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1. General Characteristic
The lead-acid battery has been a successful article of commerce for over a
century. Its production and use continue to grow because of new applications for
battery power in energy storage, emergency power, and electric and hybrid
vehicles for which it provides the energy for engine starting, vehicle lighting, and
engine ignition (SLI). This battery system is also used extensively in telephone
the power source for mining and material-handling equipment. The wide use of
the lead-acid battery in many designs, sizes, and system voltages is accounted for
by the low price and the ease of manufacture on a local geographic basis of this
battery system. The lead-acid battery is almost always the least expensive storage
battery for any application, while still providing good performance and life
characteristics.
There have been many improvements in lead-acid battery design and charger
battery has a high electrical turnaround efficiency, 75 to 80%, which makes the
plate batteries are capable of energy densities greater than 40 Wh/ kg, and a
horizontal-plate design with higher energy and power densities have found use in
traction and fork lift applications. Modified lead-acid batteries are being
investigated for both electric and hybrid-drive vehicles. The worlds largest
energy-storage battery system was finished in late 1988. This 40-MWh battery,
located in Chino, Calif., uses individual industrial-size lead-acid cells in series and
parallel connection to make a 10-MW system delivering energy into the utility
grid at 2000 V and 8000 A for 4 hours. AC to DC conversion is built into the
system. This battery operated for more than a decade as a demonstration project.
At the other extreme, small individual lead-acid cells and batteries are now
available with quick connects for use in small electric appliances and electronics
become commercially available in the past few years, for consumer and electronic
applications.
2. Chemistry Characteristic
The lead-acid battery uses lead dioxide as the active material of the positive
negative active material. The physical and chemical properties of these materials
are listed in Table 23.5.5 Typically, a charged positive electrode contains both -
PbO2 is more positive than that of -PbO2 by 0.01 V. The form also has a larger,
slightly lower in capacity per unit weight; it does, however, promote longer cycle
life. Neither of the two forms is fully stoichiometric. Their composition can be
represented by PbOx, with x varying between 1.85 and 2.05. The introduction of
the active material precursor consists of a series of mixing and curing operations
using leady lead oxide (PbO + Pb), sulfuric acid, and water. The ratios of the
reactants and curing conditions (temperature, humidity, and time) affect the
development of crystallinity and pore structure. The cured plate consists of lead
sulfate, lead oxide, and some residual lead (<5%). The positive active material,
influencing the performance and life of the lead-acid battery. In general the
starting).
As the cell discharges, both electrodes are converted to lead sulfate. The
direct function of the electrolyte concentration, ranging from 2.125 V for a cell
with 1.28 specific gravity electrolyte to 2.05 V with 1.21 specific gravity (see Sec.
23.2.2). The end or cutoff voltage on moderate-rate discharges is 1.75 V per cell,
but may range to as low as 1.0 V per cell at extremely high discharge rates at low
temperatures.
The selection of specific gravity used for the electrolyte depends on the
the cell, which would shorten life and increase self-discharge. The electrolyte
discharged (Table 23.6). The specific gravity is thus a means for checking the
state of charge of the battery. On charge, the change in specific gravity should
However, there is a lag because complete mixing of the electrolyte does not occur