal energy stored within the control volume. Equation 8.23 can be simplified in varions ways based on some commonly used assumptions and conditions, peed8-6 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SYSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL For example, the thermal conductivity of a material is often assumed to be constant; in that Situation Eq, 8.23 becomes OT PT PT y_1 OT OF Oy? | ae Ea at aot Equation 8.24 is known as the Fourier-Biot equation. Under steady-state conditions, cent, and in that ease Eq, 8.23 becomes 10 storage changes can SOD +ROF) RCD rine eas +S (* 5) Roe fi Equation 8.26 is the diffusion equation, IF steady-state conditions exist with no storage, then Eq, 8.26 becomes (« a0) +2 (002) =0 ae Equation 8.27 is the Loplace equation. For 8 one- BUD +E nensional, steady-state eoodition with no heat eration, Bq, 8.27 can be simplified further to 028 Equation 828 implies that heat flux is constant (that is, dijt/dz=0) in the direction of the heat transfer. Cylindrical Coordinates Figure 8.3 shows the differential form of the control volume for a cylinder The heat flux vector exprossed in evlindrieal coordinates using Fourier's law is = -KVT = 329 The heat flux components in the radial, circumferential, ‘and axial directions are expressed as af =e ok 400 af = -K(4) g si or oo aso Figure 8.3 Diferantial Contra! Volume for Gyinarioa! Coordinetos Aitor application of the energy balance to the control Vohune of Pig. 8.3, the genoval form af Ue het diffusion ecquation for a eylinder is 12,97) 1 2 far toa) te («Z) +P (92) i= oe, 399 Spherical Coordinates Figure 8.4 shows the differential form of the control volume for a sphere Por a sphere, the general form of the heat flux vector is cope (Pas) gy ee ata) 334Figure 84 Diferentol Cortol Volume ier Spheres! Coorafnatce The heat wx components in the radial, polar, and sulmuthal directions are 35 37 Afier application of the energy balance to the differen tial contrel volume of Fig. 8.4, the general form of the hheat equation for a sphere Is oi AD) y 1D ( oT myb,1 * Rata hat ted ad Figure 8.8 Conauctve eat Tranoier Through © Compose Plane Wat a ps Tas t cote fui ata hot fluid ALT. sf Tea The system's heat transfer can also bo written in terms ofeach element's resistance and temperature difference. 058 When working with composite systems with multiple resistances, it is often convenient to define an over heat transfer coefficient, U. from the equation = UAT 655 AT is the overall temperature difference, in this case Trea ~ Toor The system’s total resistance can be sta- tod as Fawat 60 Prom Ea. 8.56 ond Ea. 8.59, Toe = Trea _ yar: Thageat AGTH ea) eerExpanding the resistance term in Eg, 8.61 gives 1 iy Te, a mite aa aco Figure 8.9 shows heat flow through parallel material Inyers. Despite the obvious potential for heat transfer in two directions, one-dimensional heat transfer is assumed 69 that approximate solutions can bo obtained, Figure 89 Paraie! Wall Conductive Heat Teansfor rmatoral A Ag & hot uid cold fie aT; aT material B As ks The heat transfor in this situation ean be expressed as N-% h-t at w= Ta (1- os c-m(L+d) os ‘The total resistance, then, is AD A, © J.t Ra By ly Rat Re eee Race Another version of a composite wall is shown in Fig. 8.10, which shows a sories-parallel configuration, 8-11 Figure 8.10 Series Parallel Composite Wall Conductive Heat Transtar rot tad aT, ‘Assuming that the hoat transfer is onp-dimonsional, tho resistance of the wall is shown with an electrical eitcuit analogy. The thermal resistance can be written as Ry Rana + Rao + Rap Rank Rant Rac = Raat + Rsv 365 ‘The individual resistances ean be weitten as Pas Ey 265 Rave bor 868 Ra, 269 11. THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE In analyzing the situations in Fig. 8.8, Fig. 8.9, and Fig. 8.10, in which multiple materials are in contact with each other, no consideration was given to the inter- face of the materials. ‘Tho analysis of thoce examples assumed complete contact at the interface, peed8-12 THERMAL_AND FLUIDS SVSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL In seality, the interface between two materials will con- tain voids due to surface roughness, Becarse these voids contain air, they net as insulation. The temperature drop across a material interface ean be significant. ‘The temperature change can be attuibuted to the der ‘mal contact resistance, fy cq Which is defined as Ta-Tn Racor 8.70 % The total contact resistance ean be thought of as two sistances working in parallel, the resistance of the cone tact Iccations and the resistance of the gaps. The total contact area is usually quite small, and mest of the resistance cames from the aitflled gaps The total resistance is influenced by the contact pres- sure of the materials and by the type of fluid in the veid volume, Greater contact pressure ineveases the amount of material in contact. and reduces the void volume, reducing contact resistance. Filling the void volume with a thermally eonduetive liquid (also known as ther- mai grease) will also redluce contact resistance. ‘The liquid is applied to the surfaces before they are placed in contaet with cach other. Alternatively, @ malleable metal foil, such as tin, silver, copper, nickel, or alumi- um, may be placed between the pxo contact surfaces The foil deforms to cover the surface deformities, inereasing the contact area and reducing voids, 12, ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION THROUGH A HOLLOW CYLINDER Cylinders and spheres are treated as having, one dimensional heat transfer, as their temperature gradiont is often in the rndinl direction. Figure S11 shows hollow cylinder with inner and outer susfaces exposed to fuids at different temperatures, For the purposes of analysis, assume steady-state operation (thiid flow through the pipe) and one-dimensional heat transfer in the radial dineetion Applying the ascumptions of steady-state operation, no hheat generation, and one-dimensional heat transfer in the radial direetion to the heat, diffusion equation (see Eq. 8.83) results in Elie S2) <0 on Prom Fourier’ law (see Eg. 88), the rate at which beat is transferred across a cylindrical surface in a solid is aT pase oP 2 a SE = nanny £2 a7e In comparing Eq. 8.71 and Eq. 8.72, the heat transfer rate ean be stated as constant in the rodial direction Equation 8.71 ean be solved by integrating and applying Figure 8.11 Conductive Neat Tansler Though a Hollow Cylinder at Ty “cold fuict fombiont surroundingsl Teh WW To he Te Ton 1 ne 1 Benth Fant — Fen, boundary conditions. The result of integrating Bg, 8.71 (with £ constant) is T(r) = Inr+ Co 073 From Fig 8:11, the boundary conditions sre Tle, and T(ra) = T.a. Applying the boundary condition Eq, 8.78 yields expressions for T,, and Ty. Poy = Cluny + C2 376 Tap = Cylnry + Ce 27s From Eq. 8.75, yo— Cyan 076 By. 8.76 into Rg. 8.74 gives Pa = Clary + Tra Cylrg oe ste ae in ituting Eq, 8.77 into Eq. 8.76, C= Te 878Substituting the values for C; and C; from Eq. 8.77 and Eq. 8.78 into Eq, 8.73, 370 The heat transfer rate can be fond by using Rg. 8 The derivative of temperature with respect to radius can be found from Eq. 8.79, =2nbh( Toa ~ Tar) a= Werk) SF = 2m LAUT a0 From Eq. 8.48 anil Bq. 8.80, the thermal resistance of a hollow cylinder is eet Reveona The total resistance & the composite of the convective hheat transfer at the surface of the eylinder and the conidietive heat cransfer (arog the eylinder Figure 8.12 shows part of a eylinder with muliple mate: tials of constsuction, Steady-state heat transfer through a multilayered evlin- Grical wall can be analyzed in a method similar to a composite plane wall. Resistance is addled in series for ‘The heat transfer rate can he each additional layer expressed as 2eLhy Babe The heat transfor can also be expressed as a Function of the overall heat transfor coefficient Ail Taca) 889 8-13 Figure 8.12 Composite Oyindsr Conductive Heat Transier cold fie Bt Tagg hho uid ethyl Combining Eq. 8.82 and Bq. 883, with Ay equal to aril, WAi( Teg ~ Tova) = ine 1, n,n Bari * Dalby * PeLby Equation 884 defines 1 in terms of the inside surface area, Ay. Any of the other material surface areas can be used to define Uas well. WA = 085 Ay = Usdy = Ura = 13. ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION THROUGH A SPHERE Figure 8.13 shows part of the section of a hollow sphere vith imor and outer surfaces exposed to fluids at differ- font temperacines. peed8-14 cold fuid Bah hot mud D attuty f ry ' / b H bynes Toa Tot Taz Tua 1 Brat Ply From Eq. 8.38, the general form for the heat diffusion equation for a sphere is 2 os (0 SP) + aaa 06 (99) 1_ Bp ing2T) sp oe,27 aap + area atone) +4 oe SE eae Alvor applying the assumptions of steady-state opera- tion and Gne-dimensional heat transfor in the radial direction, Bg, 8.86 becomes 2 2. (gree eer ar Or To determine the temperature distribution, Eq. 8.87 can De integrated iwice. Assuming constant thermal condue- tivity and integrating onee 888 THERMAL_AND FLUIDS SVSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL The partial derivatives become derivatives as there only one heat transfer direction being considered. Inte- rating a second time, 659 1 40 the inmer radius, to tions can be satisfied, Normalizing Hq, 8.89 with resp sure that the boundary con ives t+ Os 30 The boundary conditions for the sphere are tr Ta = Gee: =Ci4+Ge ost & sn Solving Eq. 8.92 for Cy, tS oes Substituting Eq, 8.93 into Eq. 8.91 and s T= Oi+| 7. Dante as rams Solving Eq, $91 for C, and substitutng Eq. 8:94, = Ta Cs = 1-723 a 1Both Eq. 8.94 and Eq. 895 can be substituted into Fa. 890. ‘a Te 3.96 Pourier’s law can be used to express the beat transfer For a sphere, Fourier’ Inve in differential form 3 ar a aE ar =A TE = kan!) 297 The area, A, is defined as that nonnal to the heat transfer. As q- is constant, Eq, 897 can be rearranged afore ‘The left side of Bq. 8.98 becomes ef e-@ I a With constant thermal conductivity, the right side of Eq. 8.98 becomes be fd anh, + 389 KPT) 8.100 Substituting Bq, 8.99 and Pq. 8.100 back into Bq. 8.98 she 2) (21) a wty tr) ank(T.1 — Ts2) TT 4101 The thermal resistance for a sphere ean be derived from Eq. 8101 Rincon 6.102 44, CONDUCTION WITH HEAT GENERATION In this section, steady-state conduction will again be con- sidoree, but nove with the acklitional effect of heat: gem eration within the boundary of the system, A common 8-15 beat generation process is the conversion of heat from electrical to thermal energy (resistance heating). The rate fat which energy is generated by passing a current, [ ‘larough a modiuan of oleeirical resistance, Kis ga = PR, aos Assuming that the power generation is uniform throuzh- out the medium of volume, V, the volumetric heat geu- fration rate is 8.104 (Other examples of energy generation include exothermic chemieal reactions and nuclear reactions in nuclear fuel rods. An endothermic chemical reaction would act as a beat sink, Por solids with uniform heat generation, the maximum toraperature obtained will occur at the point farthest from the cuter surfaces. For a wall, the location of maximum temperature is the midplane, In a cylinder the maximum temperature is at the centerline. In a sphere, the maximun temperature is at the center, Plano Wall with Heat Generation Figure 8.14 shows a plane wall which contains an energy source generaling a uniform amount of heat per anit volume. With surface temperatures constant, and with a eon stant valuo for thermal conduetivity, f; the heat diffu. sion equation (see Bq, 8.28) beeares £2449 ers latezation sve Iie ff wef] ra-(B)rsce- ane ‘The boundary conditions are M-L)= 7. and TU)= T,2. These boundary conditions can be substituted into Eq. 8.106 to give aN. eve, Bcwrrecn+c asm + Cb+Cr 8.108 Solving Eq. 8.107 for G2 gives ta (4)eve =ta+(Berou tes peed8-16 THERWAL AND FLUIDS SVSTEME REFERENCE MANUAL Figure 8.14 Pane Wal with Untorm Internal Heat Generation xa No cold uid ! old fie | i bts | Pa € g Te} cold fluict RN cold fluid () symmetrical wall conditions Substituting Ba. 8.109 into Ea. 8.108 and solving for C --(\psc (i) p Ta~-(A)P+ ett tat (Aeros Teta a 2 e110 Substituting Eq. 8.110 into Eq. 8.107 and solving for Cs, ert Substituting Eq, 8.110 and Eq, 8.111 into Eg, $.106, reom-(i)e + (Mae ae Tio To ane To find the heat ux, Eq. 8.112 can be used with Pourier's law, Because of the heat generation, the heat flux is no louger independent of = IF bath surfaces are ‘maintained at, the same temperature, ‘f,, the tempera: vate distribution becomes eymmetrical about the wall’s midplane, When 7, and Ty, are equal, Fq. 8112 n= )(0-B) The maxinaum temperature exists at the midplane eng ana ans Therefore, the midplane of the wall ean be considered an adinbatie plane. Often, the surface temperature is unknown, bub the temperature of the adjoining fluid, T, is known. ‘To find the surface tomperarure, a relationship boeween the ‘two temperatures is needs], This can be developed using a surface energy balance. Applying the first law of thermodynamies to the surface, in Baa = 0 e116 Applying Ea. 8.116 to the control surface at = with conduction and convective heat transfer modes present, any To find the temporature differential with respect to x, the derivative of Eq. 8.119 is nected Li Z aneSubstituting Bq, 8.118 into Eq, 8117 and solving for the surface temperature gives -(-4) = MT, Toe) ane Radial Systems with Heat Generation Figure 8.15 shows a radial eylinder with uniform inter: nial heat generation. With steady-state conditions, the rate of heat generation within the cylinder must equal the rate at whieh heat is transferred from the cylinder surface across the indicated contzol volume to the sus rounding medium (watural or forced convection). This condition rosults in a surfuee temperature at « constant value, The heat diffsion equation is used to develop the equation for the temperature distribution within the evlinder, nterral Heat Generation Figure 8.15 Solis Ovinser with Ui _ control eK weluene cold fluid ae For steady-stote heat transfor in the raslial diteetion and constant thermal conductivity, Bq, 8.38 reduces to 4120 a ca Equation 8.120 can be roarranged and intograted to obtain 8-17 ‘A second integration gives #-€3)-/2 Tr)= a1 TE To determine the constants of Eq. 8.121 and Bq. 8.122. the boundary conditions @7/dr|,—u=0 and T(r.) = 7, can be used, ‘The first boundary condition states that at the center of the cylinder (r=) the rate of temperature Change is zero. The second boundary condition states that the surface temperature at the ou radius, ris 7. The first boundary condition, applied to Eq. 8121, indi- cates that CG; is vero, Applying ,=0 and the second boundary condition 10 Eq. 8.122 The temperature distribution in Eg, 8.122 can now be coxprossed as (itt) sone, GPC the temperatnre of the external fuid, a surface energy balance (see Fa. 8.116) ean be exaployerd to obtain T= e124 =MT,— Tes) e125 Equation 8,121 can be used to determine the derivative of the lemperature with respeet to the radius at the location stated av Bena dr... \ 4k Life is [ee@=[-) —) ' peed8-18 THERMAL_AND FLUIDS SVSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL A similar analysis can bo performed for a sphere; the results for the surface temperature are Boca rT, +Ts e128 45. HEAT TRANSFER FROM EXTENDED SURFACES Figure $.16(a) shows a fluid moving by a solid surface Because the fluid is rot stationary, ifthe surface and the fluid are at different temperatures heat, transfer will ceeur both by conduction and by convection Figure 8.16 Bare and fives Suracos 8 oo ae = PAT, ~ Tol (a) bare surtece (0) finned surtace “There ave soveral ways to increase the heat teansfor rate, Dut nat all may be practieal. The rate of heat transfer is governed by Newton's law of cooling (see Bq. 8.50). a= hA(T,— Tx) 2.129 Assume the surface temperature of the solid, fixed constant. One way to increase the rate of heat transfer, ¢ is to increase the beet transfer coefficient, 4, such as by inereasing the volocity of the moving uid, Another way is to increase the temperature difference hy reducing the fuid temperature, 7... However, chans- ing either of these variables generally takes additional equipment, such as a pump or a chiller, ‘The cast of pitzehasing the equipment, as well us the increased oper- ating costs that will result froma the higher energy nsage, will often make this a cost-prohibitive or otherwise impractical option. A third way to increase qin Eq. 8.129 is to increase the ‘surface area of the solid, A. This is done by adding extended surfaces, or fins, to the solid. Figure 8.16(b) shows the same solid after fins have heen arided, Fins are mannfactured from thin and highly eonductive raterials, either by extruding or pressing the fin shape. ‘Adding fins will increase the heat transfer rate, but only upto. point. IF too many fins are added, fuid motion % Impeded near the base of the fins and the heat transfer coefficient begins to drop, Because the goal of adding fins i to inmerease heat trans. fer to or from a solid, the Cermnal conductivity of the fi ‘material is an important factor. The more slowly heat diffuses along the length of the fin, the more slowly heat vill be transferred betereen the solid surface and the fluid. In theoretical applications, the thermal conduetiv= ity of the fin is infinite, so that every pact of the fin is at the sane temperatures this results in the mnaxcimum heat transfer. In reality, however, thermal conduetivity § finite and. there is always some temperature variation ‘between the base of the fin and its tip. This eoneept will be used later to develop an expression for fin efficiency Hoat Transfor Analysis The fast law of thermodynamics can be used to analyze the effect of a fin on heat transfer. The frst step is to ictermine the temperature distribution along the fin, To determine this, an energy balanco of a differential clement of the fin is needed. Figure 8.17 shows a fin snd ‘a differential section. To simplify the analysis, the fol- lowing assumptions will be made. © Hea transfer is one-dimensional (even though the conduction is two-dimensional) © Temperature changes are much larger in the longi- tudinal direction than in the transverse diroction (based on a long, thin fn) © Opovation is steady state. ‘© Thormal conductivity i constant, © Radiation effects are nealigible. © There & no heat generation, © The heat transfor coefficient is uniform across the surface of the fin © The applica differential olen of the conservation of energy t the rit is given by Buy, 8.130. = Qavas + Wom 2.130FUNDAWENTAL HEAT TRANSFER 8-19 Figure 8.17 Difecential Control Volume Analysis of an Extended ‘Simplifying, Ory. daar (1) (a deta, ae de (A, Equation $.136 represents the general form for one- dimensional heat transfer for an extended surface. Once boundary conditions are known, this equation can be developed further to provide an expression for tempera: \ ture disiribution as a funetion of x The particular geometry of the fin will also affect the development and solution of Eq, 8.136, peed 16. FINS WITH UNIFORM GROSS SECTIONS & ee Qe Figure 8.18 shows two examples of straight fins with - tform cos-seetional areas, Hach fin is attached to a Ingo with surluee temperature To, and each fin extends into a uid From Fourier’ lw (800 Fa. 88), the heat transfor in the sent mene Figure 8.18 Siraigni Fine vith Unvoun Cross Section > ey anna, a2 a9 ay Ty The cross-sectional area, A,, can vary with a. The heat —— conduction at tho location 2+ die | doy dy, tee at ME a ere Substituting Eq. 8.131 twice into Eq. 8.132, L av ad ar x tuum bh Ee (4,22) ae ace (eevinderty “The convective heat ransfr rate eas be written as ‘i L ad igs = ALT = Ts) ase oot % | anf *8 “The differentia! surfuo area of the cloment under con- siderations dA, Equation 8131, By 8.133, and marten Bid Uiaten At Ee 4 | rf ae ta, #2 . le dz L $hdA(T .t86 (b) finned surtace8-20 THERMAL AND FLUIDS SVSTEME REFERENCE MANUAL The surface area of one rectangular fin is A= P= uns sie the p ase P is the perimeter of the fin ross section (twice the ‘widit ofthe fin plus twice the thicknes), an Is the distance from the base. ‘The cross-sectional area, A, i constant and the surface area differential is equal to P, $0 Fay 8.136 can be simplified to €7_ (1) (WP oF DHc Tx) =0 8.198 To simplify further, a term for excess temperature can be defined. G(x) = Tis) — To. e140 Bocinse Tis constant, d6/ drs equal to dT/de: Equa tion 8.189 ean be simplified by defining nas _ AP. EA mv 81 Substituting m? and the differential of the exeess tem- perature into Ea. 8.189 gives £6 mo=0 8.142 ae on 8.142 is a lineor, homozeneous, second-order differential equation. From calculus, the solution to sack fan equation Is am exponential function or a constant umltiple of such function. The general solution to Eq, 8.1412 is of the form (2) = Cie™ + Cae™ 3149 The constants. C; and G, can be determined using the boundary conditions at the base and tip of the fin. One condition will speeify the temperatine at the hase af the fin (7=0) (0) = T.- Ts 6, ane The sovondl condition will be at the fin tip (r= L). There fre several possible situations Boundary Condition: Infinite Length Fin The first case to be considered is that of a very long fin, where as approaches infinity and ®, approaches zero, the temperature distribution and Neat transfer rate become (0) = 0) -T aes From Eq. 8.145, 02) must equal zero for 2 1. There- fore, tho right side of Bg. 8.143 must also equal zero for 2=L, As L approaches infinity, x doos also, so approaches infinity and &~" approaches zexo, The right side of Eg. 8.143, then, can only equal xeco if Cy ccauals ze. For the boundary coniition in Pa. 8.144, with the excess temperature equal to ‘I, at 2=0, Eq. 8.143 can be evaluated to determine tho value of C. a ) = Cael G 0.146 a ‘The solution to tho temperature distribution in Eq, 8.143 is therefore (2) = D+ me ae? The derivative of tho right side of Bq. 8.147 is Syme", ch when evaluated at 20 simplifies to ~@.m. The transfer, then, is = -kA(—0,m) = 6k Aer = Oi hey = OV KPA, 0.148 Boundary Condition: Adiabatic (Insulated) Fin Tip ‘The second boundary condition to consider is thatthe tip is adiabatic, This condition can be written as at en? e109 Using the geneval solution (see Eq. 8.143) and applying Eq. 8.149 gives 7) 6.150 Using Ba. 8.150 with Eq, 8.144 will allow for the gol tion of the constants, The temperature ratio then becomes 6 _ cock m(L— 5) | a ash, Bae To determine the total heat transler from the fin, apply Fourier’s law at the fin base to give nA, a 0.182 i a|,-4Equation 8.151 and Eq, 8.152 can be combined to give the equation for the heat transfer rate, ap = x VAPEA,(tanh mL) e188 The difference between grin Bq, 8-148 and in Kg. 8.153 Js the factor of tanh mds, whieh approaehes a value of fas T becomes very large. Boundary Condition: Known Temperature at Fin Tip If the temperatuze at the fin tip is known, then the second houndary condition is known, 1.) =6,. By sol- ving for C, and Cy, the expression for the temperature dlisiribution is a finest) a sinh ml cums fe enor a8 Boundary Condition: Convective Heat Transfer from Fin The next boundary condition to consider is convective hheat transfer from the fin tip. The result of an energy Dalance arounel the fin tip is ad( see Using Eq, 8.140, Bq. 8.150 can be simplified to 0) 2 187 Equation 8.1413 can be substituted into Eq. 8.144 to give (0) = Cre") + Czern Gn C4 Oe 158 Equation 8.143 can be substituted into Eq. 8.157 to give | = WOM + Crem 8-21 ‘After solving for C, and Cy, and some manipulation of Eq, 8.159 (not shown), the iemperature distribution ean be shown as cosh m(— 1) ale a a, nk “ 6.160 cosh mL + sink ab, Equation 8.160 indicates that as zinereases, the magni- tude of the temperature gradient decreases. ‘This is due to lnereasing convection losses from the fin, which reduce the coninction heat transfer. This result is shown in Fig. 819. Figure 8.19 Fin Co Host Vranstor heat tanafor hoat transfor Jon wih Cenduetion ang Corweetion vot. tom tn a oT PRATT) o E 1 . L distance, x Fonrior’s law can be used to determine the total heat tcansfer from the fin. Applying Fourier’s law at the fin base gives ar wm ppexind, HE ae = = BAT do 161 a oe sing the derivative of Ey. 8.160, the equation for tem- peratnce distribution, Eq, 8.161 becomes Equation §.162 con be difficult: to use. An alternate aualysis can be performed for these conditions by mak- ing use of the leat transfer rate equation for an inst = yen) lated fin tip (see Bq. 8.153) with the length corrected as xe) 2159 Foes 08 peed8-22 THERMAL_AND FLUIDS SVSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL Hore, A, is the cross-sectional area of the fin and Pis the perimeter of the fin at the tip, For a rectangular fin, the corrected length is Lemamgtetn = +t aca For a cylindrical fi, the corrected lenge is ig j Leavtindvicaltin = E 7 8.165 The corrected longi method gives accurate results when the variation of temperature near the fin tip is sunall (nF > 1) and the heat transfer coelficient at the tip of the fin is similar to that at the lateral surface. The corrected lenath method simply increases the lenath of the adiabatic tip to account. for the tip area, 17. FIN PERFORMANCE Fins are used vo enhance heat transfor, and their use umist be justified. The Fn itself will provide a conduction resistance to the heat transfer from the original surface, tadcling a fin docs not guarantep ani inerease in heat transfer, Two common measures of fin performance are fin efficiency and fin effectiveness Efficiency The theoretical maximum heat transfer rate would be achieved if the entire surface of the fin were ab the base terperature. In roality, afin has somo amount of con- duction resistance, and a temperature gradient will exist along the fim The fin efficiency, np is the ratio of the actual fin beat tansfer rate to this theoretical maxinnim eo Ah 166 ue 6 temperature differential av is equal to T)—Ty. and represents the maximum lable for heat transfer The fin efficiency for an adiabatic Gp can be wrltren using Eq. 8:153 and Ba, 8.168, gy = ctl = EV EPER (tam m0) _ tants nt 0 as PLA, mb 67 Equation 8.167 indicates that the efficiency of the fin ill vary between gero and one os the value of L changes from zero to infinity. Fin cfficiency for tho other situations described in See. 8.15 can be found using the equitions developed tarlier, such as Py. 8.162. Alternatively, accurate results can be obtained using Eq. 8.153 with a corrected fin length, For a rectangular fin, the corrected fin length is 2.168 The corresponding fin heat transfer rate and fin efft= ciency equations are PIA (tah rab.) 8.169 1 alg owe ‘Studios show that if hé/i < 0.2, where is the thickness Df the Bin, this approximation Is accurate (with an error of less than 1%). For a rectangular fin, 6, and for a cylindrical fin, =D. If the fim width, 2 is much larser than the thiekness, t, che perimeter ean be considered as 2u. Thus, [RP mb = Vg ) eat A corrected term for the fin profile aron can be intro duced as Ap = beh 72 Equation 8.171 can be modified to incorporate Eq. 8.172. (eb. mL L Va, “) 2.173 8.170, fin elffiviency ean be expressed as at fanction of m2, as defined in Bq, 8.173. Fin efficiency soph aro shown in Fig, 8.20, for roctangular fins, and Fig. 821, for annular fins Figure 8.20 Foctang.ar Fn 10 | = rectangular convex parabolic oa —srangulae concave porabolic fin efciency, os. 10 29 te For any type of fin, effieiney values ean be obtained from the appropriate graph. The overall fin heat trans- fer raie ean then be calculated as 4p = Nyfaae = WghAt amaFigure 821 Anrula Fn Evisenoy 10 os fin effcieney, ay The surface areas for the varions types of fins are as fallows Ay =2wby [rectangular fn] a7 Ay= 2/2 +5 (img e176 Ay = 2.05uy/L +5 lpaabolie fal a7 p= 2n(o— 1) [annua Bn ave When selecting fins, there are a nunther of aspects to consider with respect to efficiency. Triangular fins axe typically more efficient and contain less material than retangular fins. Longer fins inerease heat teansfer, but also increase the cost of material. Finefficiency decreases ns Sn length mnereases because of the reduction in fin temperature. A fin efficiency below 60% is typically not justified economically. Most fins used in applications have efficiencies groater than 90% Fin Effectiveness Another measure of fin performance is fin effectiveness : This is the ratio of the heat transfer rates with anc without the fin. % RAB g 2.179 Acs the cross-sectional area at the base of the fin. The lntuer the fin effectiveness, the more the heat transfer is enhanced. When ¢, isequl to 1, there is no benefit fr adding fins. If ey is Jess than 1, then adding fins will rednee heat transfer, acting as insulation, In actual applications, ey is generally at least 2. In regard to the boundary conditions reviewed carlier, the appropriate form of the heat translar rate can be used, 8-23 When considering the case of infinite fin length, fin effectiveness is OnV/WPE OO Be VIA, From Eq. 8.180, it can bo seen that fin effectiveness 38 affected most by a few key variables meter to that of the fin eross- should be tnasiraized. Thin fins © Tho ratio of the fin ps sectional area, P/A, are preferable. © Thermal conductivity, &, should be maxinnized. © The convective heat transfor coefficient, h, should be minimized, This value is typieally lower for gases than for liquids. For example, in an automobile radiator, fins are placed on the vapor side of the heat transfer beeause this side has the lower convective hieat transfer coefficient peed ‘The boundary condition of an adiabatie tip can be used to deiermine the maxima practical lengtin for a fin The graph of tanh ml. (part of Eq. 8.155) in Fig. 822 shows the diminishing returns from increasing fir length Figure 822 Hoat Warstor Have w Ss efficiency, fi 10 +20. ~«30~«OOSC mL Nearly all the possible heat transfer (98%) has ocencred when mL roaches 2.3. Fin length, then, is typically imited to 3 bs 81 Purther increases in fin length bring only small gains in heat transfer, and maximum heat transfor is reached when mL reaches 5.0. As mf, increases from 2.5 to 5.0 the heat transfer increases by just 1.9%. This is gener~ ally not enouzh of an imerease in periormanee to justify doubling the length of the fin.8-24 THERMAL_AND FLUIDS SVSTEMS REFERENCE MANUAL Equation 8.174 can be substituted into Eq. 8.179 to show this relationship between fin efficieney and fin effectiveness. ayha 82 Total Fin Heat Transfer Efficioney The total fin heat transfer efficiency, no takes into recount the effects of multiple fins and the base surface. ww eux RAD ons m In Bo, 8.183, q and A, are the total heat transfer rate and the total exposed area, respectively. of the finned rnd unfinned surfaces. The maximmuta beat transfer rate ‘would occ if the entire fin sueface were maintained at Ty If the aurface areas are separated into the base and fin areas, the total heat transfer can be written as Had AiG, + Ayn, = ALA ~ Ay), — hAynyb Ay — Ay — Ayn Bs — ya (Ae At Ay nap =aa(i-(2)n-m)a Ap here is the total surface area of all fins, not just a single fin. Equation 8.184 can be substituted into Eq, 8.183 to give From Bq. 8.185, an increase in finned area, 4p will cause the total surface efficiency, ny to decrease, However, the same increase may couse the overall heat transfor rato, q. to increase due to the resulting inerease fn votal area, Ay ‘This analysis has not considered contact resistance. If the fins are an integral part of the wall, then eontact sistance is not a factor. However, if che fins are attached to the base surface with welds or an adhesive, contact resistance can affect heat transfer 18, TIME-DEPENDENT HEAT CONDUCTION In come situations, the temperature of the objoct being studied varies with time as well as location. For example, hot metal sphero is taken from a furnace and exposed to the ambient air, Heat will be transferred from the sphere to the air by both conveetion and radiation. Heat transfer by conduction will also occur within the sphere as its surface cools. The heat transfer will eontinne until a steady-state condition exists between the metal sphere ‘and the air The heat conduction equation can be applied to time dependent situations like this, but the resulting equa- tions are difficull to solve. There are simpler methods of analyzing time-dependent heat conduction, such as the luraped eapacitance mothod. Lumped Capacitance Method In the humped capacitance method, it is assumed that at any given moment ducing the heat transer process all parts of te solid ate at the sane temnperabure. In other words, the temperature gradient within the solid is regarded as negligible. With this assumption, the tem- perature of any’ part of the solid becomes a function of time only. Heat transfer with no temperature gradient, of course implies infinite thermal conduetivity, whieh is not pos. sible in reality. Nevertheless, in a situation where the rvsistance (o conduction within the solid is rich sinaller than the resistance to heat seansfor between the solid and its surroundings, analysis ean be simplified without a significant loss in accuracy by assuening that the perature is uniform throughout the solid To Mustrate this concept, Fig, 8.28 shows a plane The inner suafece of the wall is maintained et a teraper- ature of 7,., while the outor surface is exposed 10 a fluid at a temperatuze of T., which is less than Ty. The temperature of the onter surface will be some temper ture, Ta, such that Te < Tea < Ton smorlynatnies, applied to the surface under steady-state conditions, can be written as The first lav of th (Pa-?, = Teo) 2.186 e187 The term AL/k is a dimensionless quantity called the Biot number and abbroviated Bi, ‘The Biot number compares the temperature drop within a solid to the temperature drop between the solid and the survownd- ng uid. As shown by Fig. 8.23, when the Biot number is much less thar L, itis reasonable to assume a uniform temaperature distribution across the solic.