Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
When a metal is exposed to ___________ forces, what
parameters are used to _______ force magnitude and
degree of deformation?
What is the distinction between __________ and plastic
deformations?
How are the following ___________ characteristics of
metals measured?
(a) Stiffness
(b) Strength
(c) _________
(d) Hardness
What parameters are used to quantify these properties?
Chapter 6 - 1

Common States of Stress

Simple _______:
cable

F F = force

A o = cross-sectional
Ski lift (photo courtesy
area of cable (___________) P.M. Anderson)

F
Tensile stress = =
A0

Chapter 6 - 2

Common States of Stress (cont.)

______ (a form of shear):
drive shaft

M = moment
Ac

Ski lift (photo courtesy

M F P.M. Anderson)
2R As

AC = cross-sectional F M
area of drive shaft
= =
As AcR
(with no load)

Chapter 6 - 3

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Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

OTHER COMMON _______ STATES (i)

Simple ______________:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: structure members

Balanced Rock, Arches = are under compression
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (F < 0 and < 0).

Chapter 6 - 4

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)

Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic ____________:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
> 0

z > 0 h < 0

Chapter 6 - 5

Stress-Strain Testing
Typical tensile test Typical _______
____________ specimen

extensometer specimen

Fig. 6.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 10e.

Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

(Taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
Chapter 6 - 6

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Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Engineering Stress
________ stress, : ________ stress, :
F

Area, Ao
F
Area, Ao

F
F = F
F Ao
=
Ao Units for stress:
___________________ MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/m2 or lbf /in2
area before loading

Chapter 6 - 7

Engineering Strain
________ strain (z): Lateral strain (x):
l/2
- d
z = l x =
lo do lo d0

d/2
_____ strain ():

x = x/y = ____

y Both tensile and shear strain

are ________________

Chapter 6 - 8

Useful Linear Elastic Relationships

Simple ___________:

l = Fl o
EA o
Fd o
d = -
EA o Ao

Deflection is dependent on
_____________________
loading parameters.
Materials with large ______
moduli deform less

Chapter 6 - 9

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Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Useful Linear Elastic Relationships

Simple _________
(cont.)
M = moment
32 Ml o
= = angle of twist
do4 G

lo

do

Chapter 6 - 10

Linear Elastic Properties

Elastic deformation is nonpermanent and _________!
generally valid at small deformations
linear stress strain curve
____________________, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)
tension
Hooke's Law: E
=E

Linear-
Units: compression elastic
E: [GPa] or [psi]
1 GPa = 109 Pa

Chapter 6 - 11

Elastic Modulus Comparison of

Material Types
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
10 00 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
C FRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
10 0 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
Magnesium,
Tin G FRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
40
Concrete Composite data based on
20 GFRE* reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
CFRE *
G FRE( fibers)*
of aligned
G raphite
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 C FRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDP E
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTF E
0.4

0.2 LDPE
Chapter 6 - 12

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Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Elastic Deformation
Atomic configurationsbefore, during, after load (force) application

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. ______

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
l
= metal atom
F
Force, F Linear-
elastic
Elastic deformation is Non-Linear-
nonpermanent and _________! elastic
l
Chapter 6 - 13

Influence of Bonding Forces

________________ depends on interatomic bonding
forces
Modulus ____________ to slope of interatomic force-
! dF $
interatomic separation curve # &
" dr %ro

Stongly bonded
larger E
Interatomic

Interatomic
Force F

Separation r

Weakly bonded Fig. 6.7, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

smaller E

Chapter 6 - 14

Poisson's ratio
____________________, :
z
compression

z
=-
x x

______: ~ 0.33 -
ceramics: ~ 0.25
tension
polymers: ~ 0.40

Units: For most _______, ceramics and

: dimensionless polymers:
0.15 < 0.50

Chapter 6 - 15

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Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Other Elastic Properties

M = moment
Elastic ______
_________, G: simple
G torsion
=G test

0
M
hydrostatic
Elastic ______
P P= pressure
__________, K:
V K P P
P = -K
Vo -V
Pressure test:
Init. vol. = Vo
0 Vo Vol. chg. = V
Elastic constant relationships for _________ materials:
E E
G= K=
2(1 + ) _______
Chapter 6 - 16

Plastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial 2. Apply load 3. _______
bonds
stretch atoms
_________ remain
_________ _______

l plastic
l elastic + _______
= metal atom
F
F
_____________ is permanent linear linear
and nonrecoverable. elastic elastic
l
l plastic
Chapter 6 - 17

Plastic Deformation
Plastic Deformation is ___________________________
Stress-strain plot for simple ______ test:
Stressed into
Plastic Region,
stress, _____ + Plastic

Elastic
Deformation
Stress Removed,
Plastic Deformation
Remains

p strain,

_______ strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),

Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 6 - 18

6
Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Yield Strength
Transition from elastic to plastic deformation is ______
Yield strength = stress at which noticeable plastic deformation
has occurred
when p = 0.002
(stress)
y = _____________
y

Note: for 5 cm sample

= ______ = z/z
z = __________

(strain)
p = _______ Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),
Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
Chapter 6 - 19

Yield Strength Comparison of

Material Types
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, y (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a
in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)
since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a Room temperature
Steel (1020) cd
300 values
Hard to measure ,

Hard to measure,

Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure) Based on data in Table B.4,
Cu (71500) hr Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
100 a = annealed
dry hr = hot rolled
70 PC
60 Nylon 6,6
ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid cw = cold worked
PP qt = quenched & tempered
30 HDPE
20

LDPE
Tin (pure)
10 Chapter 6 - 20

VMSE: Virtual Tensile Testing

Chapter 6 - 21

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Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Tensile Strength
Tensile strength (TS) = maximum stress on _____________
stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,

TS Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Fracture
y
_________
engineering
stress

Neck acts
as stress
Typical response of a metal concentrator

strain
engineering strain
______: Maximum on stress-strain curve appears at the onset
of noticeable ____________
Chapter 6 - 22

Tensile Strength: Comparison of

Material Types
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

A FRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)
Cu (71500) cw Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr
Steel (1020) Al oxide Room temperature
300 Al (6061) ag
200
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a Based on data in Table B4,
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET a = annealed
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber)
PP CFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
30
HDPE
A FRE( fiber) ag = aged
20 Graphite cd = cold drawn
LDPE cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber) composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 Chapter 6 - 23

Ductility
Ductility = amount of plastic _____________ at failure:
Specification of ductility
-- Percent elongation:
l l
%EL = f 0 x 100
l0
A0 Af
-- ____________________: %RA = x 100
A0
low ductility

tensile Ao
_______, lo Af lf
high ductility

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,

Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

tensile strain,
Chapter 6 - 24

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Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Resilience
Resilienceability of a material to absorb _______
during elastic deformation
Energy recovered when load released
Resilience specified by _________________, Ur

Ur = Area under stress-strain curve

y
to yielding = 0
d

If assume a _____ stress-strain

curve this simplifies to

1
y Ur y y
2
Fig. 6.15, Callister & Rethwisch 10e. Chapter 6 - 25

Toughness
Toughness of a material is expressed in several contexts
For this chapter, toughness = amount of energy absorbed
before fracture
Approximate by area under the stress-strain curveunits
of energy per unit volume
small toughness (____________)
tensile large toughness (__________)
stress,
very small toughness
(_________________)

tensile strain,
Brittle fracture: small toughness
Ductile fracture: large toughness
Chapter 6 - 26

True Stress & Strain

True _____ _____________ where Ai = instantaneous
True strain ____________
T = ln ( i o ) area

Conversion Equations:
valid only to the onset
of necking

T = (1+ )
T = ln (1+ )

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
Chapter 6 - 27

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Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

True Stress-True Strain Relationship

Most alloys, between point of ______ and onset of necking
n
T = K T ( )
-- n and K values depend on alloy and treatment
-- n = _________________ exponent
-- n < 1.0
T vs. T -- influence of n.
T
larger n

small n

T Chapter 6 - 28

Elastic Strain Recovery

yield strength for 2nd
D
deformation = yi
initial yield strength = yo
2. Unload
Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain

Fig. 6.17, Callister & Elastic strain

Rethwisch 10e. recovery
Chapter 6 - 29

Hardness
Measure of resistance to ____________ deformation
dent or scratch.
Large _________ means:
-- high resistance to ____________ from compressive loads.
-- better ________ properties.
apply known force measure size
one indenter type- of indent after
10 mm sphere
removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness

Chapter 6 - 30

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Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Measurement of Hardness
Rockwell Hardness
Several scalescombination of load __________, indenter size

Examples:
________ A Scale 60 kg load/diamond indenter
Superficial Rockwell 15T Scale 15 kg load/ 1/16 in. indenter
Rockwell hardness designation: (hardness reading) HR
Examples: 57 HRA; 63 HR15T
Hardness range for each scale: 0-130 HR;
useful range: 20-100 HR
Chapter 6 - 31

Measurement of Hardness (cont.)

Brinell Hardness
Single scale
_________ hardness designation: (hardness
reading) HB

P = load (kg)
500 kg P 3000 kg (500 kg increments)
Relationships_____ hardness & tensile strength
TS (psia) = 500 x HB
TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 - 32

Variability of Material Properties

Measured material propertiesalways scatter in
values for same material
Statistical treatments
Typical valuetake ___________ , x for some
parameter x:
n

x
n = number of measurements
x = i=1 i
n
xi = specific measured value

Degree of scatteruse ________________, s 1

#n 2 &2
(
% xi x
s = %i = 1
) (
(
% n1 (
$ '
Chapter 6 - 33

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Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Design/Safety Factors
Because of design _____________ allowances must
be made to protect against unanticipated failure
For structural applications, to protect against possibility
of failureuse working stress, w, and a
factor of ___________, N

_______ strength
y
w =
N
Depending on application,
N is between 1.2 and 4

Chapter 6 - 34

Design/Safety Factors (cont.)

Example Problem: A cylindrical rod, to be constructed from
a steel that has a yield strength of 310 MPa, is to withstand
a load of 220,000 N without yielding. Assuming a value of 4
for N, specify a suitable bar diameter.

y d
w =
N Steel rod:
220,000 N y = 310 MPa
2 __
!d $
# &
"2% F = 220,000 N

Solving for the rod diameter d yields

d = __________________
Chapter 6 - 35

Summary
Applied mechanical forcenormalized to stress

Degree of deformationnormalized to strain

Elastic deformation:
--non-permanent; occurs at low levels of stress
--stress-strain behavior is linear

Plastic deformation
--permanent; occurs at higher levels of stress
--stress-strain behavior is nonlinear

Stiffnessa material's resistance to elastic deformation

--elastic (or Young's) modulus

Chapter 6 - 36

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Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

Summary (cont.)

Strengtha material's resistance to plastic deformation

--yield and tensile strengths

Ductilityamount of plastic deformation at failure

--percents elongation, reduction in area

Hardnessresistance to localized surface deformation

& compressive stresses
--Rockwell, Brinell hardnesses

Chapter 6 - 37

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