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ABSTRACT
Car designers have been testing their designs in various ways to understand the airflow around it.
With the knowledge, they have been attempting to improve the vehicles aerodynamics in every way
possible. Since the early 1900s, better aerodynamics has progressed towards being the chief goal in
terms of car design.
The aim of this project is to investigate the flow around typical car shapes using a Wind Tunnel. The
analysis will be carried out in two dimensions, the maximum speed of the wind tunnel is 15 m/s
which accounts to around 40 km/h. A Pitot tube will be used to measure pressure and velocity
around the car shapes. The three typical car shapes that are investigated are the Saloon, Hatchback
and Fastback. The results will be analysed and also be compared with results from numerical testing
done using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
The investigation showed that the rear shape of the car causes low pressure in the rear region
leading to recirculation of air. The results also showed that the data obtained from the Pitot tube is
only reliable when measuring uniform flow in one direction.
Paramesh Nirmal
07002348 1
Northumbria University Final Year Project 2009-2010
Acknowledgments
The author would like to show gratitude to his supervisor Dr Reaz Hasan for his consistent support
and guidance throughout the study. Also thanks to Dr Roger Penlington for his assistance in the use
of CFD and for his guidance with using the instruments.
Appreciation is also extended to Dr Phillip Hackney for his aid towards fabricating the car shapes.
Finally the author would like thank his colleagues for their encouragement all through the
completion of this project.
Paramesh Nirmal
07002348 2
Northumbria University Final Year Project 2009-2010
List of Figures
Fig.# Description
1.1 The four primary phases of Aerodynamics
1.2 Torpedo Shape Vehicle (1899)
1.3 Air-ship shape vehicle (1913)
1.4 Boat-tail Shape Vehicle (1913)
1.5 Drag Measurements of Jaray Cars (1922)
1.6 Comparison of rear-end shapes
1.7 Design phases of a car shape
1.8 The change in shapes of the Porsche car models from 1950 to 1981.
1.9 The flow around a passenger car
2.0 Wind tunnel
2.1 2-dimensional measurement in a wind tunnel
2.2 2-dimensional hatchback
2.3 Points on Hatchback
2.4 Total Pressure Readings
2.5 A limitation of the Total Head tube
2.6 Hatchback constructed in Solidworks
2.7 Fastback constructed in Solidworks
2.8 Saloon constructed in Solidworks
2.9 Static Pressures measured on Hatchback
3.0 Experimental data of Fluid velocity around Hatchback in a wind tunnel
(steady)
3.1 Experimental data of Fluid velocity around Hatchback in a wind tunnel
(erroneous)
3.2 Points on Hatchback (reference for fig. 3.0 and 3.1)
3.3 Total Pressure contours on FLUENT
3.4 Attempt to elevate car on a platform on CFD.
3.5 Hatchback mesh setup
3.6 Fine Mesh
3.7 Defining Boundary Conditions
3.8 Lines created on FLUENT
3.9 x-velocity contours on hatchback
4.0 Height vs Velocity (Point 3.5 on Hatchback)
4.1 Contours of Static Pressure for the hatchback on FLUENT
4.2 Height vs. Static Pressure on Hatchback
4.3 x-velocity vectors at rear end of Hatchback
4.4 Contours of Turbulent Intensity on Hatchback
4.5 Height vs. Static Pressure for Pitot tube placed in opposite directions
4.6 Turbulent Intensity contours around a saloon shape
4.7 Contours of static pressure around a saloon shape
4.8 Contours of turbulent intensity around a fastback shape
4.9 Contours of Static pressure around a fastback shape
5.0 x-velocity vectors in rear region of fastback shape
Paramesh Nirmal
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Northumbria University Final Year Project 2009-2010
List of Tables
Table # Description
1 List of Coordinates
2 Velocity and Static Pressure Readings for Point 3.5 on Hatchback
3 Dynamic Head at Rear of Car (experimental results).
4 Static Pressure at point 0 on Hatchback (experimental results).
5 Empirical results for Hatchback. Wind Tunnel Setting: 8.5 m/s.
6 Empirical Results for Fastback. Wind tunnel setting: 8.5m/s.
7 Preliminary Readings
8 Estimated project costing.
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List of Notation
v Experimental air velocity m/s
u0 Air inlet velocity m/s
ρ Air Density kg/m3
u CFD air velocity m/s
PTotal Total Pressure N/m2
PDyn Dynamic Pressure N/m2
PStat Static Pressure N/m2
l Length of car mm
Pref Reference Point Pressure N/m2
uref Reference Point Velocity m/s
cp Pressure Coefficient Dimensionless
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Table of Contents
3.6 Results........................................................................................................................................................ 25
3.6.1 Static Pressure ..................................................................................................................................... 25
3.6.2 Velocity ............................................................................................................................................... 26
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REFERENCES..................................................................................................................... 50
1.1 Introduction
The shape of a car greatly affects its aerodynamic performance. A less ‘streamlined’ vehicle would
be less aerodynamic hence it would have an increased amount of drag towards the wind. A
streamlined vehicle would be a vehicle that has less sharp corners on its body, less ‘box like’ shapes,
etc.
Since the late 19th century and the 20th century, automobile manufacturers have made efforts to
improve the aerodynamics of vehicles.
The performance, handling and comfort of an automobile are significantly affected by its
aerodynamic properties. A low drag is a significant requirement for good fuel economy. Increasing
fuel prices and stringent legal regulations ensure that this long-established relationship becomes
more widely acknowledged.
Initial development concentrated entirely on drag, and other problems such as cross-wind sensitivity
only became significant with increasing driving speeds. Lately attempts have been made, by suitable
shaping, to eliminate the deposition of dirt and water of the windows and lights; leading to a
‘smoother’ shape and low drag.
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Due to poor roads and low engine power, speeds were still so low that aerodynamic drag only
played a subordinate role. Most cars derived from these basic shapes had one error in common:
they neglected the fact that the flow past a body of revolution is no longer axially symmetrical when
the body is close to the ground and when wheels and axles are added.
The shapes of the vehicles did lead to gradual aerodynamic success (torpedo and air ship shapes),
however due to low speeds they were nearly ineffective.
In contrasts to the shapes shown in fig 1.2 and fig 1.3 the ‘boat tail’ is solely unproductive in terms of
aerodynamics (fig 1.4). The flow, separating at the front and from the wheel arches, will not re-
attach due to ‘boat tailing’ the rear end. The boat tail, which was applied in different variants on
mass-production of limos and sports cars, is
an example of how aerodynamic arguments
are often misused to justify stylistic
curiosities. [2]
Fig. 1.2
After Torpedo
World War I,Shape Vehicle
E. Rumpler (1899) [1]several
developed
vehicles which he called ‘teardrop cars’. [1]
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Jaray considered that “low drag can only be achieved when the separation at the rear end is
eliminated and this can be achieved only with a very long, slender tail”. Jaray cars weren’t too
popular at their time they were not readily accepted by the public. Only several prototypes were
built by many manufacturers in Europe and the U.S. However, they showed a progress in
aerodynamics.
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The development of streamlined vehicles was interrupted by the Second World War. Despite the
success of modern streamlined vehicles, aerodynamics has only recently become a significant design
criterion. Aerodynamic development starts with the stylistic design. Details such as radii, curvature,
taper, spoilers etc are added to the initial shape, in combination, step by step, to prevent or control
separation (see appendix for info on Separation) so that the drag is minimized. Practice has shown
that in comparison to the initial shape significant reductions in the drag can be achieved in this
manner as shown in Fig. 1.7.
Car manufacturers began to carry out aerodynamic development in their own purpose built wind
tunnels. The aerodynamicist became a dominant automobile engineer and had to interact with
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design. The stylist faced difficulties in designing the vehicle with aerodynamic demands, but soon
discovered that aerodynamics could set a more logical and reasonable trend than did fashion. Since
the trend was accepted as valid design criteria, car aerodynamics has progressed. [2]
Fig. 1.8 shows the change in shapes of the Porsche car models from 1950 to 1981. [1]
(A = frontal area, CD = coefficient of drag).
Large disciplines undergo major work and research in the field of aerodynamics. All car
manufacturers test their cars aerodynamics in some way. Their main aim was to reduce the drag
hence better aerodynamics.
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Modern cars are characterized by streamlined forms. Wind tunnel tests have been carried out on
cars to observe the effects of automobile add-ons on the vehicles aerodynamics. It is necessary to
carry out wind tunnel tests in unstable conditions i.e. with crosswinds in addition to normal
atmospheric conditions. [5]
The aerodynamic characteristics of vehicles under cross winds depend not only on the shapes of the
vehicles but also on those of infrastructures [6]. Model testing is widely employed to predict
characteristics of vehicles with both external and internal flow of wind [7]. Wind tunnel tests were
made to evaluate the aerodynamic characteristics of typical configurations of cars on bridges under
wind directing:
- perpendicular to the vehicle
- relative to the vehicle.
- And for vehicles on embankments. [6]
The aim of these experiments was towards the safety of the vehicles passengers, and not so much
for the aerodynamic characteristics of the shape of the vehicle in terms of performance and fuel
efficiency which is why it is not totally relevant to the project.
The scale wind tunnel has been a principal development tool ever since aerodynamics has become
significant in automobile design. However, for true simulation of on-road conditions, the wind tunnel
has its own limitations. In a wind tunnel test, the ground is fixed relative to the vehicle, allowing a
boundary layer to develop. Also, the wheels of the vehicle do not rotate, and thus the drag of the
wheels is not taken into account. Aerodynamic data obtained from different wind tunnels show a
significant degree of scatter which may state that the tests are not as accurate as they have been
considered to be. [8]
Vehicles are never placed straight into a wind tunnel without enhancements. Usually, vehicles are
mounted on some sort of platform when tested in wind tunnels. The mount itself can cause
aerodynamic ‘disturbances’ such as turbulence leading to inaccuracy of results. The research into
building a magnetic levitation system has started in the field of Formula 1 racing cars. The
aerodynamics team at Durham University is attempting the use of Maglev (Magnetic levitation)
technology for scale wind tunnels. “The technology could significantly improve testing by eliminating
the interference caused by physical supports”. This technology has been attempted before by NASA
but with very limited success. In a real situation, on-road cars move through still air over a fixed
surface. However, during simulation in a wind tunnel, the car is held still while the air moves past.
So, to simulate the correct conditions, F1 teams make the ground under the car move, using a rolling
road. But then, the use of a moving belt means the model has to be supported by a
strut/beam/platform (usually from above) which interferes with the airflow around the vehicle and
thus reducing the accuracy of the experiment. This is why Durham researchers are developing a
maglev system to eliminate this interference; “which can have significant effects on the measured
drag and downforce”.
CFD technology is progressing to be more and more useful. But, “For predicting the aerodynamics of
the whole vehicle, computer simulations do not yet deliver the goods, Computer simulations are not
well validated, particularly for automotive work” [9].
Another method of experimentations is the use of Pressure Sensitive Paint abbreviated to PSP. The
use of PSP improves wind tunnel testing by reducing the amount of physical mechanical sensors
needed, which of course obstruct the flow around the mode. Also, the reduction of these
mechanical sensors reduces the cost of the experiments. However, PSP technology is developed
mainly for aircraft simulation, and they are accurate only at high speeds.
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Flow can be analyzed using then experimental method i.e. using a wind tunnel. And there is a
computational method using CFD software. And many times, they are both used in conjunction to
each other.
There are advantages of using CFD software over experimental methods such as wind tunnel testing.
A lot of aerodynamic testing is required in the field of Motorsport. Mainly for Formula 1, Le Mans
and Nascar racing.
The advantage of using CFD over wind tunnels is abundant. Using a computational method saves a
lot of time, money and effort. The results from computational testing are more informative than an
experimental result. Dimensional characteristics and surrounding characteristics can be changed
using mouse clicks and is very quick and effective. A computational method provides the ability to
conduct testing very early on in a programme. Engineers can make decisions in preliminary stages of
development rather than building a prototype, testing it and then making decisions. Because
computational software is entirely computational, a lot of cost is reduced because it is not
completely necessary to build a prototype before the testing is initiated. Prototypes can be built on
computational software and modified and tested without having to physically endure the operation.
The correlation between computational software and wind tunnel results is good; CFD is as accurate
as experimental wind tunnel testing. [10]
However, there are some drawbacks of using computational methods for aerodynamic testing. CFD
testing is quite complicated and requires some effort to get superior results. It requires many tweaks
to obtain the full potential of the software and its accuracy. There are still issues with prediction of
lift on a car with computational methods which is generally more difficult than the prediction of
drag. Also, the simulation of turbulence is not very accurate with Computational testing. [10]
CFD is commonly used in combination with scale-model and full-scale wind tunnels. For stock car
racing, Daimler Chrysler’s Dodge Division Aerodynamics team used computational methods in
combination with both scale and full-scale wind tunnel tests, and also in combination with on-track
testing. The reason for the use of scale models in wind tunnels in combination with computational
methods is because these tools are commonly used with commercial car design and testing.
Computational results are validated by comparing them to wind tunnel test results. The use of CFD
testing is necessary because it is very difficult to visualize the airflow streams under a ground vehicle
or under its hood during a wind tunnel test. [11]
The field of aerodynamics is vastly significant in the development of Grand Prix Cars. All the leading
teams of Formula 1 make use of wind tunnels almost continuously and the related cost of models,
tools and labour is colossal. F1 teams rely on wind tunnels significantly. The use of wind tunnels is far
more noteworthy than computational analysis for these disciplines. [12]
In 1999, the General Motors team proposed developed a new concept car with a significantly low
drag coefficient. Their PNGV (Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles) project concept car had
a coefficient of drag, CD of 0.163. The aim for GM was to reduce drag by as much as possible and the
way to do this was by reducing turbulence. “Hold your hand out the window of a new car, and you
will get 20 fewer miles to the gallon”. By the end of 1997, a six person team including engineers,
aerodynamics and wind tunnel experts assembled for GM to start the PNGV project. Their aim was
to develop a sedan with an aerodynamically efficient shape. “The ideal aerodynamic shape is a
raindrop”. However, it wasn’t practical to force that shape upon a functional car body. Though,
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mounting the engine in the rear relieved some of this concern. The advantage of a rear mounted
engine is that it eliminates front air intakes and under body discharges, which in turn improves drag.
GM believed that Wind Tunnel testing proved more efficient than CFD analysis for checking drag. For
this reason, the team prominently used wind tunnels over computational analysis. However, the
team still used this method for a number of reasons. “CFD software was used as a diagnostic tool to
see how they could change surfaces and understand the consequences of those changes in
aerodynamic design”. However, their models needed wind tunnel tuning because there were many
details that simply could not be evaluated effectively using mathematical methods. [13]
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In order to perform experimental flow measurement, a test rig was designed and fabricated using
knowledge of materials and manufacture. The experimental data achieved was studied and
evaluated to identify the aerodynamic characteristics of the car.
This experimental data was compared with numerical data obtained through CFD study in order to
evaluate the flow characteristics and to verify the accuracy of the results.
2.2 Objectives
Design and fabricate the test rig components to affix in the wind tunnel
Acquire theoretical knowledge about flow measurement using wind tunnel experiments and
measurement systems
Design and fabricate 1:15th scale model car shapes
Conduct preliminary runs to check for functionality of the test rig
Make necessary improvements to optimize the test rig functionality
Conduct experimental analysis on model car shapes
Study numerical methods for flow measurements such as CFD
Use CFD software to conduct flow measurement on the car shapes
Compare the numerical results with the experimental results
Conclude and propose improvements for further study
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The dimensions of the test section inside the wind tunnel are 1000 x 300 x 300 mm.
3.2 Instruments.
3.2.1 Pitot Tube.
A Pitot tube connected to a manometer was used to measure the pressure inside the wind tunnel.
The experiment is to study the flow around different car shapes. To prevent complications in the
procedure, the flow was studied in 2 dimensions, an x-axis and a y-axis. Fig 2.1 shows the axis on the
wind tunnel chamber:
y-axis
x-axis
The following diagram shows the points taken on a hatchback and their coordinates. Figure 2.3
shows the location of the points. For info on coordinates taken for the fastback, see appendix.
3.5 (200,120)
4 (120,110)
5 (70,60)
6 (50,50)
6.5 (5,40)
7 (-10,0) X=321
X=0
Fig.2.2 Two Dimensional Hatchback
0 (370,0)
To position the Pitot tube precisely so that it is possible to take readings along the Y axis, a height
gauge was used. The height gauge enables precise measurements to be taken along the y-axis.
Once the pressure readings are obtained, the velocity and resultant force can be calculated.
The measurement technique was based on Bernoulli’s principle, using the following equations:
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𝛒𝐯𝟐
Total pressure (head), PTotal = PStatic + --------------------------------Eq.1
𝟐
PStatic = Static pressure
PDyn = ρV2/2 = Dynamic pressure
Integrating the pressures gives the resultant force, exerted by the relative motion of the air
(aerodynamic force, F) [15].
Using the calculated dynamic pressure, the air flow velocity can be calculated using the equation:
𝟐×𝐏𝐃𝐲𝐧
Air flow velocity, v = (in m/s)----------------------------------- Eq.2
𝛒
Where,
ρ = air density in kg/m3 Note: varies with temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity.
Pdyn = dynamic pressure in Pascals.
The Pitot-tube was used to measure static, dynamic and total pressure; however the instrument has
its own limitations. For detailed info on these limitations, see appendix.
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The following diagram shows the total head readings from the copper total head tube compared
with readings from a Pitot Static tube:
Height, h (mm)
100.0
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
-1.2 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 Pitot Static Tube
Total Head (mm of H2O) Total Head Tube
The results were taken in an empty wind tunnel with the following coordinates and air speed:
Coordinates are with reference to the front of the wind tunnel:
x coordinate: 500mm
y coordinate: 150mm
Air Speed: 8.5 m/s
As seen in the diagram above, the copper tube is as accurate as the pitot static tube for measuring
total head. However, this accuracy only exists for pressure readings within the central area of the
wind tunnel. At positions (along the y-axis) close to the bottom and top of the wind tunnel, the total
head tube gives erroneous results. The reason for these erroneous results are as follows:
- The entry point of the total head tube is much larger than that of the pitot static tube. This
large diameter means that the readings taken from the total head tube take into the account
pressure differences caused by boundary layers forming near the walls of the wind tunnel.
The following figure illustrates:
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As seen in fig2.3 that the large entry point diameter of the total head tube allows the readings to
take into account the boundary layer caused near the walls (ceiling and floor) of the wind tunnel.
However, the boundary layers caused are not taken into account for the Pitot Static tube.
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The shapes are sketched in 2D, followed by extruding the shapes to form the car shape on
Solidworks. The following figures show the three shapes constructed and dimensioned using
Solidworks:
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In reality, the car would be supported by wheels at a certain height. In this analysis, the wheels of
the car are not taken into account. The reason being is that the study is conducted on the shape of
the car i.e. the car body rather than its accessories and attachments.
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To ensure accuracy of the 2-Dimensional readings, measurements are taken at two locations along
the z-axis, and an average between the two is considered the correct reading. This practice
eliminates the chance of errors caused due to the position of measurement along the z-axis.
This is also to avoid recording results on the boundary wall sitting through the middle of the car, and
on the edges of the car [21].
3.4 Speed
The wind tunnel is equipped with variable speed settings. Preliminary runs showed that at top speed
the wind tunnel undergoes extensive vibration causing the instruments to vibrate too. This situation
can potentially cause inaccuracy within the results.
So, the wind tunnel was operated on a slightly lower speed setting to prevent vibrations. The wind
tunnel was set at speed setting #4. Using the Pitot tube connected to an anemometer, the wind
speed was tested.
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3.6 Results
Once the readings were taken, the results were analysed and enhanced. The pressure readings
require converting to standard units such as mm of H2O and N/m2. See appendix for conversion of
manometer readings. The results are stored in tabular form and analysed.
Height, h/mm
120.00
100.00
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
-8.50 -8.00 -7.50 -7.00
Static Pressure (mm of H2O)
120.00
100.00
80.00
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
-4.50 -4.00 -3.50 -3.00 -2.50
Static Pressure (mm of H2O)
It is also noted from the experimental results that the static pressure is at it’s minumum value over
the roof of the vehicle in the central region.
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3.6.2 Velocity
The velocity is calculated using Eq. 2 stated earlier. The velocity calculated is the fluid velocity at the
point where the Pitot tube is placed.
The results show that the velocity increases when the area which it passes through decreases.
105.00 x coordinate 5
85.00
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
fluid velocity, v / ms-1
Fig 3.0 Experimental data of Fluid velocity around Hatchback in a wind tunnel (steady)
60.00
50.00 x coordinate 330
40.00
x coordinate 290
30.00
x coordinate 5
20.00
10.00 x coordinate 370
0.00
2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00
Fig 3.1 Experimental data of Fluid velocity around Hatchback in a wind tunnel (erroneous)
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Fig. 3.2 Points on Hatchback (reference for fig. 3.0 and 3.1)
As seen in figure 3.0 above, the fluid velocity is uniform at coordinates in the frontal region of the
car and the maximum velocity occurs at the top of the car (x-coordinate 200mm).
However, the data in figure 3.1 above shows that the velocity fluctuates extensively behind the car
(x-coordinates 290,330,370mm). The data representing velocities calculated in this is not very
reliable due to limitations of the instrument used. The fluid flow behind the car was expected to be
‘chaotic’ caused by recirculation of the fluid. As stated in the literature review, this recirculation is
the reason why the design of the rear end of the car is crucial for achieving improved aerodynamics.
At line 2 (x-coordinate 290mm), there is a lot of change in the velocity readings however, the
velocity stops fluctuating after reaching a certain height (95mm) and remains steady since. This
shows that only the velocity readings above a height of 85mm on line 2 can be considered reliable,
thereby the velocities below a height of 85mm are considered due to recirculation in that region. For
more info on recirculation see section 4.1 and 5.6.
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4.1 Introduction
The external airflow causes the largest amount of drag and handling instability for a car [20]. The
main difference in aerodynamics between cars is due to the vehicle’s rear. As the air flows over the
roof of the vehicle, some of the air drops to zero velocity due to friction. A velocity profile starts
close to the vehicle surface and this is known as the ‘boundary layer’. Where the boundary layer
detaches from the car body is known as the ‘separation point’. The boundary layer detaches from
the vehicle roof and continues to flow in a straight line. As it flows, it tries to remove air from behind
the vehicle, causing a pressure drop or drag [1]. By numerical testing methods, this pressure drop
and low velocity region at the rear of the car was inspected.
Implementing numerical flow measurement around car shapes involves the employment of CFD
software.
A model was built in CFD (FLUENT 12.0), which represents a system that can be subjected to a
number of simulations. Fluid Physics can predict how fluid will act in a pipe or heat through different
surfaces. [20]
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The car body and the wind tunnel were meshed using a hexagonal (hexa-dominant) mesh on ICEM
CFD to a surface. The surface was created using explicit coordinates, using the front of the car as the
reference point. A fine mesh was used so that the resultant change in velocity and pressure at
minute height intervals can be noted. The mesh size was set to be variable between 1-2 mm.
Based on the available research, one of the most vital areas of interest in vehicle aerodynamics is the
‘wake’ region created behind the vehicle as air passes over it, causing recirculation [13].
During experimental analysis, the vehicle was positioned on a platform which was at a certain height
above the wind tunnel. This platform was not constructed using CFD setup for the following reasons:
- When carrying out 2-D flow measurement on CFD, the software assumes the legs of the
platform as an obstruction to the air flow. In reality, this is not true.
The car shape was positioned on a platform during experimental testing in a wind tunnel, meaning
the car was slightly elevated above the bottom of the wind tunnel (by 130mm). This means that the
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distance from the top of the car to the top of the wind tunnel is 50mm. To ensure that this situation
is simulated in FLUENT, the dimensions of the wind tunnel were modified for numerical analysis. The
height of the wind tunnel is changed from 300mm to 170mm in ICEM CFD and then transferred to
FLUENT.
To run a simulation, the boundary conditions need to be set so that when the mesh is transferred to
FLUENT they can be assigned certain characteristics. The walls of the wind tunnel are labelled in
ICEM so that they can be utilised to set boundary conditions in FLUENT. For example, the inlet vent
of the wind tunnel is labelled as inlet on ICEM so that it is recognised in FLUENT as the flow inlet. The
case is similar for the ceiling, floor and outlet vent of the wind tunnel so that the boundary
conditions can be set accordingly.
321mm
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The air flowing over the model was investigated as Turbulent flow using the K-Epsilon turbulence
model.
2
1
4 5
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5.1 Introduction
The results discussed in this section are from both, experimental testing and numerical testing. Both
data are results from 2-Dimensional analysis. The investigation has been carried out at low speed
(8.5 ms-1).
Around 20 sets of data for each position along the x-direction are taken, although, the size of the
sets of data depend on the height of the plane along the y-axis. There are 5 points along the x-axis
when taking measurements around the hatchback, totalling to roughly 100 sets of data taken
experimentally for the one car shape. Similar numbers of data sets are to be extracted from the
numerical results, making sure that the (x,y) coordinates for the numerical data matches exactly with
the (x,y) coordinates for the experimental data.
The data from FLUENT was extracted using the lines/rakes feature. Lines with the same coordinates
and dimensions as used during experimental testing were created in FLUENT and the data values
along these lines were extracted. Using the software’s post-processing feature, the data was
exported into Microsoft Excel.
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Turbulent Flow
Line 3.5 on Hatchback
x-coordinate = 200mm
Wind Tunnel Speed, u0= 8.5 ms-1
pressure pressure
coefficient coefficient
Height Velocity Velocity (static) (static)
above (Experimental (FLUENT experimental, FLUENT,
base results), v results), u cp.exp cp.cfd
(a) (b) (b) (c) (c)
Table 2 Velocity and Static Pressure Readings for Line 3.5 on Hatchback
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Turbulent Flow
Line 0 on Hatchback
x-coordinate = 370 mm
Wind Tunnel Speed, u0= 8.5 ms-1
Dynamic
Dyamic Head mm Dynamic
height head of H2O (x Head, PD
(y) reading 0.1) (N/m2)
0.0000 -16.0000 -1.6000 -15.6906
5.0000 -16.0000 -1.6000 -15.6906 Line 0
10.0000 -16.0000 -1.6000 -15.6906
15.0000 -15.0000 -1.5000 -14.7100
20.0000 -15.0000 -1.5000 -14.7100
30.0000 -14.0000 -1.4000 -13.7293
40.0000 -10.0000 -1.0000 -9.8067
50.0000 -5.0000 -0.5000 -4.9033
60.0000 23.0000 2.3000 22.5553
70.0000 69.0000 6.9000 67.6659
80.0000 85.0000 8.5000 83.3565
90.0000 88.0000 8.8000 86.2985
100.0000 95.0000 9.5000 93.1632
120.0000 98.0000 9.8000 96.1052
140.0000 95.0000 9.5000 93.1632
160.0000 79.0000 7.9000 77.4725
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5.2 Velocity
As stated in Chapter 3, maximum velocity occurs at the top of the car, in the central region. This is
due to the decrease in area that the air has to flow through. This is the case for both, experimental
results and FLUENT results. The following figure illustrates that the central region over the roof of
the vehicle is the region of maximum velocity (highlighted by the colour red).
Max Velocity
The experimental results obtained from this region can be considered reliable because the air
predominantly flows in one direction only, the x-direction. Fig. 4.0 shows the comparison of the
experimental results with CFD results. Both results are similar as both velocities are moderately
steady and at their maximum value in this region. The similarity in the results is because the Pitot
tube is reliable for measuring pressure where the fluid flow is in one direction.
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0.50
0.48
h/l
0.46
experimental
0.44 fluent
0.42
0.40
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20
Velocity/u0
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As well as the velocity measurements, the static pressure measurements are considered trustworthy
because the Pitot tube is reliable for taking measurements where there is no recirculation/negative
velocity. As seen in Table 2, the Static Pressure coefficient obtained from experimental results
correlates with the static pressure obtained from CFD analysis in FLUENT (see Fig. 4.2).
0.30
Experimental
0.20
FLUENT
0.10
0.00
-0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Static Pressure Coefficient, cp
Maximum static pressure occurs at the front of the car. This is shown in Fig. 4.1, the area in front of
the vehicle consists of high static pressure. Previous experiments also show the same case [21]. This
significantly high static pressure can be attributed to the front face of the vehicle’s poor curvature
and high projected area [25].
This recirculation occurring at the rear of the vehicle is the result of airflow from the car roof causing
vortices to form [21]. As seen in Fig. 4.3, the velocity vectors show that the air is undergoing
recirculation in this region. The air velocity is at its minimum in this region, this is also shown from
the experimental results (see appendix).
The air velocity is negative in this region, which may be due to increased mixing of the air flow due
to turbulence (see Fig.4.4) [21]. The velocities obtained in this region from experimental results may
well be negative because of the fact that the dynamic pressure in this region is a negative number as
seen in Table 2. However, the velocity is calculated using Bernoulli’s equation (eq.2) [15]:
𝟐×𝐏𝐃𝐲𝐧
=> Air flow velocity, v =
𝛒
The air flow velocity is the square root of the dynamic pressure meaning the velocity cannot be a
negative number as it is not possible to square root a negative number. Therefore, the velocity is
calculated using the following equation (eq.3), where the velocity is the square root of the modulus
of the dynamic pressure, thus giving a positive velocity. This case is the same for all velocities
calculated in the experimental results.
Equation.3.0:
𝟐×|𝐏𝐃𝐲𝐧 |
Air flow velocity, v =
𝛒
Shown in figure 4.4 above, the region behind the car is intensely turbulent. This turbulence causes
the negative pressure behind the car, resulting in recirculation of air flow.
As stated in the previous page, the experimental readings behind the car are erroneous. This is due
to the limitations of the Pitot tube. The Pitot tube only measures pressure in a single direction
meaning areas where flow is occurring in several directions cannot be investigated using just a Pitot
tube.
The negative dynamic pressure obtained in the recirculation region means that the pressure is acting
in the opposite direction i.e. against the direction of the flow. To check for this, the Pitot tube was
placed facing the rear of the wind tunnel at point 0. The data obtained for a rear facing Pitot tube
was erroneous too, however, it was noted that the Static pressure remains unaffected by the change
in direction of the Pitot tube. This is because static pressure is the pressure exerted by the fluid
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when static [24] therefore, static pressure acts in one direction only, the y-direction. See table 4 and
Figure 4.5 for static pressure readings for Pitot tube facing the front and rear of the wind tunnel.
0.50
0.40
h/l
0.30
Pitot facing the rear
0.10
0.00
-1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Static Pressure coefficient, cp
Fig.4.5 Height vs. Static Pressure for Pitot tube placed in opposite directions (Line 0 on Hatchback).
The above graph is related to the data in Table 4 in the next page.
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Turbulent Flow
Line 0 on Hatchback
x-coordinate = 370 mm
Wind Tunnel Speed, u0= 8.5 ms-1
Static
Pressure
coefficient Static
(Pitot facing Pressure
rear) coefficient
Height, (Pitot facing
(b)
mm front)
(a) (b)
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Similar to the hatchback, the saloon shape experiences maximum static pressure on its front face.
However, unlike the hatchback, minimum static pressure does not occur over the roof of the car.
This may be due to the shorter height of the saloon in comparison to the hatchback. This shorter
height increases the distance from the roof of the car to the top of the wind tunnel, allowing the air
to flow over the car through a larger volume.
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5.5.2 Fastback
Out of the three shapes, the fastback is expected to be the most ‘streamlined’ shape. The fastback is
a type of sports car shape, the car having a low height and the shape being similar to the teardrop
shape, making it more aerodynamically efficient [2].
Similar to the saloon shape, the fastback experiences high turbulent intensities over the roof of the
car. This again may be due to the development of a boundary layer. The case is the same for the
area of maximum static pressure around the fastback (see Fig. 5.0).
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The car models were analysed at quicker speeds during this part of the analysis:
70 mph = 31.29 m/s
50 mph = 22.35 m/s
In order to calculate the recirculation length, the line/rake function in FLUENT was utilised. A
horizontal line was created behind each car passing through the vortex of recirculation. The distance
(x coordinate) against velocity on this line is plotted. The recirculation length is defined as the length
of negative x-velocity.
-0.05
-0.10
velocity, u/u0
-0.15 70mph
-0.20 50mph
-0.25
-0.30
-0.35
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-0.04
-0.06 70mph
-0.08 50mph
-0.10
-0.12
-0.14
The length of recirculation does not change with respect to speed for the Hatchback and the
Fastback.
RL for Hatchback: 0.257
RL for Fastback: 0.154
However, there is a major change in RL with respect to speed for the Saloon shape. The following
figure shows:
-0.10
-0.15 70mph
-0.20 50mph
-0.25
-0.30
-0.35
As seen in the figure above, the recirculation length of the saloon is 0.173 when u0=70mph and just
0.148 at 50mph. The RL has reduced by 0.025. This change is RL is only seen with flow around the
Saloon and not with the fastback and hatchback due to the shape of the vehicle. The saloon has a
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‘notch’ at the rear end; this notch is there for practicality, giving the car more ‘boot space’. However,
this notch creates turbulence at the rear end (see fig. 5.4).
The fastback shape is based on the teardrop shape, its smooth sloping rear, and the spoiler attached
to the rear allows the air to flow smoothly through the newly expanded region behind the car.
Fig.5.4 shows the recirculation around the fastbacks rear.
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Chapter 6 Conclusion
The aim of the investigation was to carry out flow measurement around typical car shapes using
experimental and numerical methods. The result of the investigation states:
The airflow around vehicles causes a low pressure region behind the vehicle. This low
pressure region causes negative x-velocities resulting in recirculation of the air. The main
reason to this is the turbulence caused. All three shapes undergo turbulent flow of air
around them; the negative pressure region is the effect of this turbulence.
The fastback is the most aerodynamic shape because there is least turbulence around the
vehicle.
The Pitot tube is reliant for carrying out flow measurement around shapes however; it is
only valid for areas where the air is flowing ‘smoothly’ in one direction.
The Pitot tube is incapable of providing true values of pressure and velocity in the region
behind the vehicles.
The vast difference between the experimental results and numerical results at the rear end
of the car is due to these limitations the Pitot tube has with flow measurement around car
shapes.
It is possible to use a total pressure tube to measure total pressure at places incapable of the
Pitot tube to reach. However, the total pressure tube cannot measure velocity or static
pressure.
Maximum static pressure occurs at the front face of the car due to the large area for the air
to act upon, minimum static pressure occurs above the car roof.
Maximum x-velocity occurs above the car roof due to the small area between the top of the
car and the top of the wind tunnel which the air flows through.
The height gauge has proved to be a very useful instrument to be used when carrying flow
measurement of such scale in a wind tunnel.
At regions where the flow is stagnant and undisturbed, the experimental results correlate
with the CFD results.
The main factor in improving car aerodynamics is the shape of the vehicles rear end.
At such low speeds (8.5 m/s) it was not copiously possible to perceive all differences
between the three car shapes, and not possible to carry out a full analysis of flow around the
vehicles.
CFD results can be considered very reliable, and CFD has the capability to analyse flow
around car shapes with intricate detail, even with such low speeds.
Because the wind tunnel had a low maximum speed (12.5 m/s), it was not possible to carry
out a full analysis of flow around the car shapes. Even when the wind tunnel as operating at
full speed, the vibrations caused inaccuracy in results thus, the wind tunnel was operated at
lower speed, 8.5 m/s.
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Due to time constraints with this project, a full flow analysis was not accomplished. With available
time, other instruments could be used to investigate the flow around a car in the future. Instead of a
Pitot tube, a hot wire can be used to investigate flow in 3 dimensions. If flow is analyzed in 3
dimensions, it is possible to investigate the effects of accessories such as wing mirrors, spoilers, etc
to a vehicle’s aerodynamics. Also, 3D flow measurements will provide a clearer understanding of the
aerodynamics of road vehicles and a better, thorough analysis can be carried out. Other instruments
such as pressure-sensitive paint can be used to analyze the effects of flow around a car.
If a high speed tunnel can be employed, the flow around the car shapes can be investigated in more
realistic situations, where aerodynamics is crucial. More different car shapes can be analyzed with
more time, giving chance to analyze the design of vehicles. These may include estates, jeeps, vans,
even buses or trucks.
The force on the car was not analyzed in this project. A sensitive scale or balance may be used to
measure the drag force and lifts on a car shape.
Using more detailed shapes can provide a better understanding of flow around the shapes. This may
include shapes with wheels so the air passing under the car shape can be applied to make the
investigation more thorough.
A moving floor can be used with both experimental and numerical testing. The moving floor can
provide a better understanding of the aerodynamics of a car in a real life situation.
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References
___________________________________________________________________________
3. Pope, A. and J.J. Harper, Instrumentation and Calibration of Test Section, in Low-
Speed Wind Tunnel Testing. 1966, John Wiley & Sons. p. 85-125
5. Watkins, S. and G. Oswald, The flow field of automobile add-ons - with particular
reference to the vibration of external mirrors. Journal of Wind Engineering and
Industrial Aerodyanmics, 1999. 83: p. 541-554
10. Slavnich, D., Quick, quick flow. Automotive Engineering, 2002. 27(6): p. 46-53
11. Thilmany, J., Design like the Wind. Mechanical Engineering, 2004. 126(7): p. 12
12. Dominy, R.G., Aerodynamics of Grand Prix Cars. Automotive Engineering, Institute
of Mechanical Engineering (IMechE) Proceedings D, 1992(206): p. 267, 268
13. Sharke, P., Smooth Body. Mechanical Engineering, 1999. 121(10): p. 74-77
14. Klein, C., Application of Pressure Sensitive Paint (PSP) for the determination of the
instantaneous pressure field of models in a wind tunnel. Aerospace Science and
Technology, 2000. 4(2): p. 103-109
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Northumbria University Final Year Project 2009-2010
15. Scibor-Rylski, A.J., Introduction, Aerodynamic Forces and Moments, in Road Vehicle
Aerodyanmics. 1975, Pentech Press. p. 1-12
16. Ashby, M.F., Engineering Materials and their properties in Materials Selection in
Mechanical Design, 3rd Edition, 2005 p. 27-44
18. Doebelin, E., Measuring Devices, in Measurement Systems: Application and Design
1983. p 492 - 296.
21. March S., Numerical investigation of flow fields over three dimensional car shapes
2006. p. 9-12
24. wiseGeek,
What is Static Pressure?
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-static-pressure.htm Accessed 03-03-10
25. Chainani A. Perera N., CFD Investigation of Airflow on a Model Radio Control Race
Car. World Congress on Engineering Proceedings, 2008 Vol II p. 2-4
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Bibliography
Hucho, W.-H., Introduction to automobile aerodynamics, in Aerodyamics of road
vehicles W.-H. Hucho, Editor. 1987, Butterworths. p. 1 - 36
Necati, G.A., Measurement and test techniques, in Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles, W.-
H. Hucho, Editor. 1987, Butterworths. p. 437-478
Pope, A. and J.J. Harper, Instrumentation and Calibration of Test Section, in Low-Speed
Wind Tunnel Testing. 1966, John Wiley & Sons. p. 85-125
Watkins, S. and G. Oswald, The flow field of automobile add-ons - with particular
reference to the vibration of external mirrors. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial
Aerodyanmics, 1999. 83: p. 541-554
Slavnich, D., Quick, quick flow. Automotive Engineering, 2002. 27(6): p. 46-53
Thilmany, J., Design like the Wind. Mechanical Engineering, 2004. 126(7): p. 12
Klein, C., Application of Pressure Sensitive Paint (PSP) for the determination of the
instantaneous pressure field of models in a wind tunnel. Aerospace Science and
Technology, 2000. 4(2): p. 103-109
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March S., Numerical investigation of flow fields over three dimensional car shapes 2006.
p. 9-12
wiseGeek,
What is Static Pressure?
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-static-pressure.htm Accessed 03-03-10
Chainani A. Perera N., CFD Investigation of Airflow on a Model Radio Control Race
Car. World Congress on Engineering Proceedings, 2008 Vol II p. 2-4
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Chapter 8 Appendix:
8.1 Separation:
Laminar and turbulent boundary layer flows depend strongly on pressure distribution which
is imposed by the external flow. For a pressure increase in low direction the boundary layer
flow is retarded, especially near the wall, and even reversed flow may occur. This is known
as flow separation. [23]
The dowels will securely fit the holes on the internal platform and the holes at the bottom
of the wind tunnel, creating an elevated platform inside the chamber.
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- Plugs
The holes in the lid will require plugs so that when holes are not in use they are plugged
shut to ensure no losses.
The apparatus was designed so that it fits with the above chamber.
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but it is also very soft. It has the mechanical properties of a hardwood so dowels made from
balsa wood will withstand the load of the internal platform with ease.
The plugs will also be built from balsa wood because of their cylindrical shape, and the
mechanical properties of balsa wood.
Once the platform is ‘streamlined’, the air will flow underneath the platform in laminar
fashion, preventing turbulence at the front of the car (see Fig 5.8)
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Top inclined
Middle inclined
Bottom inclined
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Chapter 9 Appendix II
The static pressure is usually difficult to measure accurately. The difference between true
(pstat) and measured (pstat.m) values of static pressure may be due to the following: [19]
1. Misalignment of the tube axis and velocity vector. The tube axis and velocity vector must
be parallel in order to achieve accurate results. Misalignment exposes the static taps to
some component of velocity.
2. Nonzero tube diameter. Streamlines next to the tube must be longer than those in
undisturbed flow, which indicates an increase in velocity.
3. Influence of stagnation point on the tube-support leading edge (dimensions of Pitot-static
tube). The higher pressure (at stagnation point) causes the static pressure upstream of the
leading edge also to be high causing inaccuracy. If the static taps are too close to the
support, they will read high because of this effect. However, this error and the error stated
above in item 2 tend to cancel. By proper design of the Pitot tube, the effect of this
cancellation may be achieved. Fig. 433 shows the nature of errors 2 and 3.
frictionless:
To compensate the limitations of the Pitot tube because of its size, a total pressure tube can
be used. The Pitot tube was incapable of reading pressure at certain points around the car;
the pressure at these points was measured using a total pressure tube.
For example, the Pitot tube is incapable of measuring pressure at the very front end of the
car. It is suitable to use a total pressure tube (of smaller dimensions than the Pitot tube) to
measure pressure acting on this area of the car. The following figure illustrates the idea:
Pitot tube
Fig 6.4 Case 1: measuring pressure at front of car using Pitot Tube
As seen in the Fig above, the Pitot tube is incapable of measuring pressure at point A. Point
B is the closest point to point A which the instrument is capable of reaching.
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Although, a total pressure tube is capable of measuring pressure at point A because of its
smaller dimensions as illustrated case 2:
Total pressure
tube
Fig 6.5 Case 2: measuring pressure at front of car using a total pressure tube.
The total pressure tube has its own limitations. The major limitation is that it can only read
the total pressure at a certain point, and not the dynamic head or static head.
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Table 5: Experimental results for Hatchback. Wind Tunnel Setting: 8.5 m/s.
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330 1 60.00 -101.00 -10.10 -99.05 -40.00 -4.00 -39.23 -79.00 -7.90 -77.47 12.83
330 1 70.00 -96.00 -9.60 -94.14 -40.00 -4.00 -39.23 -76.00 -7.60 -74.53 12.50
330 1 80.00 -85.00 -8.50 -83.36 -40.00 -4.00 -39.23 -62.00 -6.20 -60.80 11.77
330 1 85.00 -51.00 -5.10 -50.01 -38.00 -3.80 -37.27 -42.00 -4.20 -41.19 9.11
330 1 90.00 -50.00 -5.00 -49.03 -37.00 -3.70 -36.28 -11.00 -1.10 -10.79 9.02
330 1 100.00 40.00 4.00 39.23 -36.00 -3.60 -35.30 -4.00 -0.40 -3.92 8.07
330 1 120.00 42.00 4.20 41.19 -34.00 -3.40 -33.34 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 8.27
330 1 140.00 28.00 2.80 27.46 -34.00 -3.40 -33.34 -5.00 -0.50 -4.90 6.75
330 1 160.00 12.00 1.20 11.77 -31.00 -3.10 -30.40 -15.00 -1.50 -14.71 4.42
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290 2 150.00 97.00 9.70 95.12 -106.00 -10.60 -103.95 -17.00 -1.70 -16.67 12.57
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5 6.5 40.00 76.00 7.60 74.53 -81.00 -8.10 -79.43 -6.00 -0.60 -5.88 11.13
5 6.5 45.00 73.00 7.30 71.59 -78.00 -7.80 -76.49 -6.00 -0.60 -5.88 10.90
5 6.5 50.00 70.00 7.00 68.65 -74.00 -7.40 -72.57 -6.00 -0.60 -5.88 10.68
5 6.5 55.00 70.00 7.00 68.65 -74.00 -7.40 -72.57 -4.00 -0.40 -3.92 10.68
5 6.5 60.00 70.00 7.00 68.65 -75.00 -7.50 -73.55 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 10.68
5 6.5 80.00 70.00 7.00 68.65 -73.00 -7.30 -71.59 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 10.68
5 6.5 100.00 70.00 7.00 68.65 -74.00 -7.40 -72.57 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 10.68
5 6.5 120.00 70.00 7.00 68.65 -73.00 -7.30 -71.59 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 10.68
5 6.5 140.00 59.00 5.90 57.86 -74.00 -7.40 -72.57 -15.00 -1.50 -14.71 9.80
Dynamic
Head
mm of Velocity, v Static Total Velocity, v
Point
H2O (x (ms-1) Head Head (ms-1)
Dyamic 0.05) Dynamic Static mm of Static, Total mm of
x height head (bottom Head, PD head H2O (x PSt head H2O (x
coordinate (y) reading inclined (N/m2) reading 0.1) (N/m2) reading 0.1)
370 0 0.00 35.00 1.75 17.16 5.34 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -120.00 -12.00 5.34
370 0 1.00 35.00 1.75 17.16 5.34 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -122.00 -12.20 5.34
370 0 2.00 34.00 1.70 16.67 5.26 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -122.00 -12.20 5.26
370 0 3.00 32.00 1.60 15.69 5.11 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -122.00 -12.20 5.11
370 0 4.00 31.00 1.55 15.20 5.02 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -123.00 -12.30 5.02
370 0 5.00 29.00 1.45 14.22 4.86 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -125.00 -12.50 4.86
370 0 6.00 27.00 1.35 13.24 4.69 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -127.00 -12.70 4.69
370 0 7.00 27.00 1.35 13.24 4.69 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -128.00 -12.80 4.69
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370 0 8.00 25.00 1.25 12.26 4.51 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -130.00 -13.00 4.51
370 0 9.00 24.00 1.20 11.77 4.42 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -130.00 -13.00 4.42
370 0 10.00 21.00 1.05 10.30 4.14 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -130.00 -13.00 4.14
370 0 15.00 20.00 1.00 9.81 4.04 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -134.00 -13.40 4.04
370 0 20.00 16.00 0.80 7.85 3.61 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -135.00 -13.50 3.61
370 0 30.00 12.00 0.60 5.88 3.13 -142.00 -14.20 -139.25 -136.00 -13.60 3.13
370 0 40.00 10.00 0.50 4.90 2.85 -142.00 -14.20 -139.25 -138.00 -13.80 2.85
370 0 60.00 6.00 0.30 2.94 2.21 -142.00 -14.20 -139.25 -135.00 -13.50 2.21
370 0 70.00 9.00 0.45 4.41 2.71 -142.00 -14.20 -139.25 -130.00 -13.00 2.71
370 0 80.00 10.00 0.50 4.90 2.85 -135.00 -13.50 -132.39 -125.00 -12.50 2.85
370 0 85.00 10.00 0.50 4.90 2.85 -131.00 -13.10 -128.47 -125.00 -12.50 2.85
370 0 90.00 8.00 0.40 3.92 2.55 -130.00 -13.00 -127.49 -121.00 -12.10 2.55
370 0 100.00 7.00 0.35 3.43 2.39 -125.00 -12.50 -122.58 -117.00 -11.70 2.39
370 0 120.00 7.00 0.35 3.43 2.39 -121.00 -12.10 -118.66 -117.00 -11.70 2.39
370 0 140.00 9.00 0.45 4.41 2.71 -120.00 -12.00 -117.68 -117.00 -11.70 2.71
370 0 160.00 17.00 0.85 8.34 3.72 -130.00 -13.00 -127.49 -114.00 -11.40 3.72
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370 0 1.00 -23.00 -2.30 -22.56 6.12 -137.00 -13.70 -134.35 -86.00 -8.60 6.12
370 0 2.00 -24.00 -2.40 -23.54 6.25 -139.00 -13.90 -136.31 -85.00 -8.50 6.25
370 0 3.00 -24.00 -2.40 -23.54 6.25 -138.00 -13.80 -135.33 -85.00 -8.50 6.25
370 0 4.00 -24.00 -2.40 -23.54 6.25 -139.00 -13.90 -136.31 -87.00 -8.70 6.25
370 0 5.00 -23.00 -2.30 -22.56 6.12 -139.00 -13.90 -136.31 -88.00 -8.80 6.12
370 0 6.00 -23.00 -2.30 -22.56 6.12 -139.00 -13.90 -136.31 -90.00 -9.00 6.12
370 0 7.00 -23.00 -2.30 -22.56 6.12 -139.00 -13.90 -136.31 -88.00 -8.80 6.12
370 0 8.00 -23.00 -2.30 -22.56 6.12 -139.00 -13.90 -136.31 -88.00 -8.80 6.12
370 0 9.00 -23.00 -2.30 -22.56 6.12 -139.00 -13.90 -136.31 -90.00 -9.00 6.12
370 0 10.00 -22.00 -2.20 -21.57 5.99 -139.00 -13.90 -136.31 -91.00 -9.10 5.99
370 0 15.00 -19.00 -1.90 -18.63 5.56 -139.00 -13.90 -136.31 -93.00 -9.30 5.56
370 0 20.00 -19.00 -1.90 -18.63 5.56 -139.00 -13.90 -136.31 -95.00 -9.50 5.56
370 0 30.00 -20.00 -2.00 -19.61 5.71 -139.00 -13.90 -136.31 -96.00 -9.60 5.71
370 0 40.00 -20.00 -2.00 -19.61 5.71 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -96.00 -9.60 5.71
370 0 60.00 -19.00 -1.90 -18.63 5.56 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -71.00 -7.10 5.56
370 0 70.00 74.00 7.40 72.57 10.98 -140.00 -14.00 -137.29 -40.00 -4.00 10.98
370 0 80.00 79.00 7.90 77.47 11.34 -139.00 -13.90 -136.31 -20.00 -2.00 11.34
370 0 85.00 87.00 8.70 85.32 11.90 -136.00 -13.60 -133.37 -16.00 -1.60 11.90
370 0 90.00 90.00 9.00 88.26 12.11 -130.00 -13.00 -127.49 -14.00 -1.40 12.11
370 0 100.00 94.00 9.40 92.18 12.37 -127.00 -12.70 -124.54 -10.00 -1.00 12.37
370 0 120.00 84.00 8.40 82.38 11.70 -120.00 -12.00 -117.68 -5.00 -0.50 11.70
370 0 140.00 48.00 4.80 47.07 8.84 -121.00 -12.10 -118.66 -10.00 -1.00 8.84
370 0 160.00 37.00 3.70 36.28 7.76 -130.00 -13.00 -127.49 -19.00 -1.90 7.76
Paramesh Nirmal 69
Northumbria University Final Year Project
2009-2010
Pitot facing
the front
Paramesh Nirmal 70
Northumbria University Final Year Project
2009-2010
Pitot facing
the rear
Paramesh Nirmal 71
Northumbria University Final Year Project
2009-2010
Paramesh Nirmal 72
Northumbria University Final Year Project
2009-2010
Paramesh Nirmal 73
Northumbria University Final Year Project
2009-2010
3 59.00 40.00 4.00 39.23 -36.00 -3.60 -35.30 -4.00 -0.40 -3.92 3.92 8.07
3 61.00 42.00 4.20 41.19 -34.00 -3.40 -33.34 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 7.85 8.27
3 63.00 28.00 2.80 27.46 -34.00 -3.40 -33.34 -5.00 -0.50 -4.90 -5.88 6.75
3 65.00 12.00 1.20 11.77 -31.00 -3.10 -30.40 -15.00 -1.50 -14.71 -18.63 4.42
4 60.00 -36.00 -3.60 -35.30 -40.00 -4.00 -39.23 -65.00 -6.50 -63.74 -74.53 7.66
4 62.00 -25.00 -2.50 -24.52 -40.00 -4.00 -39.23 -58.00 -5.80 -56.88 -63.74 6.38
4 64.00 -6.00 -0.60 -5.88 -40.00 -4.00 -39.23 -50.00 -5.00 -49.03 -45.11 3.13
4 66.00 29.00 2.90 28.44 -40.00 -4.00 -39.23 -27.00 -2.70 -26.48 -10.79 6.87
4 68.00 32.00 3.20 31.38 -40.00 -4.00 -39.23 -8.00 -0.80 -7.85 -7.85 7.22
4 70.00 35.00 3.50 34.32 -40.00 -4.00 -39.23 -6.00 -0.60 -5.88 -4.90 7.55
4 75.00 39.00 3.90 38.25 -40.00 -4.00 -39.23 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 -0.98 7.97
4 80.00 40.00 4.00 39.23 -40.00 -4.00 -39.23 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 0.00 8.07
4 90.00 40.00 4.00 39.23 -41.00 -4.10 -40.21 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 -0.98 8.07
4 110.00 40.00 4.00 39.23 -40.00 -4.00 -39.23 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 0.00 8.07
4 130.00 40.00 4.00 39.23 -40.00 -4.00 -39.23 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 0.00 8.07
5 67.00 151.00 15.10 148.08 -157.00 -15.70 -153.96 -31.00 -3.10 -30.40 -5.88 15.68
5 69.00 137.00 13.70 134.35 -138.00 -13.80 -135.33 -10.00 -1.00 -9.81 -0.98 14.94
5 71.00 135.00 13.50 132.39 -136.00 -13.60 -133.37 -6.00 -0.60 -5.88 -0.98 14.83
5 73.00 134.00 13.40 131.41 -135.00 -13.50 -132.39 -5.00 -0.50 -4.90 -0.98 14.77
5 75.00 133.00 13.30 130.43 -134.00 -13.40 -131.41 -4.00 -0.40 -3.92 -0.98 14.72
5 77.00 132.00 13.20 129.45 -132.00 -13.20 -129.45 -4.00 -0.40 -3.92 0.00 14.66
5 82.00 130.00 13.00 127.49 -128.00 -12.80 -125.53 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 1.96 14.55
5 87.00 127.00 12.70 124.54 -123.00 -12.30 -120.62 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 3.92 14.38
5 97.00 121.00 12.10 118.66 -116.00 -11.60 -113.76 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 4.90 14.04
5 117.00 115.00 11.50 112.78 -109.00 -10.90 -106.89 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 5.88 13.69
5 137.00 107.00 10.70 104.93 -108.00 -10.80 -105.91 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 -0.98 13.20
Paramesh Nirmal 74
Northumbria University Final Year Project
2009-2010
7 40.00 86.00 8.60 84.34 -87.00 -8.70 -85.32 -8.00 -0.80 -7.85 -0.98 11.84
7 42.00 83.00 8.30 81.40 -87.00 -8.70 -85.32 -6.00 -0.60 -5.88 -3.92 11.63
7 44.00 82.00 8.20 80.41 -86.00 -8.60 -84.34 -5.00 -0.50 -4.90 -3.92 11.56
7 46.00 82.00 8.20 80.41 -85.00 -8.50 -83.36 -4.00 -0.40 -3.92 -2.94 11.56
7 48.00 82.00 8.20 80.41 -85.00 -8.50 -83.36 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 -2.94 11.56
7 50.00 82.00 8.20 80.41 -84.00 -8.40 -82.38 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 -1.96 11.56
7 55.00 81.00 8.10 79.43 -84.00 -8.40 -82.38 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 -2.94 11.49
7 60.00 82.00 8.20 80.41 -84.00 -8.40 -82.38 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 -1.96 11.56
7 70.00 83.00 8.30 81.40 -84.00 -8.40 -82.38 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 -0.98 11.63
7 90.00 84.00 8.40 82.38 -85.00 -8.50 -83.36 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 -0.98 11.70
7 110.00 85.00 8.50 83.36 -86.00 -8.60 -84.34 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 -0.98 11.77
7.5 30.00 96.00 9.60 94.14 -97.00 -9.70 -95.12 -6.00 -0.60 -5.88 -0.98 12.50
7.5 32.00 95.00 9.50 93.16 -96.00 -9.60 -94.14 -5.00 -0.50 -4.90 -0.98 12.44
7.5 34.00 95.00 9.50 93.16 -95.00 -9.50 -93.16 -4.00 -0.40 -3.92 0.00 12.44
7.5 36.00 94.00 9.40 92.18 -92.00 -9.20 -90.22 -4.00 -0.40 -3.92 1.96 12.37
7.5 38.00 93.00 9.30 91.20 -93.00 -9.30 -91.20 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 0.00 12.31
7.5 40.00 90.00 9.00 88.26 -91.00 -9.10 -89.24 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 -0.98 12.11
7.5 45.00 86.00 8.60 84.34 -88.00 -8.80 -86.30 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 -1.96 11.84
7.5 50.00 82.00 8.20 80.41 -86.00 -8.60 -84.34 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 -3.92 11.56
7.5 60.00 78.00 7.80 76.49 -82.00 -8.20 -80.41 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 -3.92 11.27
7.5 80.00 74.00 7.40 72.57 -80.00 -8.00 -78.45 -2.00 -0.20 -1.96 -5.88 10.98
7.5 100.00 76.00 7.60 74.53 -77.00 -7.70 -75.51 -3.00 -0.30 -2.94 -0.98 11.13
Paramesh Nirmal 75
Northumbria University Final Year Project
2009-2010
Total
head
Dynamic Static Total reading Total
Height Head Head Static Head Total from Head Total
above Dynamic mm of Dynamic Static mm of Head, Theoretical Total mm of Head, Total mm of Head,
datumn head H2O (x Head, Pd Head H2O (x Ps Total Head Head H2O (x PT head H2O (x PT
(h/mm) reading 0.1) (N/m2) Reading 0.1) (N/m2) (Pth) N/m2 Reading 0.1) (N/m2) tube 0.1) (N/m2)
0.0 74 7.4 72.57 -75 -7.5 -73.55 -0.98 -2 -0.2 -1.96 -8 -0.8 -7.85
20.0 75 7.5 73.55 -75 -7.5 -73.55 0.00 -2 -0.2 -1.96 -2 -0.2 -1.96
40.0 75 7.5 73.55 -75 -7.5 -73.55 0.00 -2 -0.2 -1.96 -3 -0.3 -2.94
60.0 74 7.4 72.57 -74 -7.4 -72.57 0.00 -2 -0.2 -1.96 -3 -0.3 -2.94
80.0 72 7.2 70.61 -73 -7.3 -71.59 -0.98 -2 -0.2 -1.96 -2 -0.2 -1.96
100.0 72 7.2 70.61 -72 -7.2 -70.61 0.00 -3 -0.3 -2.94 -2 -0.2 -1.96
120.0 72 7.2 70.61 -72 -7.2 -70.61 0.00 -3 -0.3 -2.94 -2 -0.2 -1.96
140.0 71 7.1 69.63 -70 -7 -68.65 0.98 -4 -0.4 -3.92 -6 -0.6 -5.88
160.0 66 6.6 64.72 -70 -7 -68.65 -3.92 -10 -1 -9.81 -11 -1.1 -10.79
Paramesh Nirmal 76
Northumbria University Final Year Project
2009-2010
The following table shows the estimated costs involved in the project and an estimated total
cost:
Paramesh Nirmal 77
Northumbria University Final Year Project
2009-2010
Design Apparatus
Build Apparatus
Acquire car shells
Wind tunnel preliminary testing
Compare results
Discussion of results
Conclude
Hand in final document to Reaz
Final improvements
02-Nov
09-Nov
16-Nov
23-Nov
30-Nov
05-Oct
12-Oct
19-Oct
26-Oct
04-Jan
11-Jan
18-Jan
25-Jan
01-Feb
08-Feb
15-Feb
22-Feb
28-Sep
07-Dec
14-Dec
21-Dec
28-Dec
01-Mar
08-Mar
15-Mar
22-Mar
29-Mar
05-Apr
Paramesh Nirmal 78
Northumbria University Final Year Project
2009-2010
Paramesh Nirmal 79
Northumbria University Final Year Project
2009-2010
Paramesh Nirmal 80
Northumbria University Final Year Project
2009-2010
School of Computing, Engineering and Information Sciences
Project Details
The shapes of cars have changed in the past few decades to enhance them
aerodynamically. New cars are streamlined to reduce fuel emissions and improve
performance by increasing their aerodynamic characteristics. Car shapes are tested,
experimentally and mathematically; ideally, using a wind tunnel and computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) software.
To establish an experimental technique to install the models in the wind tunnel and
obtain experimental data. To test the aerodynamics of different car shapes using the
wind tunnel and CFD software. To understand what makes the flow features different
around different car shapes.
- Design and build an experimental facility to measure pressure, drag force, flow
velocity etc in the wind tunnel.
- Test and establish the accuracy of this facility.
- Fully test at least 3 different car shapes in both the wind tunnel and using CFD.
- Both results are analysed and compared.
- Understand the differences between the two methods and their accuracy.
Paramesh Nirmal 81
Northumbria University Final Year Project
2009-2010
The instruments used in the project are not significantly dangerous. The only hazard
that can be considered is the rotating blades of the wind tunnel. However, the rotating
blades are protected by a cage to ensure safety.
Other people/colleagues working in the lab may be at risk if they accidently get
caught with the rotating blades of the wind tunnel.
Risk Control
Are you aware that no one is allowed to work alone in the laboratory? YES
I should ensure that I keep my hands away from the rotating blades of the wind tunnel
to prevent any accidents. Any small parts/tools should be kept at a distance from the
rotating blades to prevent accidents. It would be necessary to take precautions
ensuring that nobody but myself gets too close to the equipment.
When will you and your supervisor review the risk assessment?
Date:……………………
Paramesh Nirmal 82