7 A FDM - FM - PM

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Frequency-division multiplexing is the positioning of signal spectra in frequency

such that each signal spectrum can be separated out from all the others by
filtering.
ERG2310B-II p. II-45
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Example: commercial radio and

television receiver
Intermediate Frequency (IF)
Heterodyning means the translating or shifting in frequency.

In the heterodyne receiver the incoming modulated signal is translated in
frequency, thus occupying an equal bandwidth centered about a new frequency,
known as an intermediate frequency (IF), which is fixed and is not dependent
on the received signal center frequency.
The signal is amplified at the IF before demodulation.
If this intermediate frequency is lower than the received carrier frequency but
above the final output signal frequency, it is called a superheterodyne receiver.
Advantage:
The amplification and filtering is performed at a fixed frequency regardless of
station selection.
Disadvantage:
Image-frequency problem
Two ways to solve this problem
i. Choose the intermediate frequency as high
as possible and practical.
ii. Attenuate the image frequency before
heterodyning.
The intermediate frequency chosen must be

free from other strong transmissions or
otherwise the receivers will amplify these
spurious signals as they leak into the high-
gain IF stages.
Example:
A given radar receiver operating at a frequency of 2.80 GHz and using the super-
heterodyne principle has a local oscillator frequency of 2.86 GHz . A second radar
receiver operates at the image frequency of the first and interference results.
(a) Determine the intermediate frequency of the first radar receiver.

(b) What is the carrier frequency of the second receiver?
(c) If you were to redesign the radar receiver, what is the minimum intermediate
frequency you would choose to prevent image-frequency problems in the
2.80-3.00 GHz radar band?
Solution:
(a) f IF = f LO f c = 2 .86 GHz 2 .80 GHz = 60 MHz.
(b) f IMAGE = f c + 2 f IF = 2 .80 GHz + 0 .12 GHz = 2 .92 GHz.
(c) 2 f IF f MAX f MIN = 3 .00 GHz 2 .80 GHz = 0 .20 GHz; f IF 100MHz.
Image frequency
Angle Modulation
A continuous-wave (CW) sinusoidal signal can be varied by changing

its amplitude and its phase angle.
s (t ) = A(t ) cos[ c t + (t )]
To carry a message signal x(t):
Amplitude modulation:
Keep (t) constant and varies A(t) proportionally to x(t).
s (t ) = A(t ) cos [ c t + o ] where A(t) x (t )
Angle modulation:
Keep A(t) constant and varies [ct+(t)]proportionally to x(t).
s (t ) = A cos [ c t + (t ) ] where [ c t + (t) ] x (t )
Angle Modulation
Phasor Representation
The phasor representation of a constant-amplitude sinusoid is shown as
follows
i(t) A: magnitude of the phasor

(t): phase angle
(t) (t ) = c t + (t ) + o
i(t) : instantaneous angular rate
d (t ) d (t )
i (t ) = = c +
dt dt
t
(t ) = i ( )d + 0
0
Angle Modulation
If the phase (t) is varied linearly with the input signal x(t) , we have
(t ) = c t + k p x (t ) + 0 i .e. (t) x (t)
where c,kp ,0 are constants.
As the phase is linearly related to x(t), this type of angle modulation

is called phase modulation (PM) with
s PM (t ) = Ac cos[ c t + k p x (t ) + o ]
and , (t) is called instantaneous phase deviation.
d (t ) d (t ) dx(t )
i (t ) = = c + i(PM) = c + k p
dt dt dt
Angle Modulation
If the instantaneous frequency iproportional to the input signal, we have

d (t) d (t ) d (t )
i ( FM ) (t ) = c + k f x (t ) x(t) Q i (t ) = = c +
dt dt dt
t
(t) = c t + k f x ( ) d + o
0
where c,kf are constants.

As the frequency is linearly related to x(t), this type of angular modulation is called
frequency modulation (FM) , with
t
s FM (t ) = Ac cos[ c t + k f x ( ) d +
0
o ]
and; d (t) is called instantaneous frequency deviation.

dt
Angle Modulation
Phase Modulation (PM) Frequency Modulation (FM)
Instantaneous dx(t )
i(PM) = c + k p i ( FM ) (t ) = c + k f x (t )
angular rate dt
Modulated signal t
s PM (t ) = Ac cos[ c t + k p x(t ) + o ] s FM (t ) = Ac cos[ c t + k f x ( ) d +

0
o ]
Proportionality d (t)
(t) x (t) x(t)
dt
Angle Modulation
FM and PM Waveforms
Angle Modulation: Fourier spectra
Consider an angle-modulated signal s (t ) = Ac cos [ c t + (t ) ]
{
= Re Ac e j [ c t + ( t ) ] }
= Re {A e c
j c t
e j ( t )}
Expand ej(t) in a power series, gives
j c t 2 (t ) n (t )
n

s (t ) = Re Ac e 1 + j (t ) L+ j + L
2! n!
2 (t ) 3 (t )
= Ac cos c t (t ) sin c t cos c t + sin c t + L
2! 3!
The signal consists of an unmodulated carrier plus various amplitude-

modulated terms, such as (t)sinct,2(t)cosct,3(t)sinct, , etc.
Hence the Fourier spectrum consists of an unmodulated carrier plus spectra
(sidebands) of (t),2(t),3(t), , etc., centered at c.
Angle Modulation: Narrowband
If |(t)|max << 1 , then, by neglecting the higher-power terms of (t)
in the s(t) , gives
s (t ) Ac cos c t A c (t ) sin c t
which is called the narrowband (NB) angle-modulated signal.

s NBPM (t ) Ac cos c t Ac k p x(t ) sin c t
t
s NBFM (t ) Ac cos c t Ac k f x( )d sin c t
0
Angle Modulation: NBFM (Sinusoid)
Narrowband FM (NBFM)
Consider x(t ) = a m cos m t
For FM, i = c + k f x(t )
= c + a m k f cos m t
where kf is the frequency modulation constant; typical units are in radians
per second per volt.
Define a new constant called the peak (maximum) frequency deviation,

= a m k f
thus, we have
i = c + cos m t
Angle Modulation: NBFM (Sinusoid)
The phase of this FM signal is
t
(t ) = i ( )d + 0
0
t
= [ c + cos m ]d + 0
0

= ct + sin m t + 0 0 is set to zero for convenience.
m

= c t + sin m t where =
m
Thus, the resulting FM signal is
{
s FM (t ) = Re Ac e j ( t ) }
= Ac cos( c t + sin m t )
= Ac cos c t cos( sin m t ) Ac sin c t sin( sin m t )
For narrowband FM (NBFM) , is very small so that
cos( sin m t ) 1, sin( sin m t ) sin m t
Thus,
s NBFM (t ) = Ac cos c t Ac sin m t sin c t
The parameter is called the modulation index of the FM signal.
Angle Modulation: NBPM (Sinusoid)
Narrowband PM (NBPM)
Consider x(t ) = a m sin m t
The phase of this PM signal is
(t ) = c t + k p x (t ) + 0
= c t + k p a m sin m t + 0 0 is set to zero for convenience.
= c t + sin m t = k p am
The resulting PM signal is
{
s PM (t ) = Re Ae j ( t ) }
= Ac cos( c t + k p a sin m t )
= Ac cos c t cos( sin m t ) Ac sin c t sin( sin m t )
For narrowband PM (NBPM), is very small,
cos( sin m t ) 1, sin( sin m t ) sin m t
Thus,
s NBPM (t ) = Ac cos c t Ac sin m t sin c t
Angle Modulation: NB (Sinusoid)
In summary, if the message signal x(t) is a pure sinusoid, that is,
a sin m t forPM
x(t ) = m
a m cos m t forFM
Then, (t ) = sin m t
k p am for PM

where = k f a m
= for FM
m m
: peak frequency deviation
Note that is known as modulation index for angle modulation and is the
maximum value of phase deviation for both PM and FM.
It is only defined for sinusoidal modulation.
If (t) has a bandwidth of WB, the NB angle-modulated signal will have a

bandwidth of 2WB.
Angle Modulation: Sinusoid
s (t ) = Ac cos( c t + sin m t )
{
= Ac Re e j c t e j sin m t }
The exponential e j sin mt is a periodic function of time with a fundamental
frequency of m rad/sec. It can be expanded in a Fourier series.

m

e j sin m t
= c
n =
n e jn m t where cn = m
2
e
j sin m t
e jn mt dt
m

Setting mt=y, then 1

j ( sin y ny )
cn = e dt = J n ( )
2
where Jn() is the Bessel function of the first kind of order n and argument .
j c t jn m t
s (t ) = Ac Ree

n =
J n ( )e

= Ac Re J n ( )e j ( c + n m )t
n =

s (t ) = Ac J
n =
n ( ) cos( c + n m )t
Bessel function of the first kind of order n and argument : Jn().

s ( t ) = Ac J
n =
n ( ) cos( c + n m )t J ( )
J n ( ) = n
n even

J n ( ) n odd
= Ac J 0 ( ) cos( c t )
+ Ac J 1 ( ) cos( c + m )t + Ac J 1 ( ) cos( c m )t
+ Ac J 2 ( ) cos( c + 2 m )t + Ac J 2 ( ) cos( c 2 m )t
+ Ac J 3 ( ) cos( c + 3 m )t + Ac J 3 ( ) cos( c 3 m )t
+ LL
Spectra

s ( t ) = Ac J
n =
n ( ) cos( c + n m )t
When =0 J0(0) =1 and all other Jn are zero

Only the carrier (no modulation, no sidebands)
The spectrum consists of carrier-frequency component plus an infinite

number of sideband components at frequencies c nm (n=1,2,3,).
The relative amplitudes of the spectral lines depend on the value of Jn(),
and the value of Jn() becomes very small for large values of n.
The number of significant spectral lines (that is, having appreciable relative
amplitude) is a function of the modulation index .
With <<1, only J0 and J1 are significant, so the spectrum will consist of
carrier and two sideband lines.
But if >>1, there will be many sideband lines.

Consider the average power of s (t ) = Ac
n =
J n ( ) cos( c + n m ) t

s (t ) = A
2 2
c
n =
J n2 ( ) cos 2 ( c + n m ) t

+ A 2
c
n =
J m ( ) J n ( ) cos( c + n m ) t cos( c + m m ) t
m =
nm

A c2
=
2

n =
J n2 ( )

A c2
=
2
Q
n =
J n2 ( ) = 1
Thus the average power dissipated by the angle-modulated signal over a 1-

ohm resistor is 2
Ac
Ps =
2
Angle Modulation: Bandwidth

s ( t ) = Ac J
n =
n ( ) cos( c + n m )t
The bandwidth of the angle-modulated signal with sinusoidal modulation depends

on and m.
In principle, the number of sidebands is infinite the required bandwidth to

encompass such a signal is also infinite.
In practice, large portion of the total power is confined to a finite number of

sidebands (finite bandwidth)
no serious distortion of the signal results if the sidebands outside this
bandwidth are lost.
Experiments show that as long as more than 98% of the total signal power is
retained within a certain bandwidth (after a filter/channel), the distortion is
tolerable.
Angle Modulation: Bandwidth
2 Ac2 2
[ ]

Ac2 Ac2
s (t ) =
2
2

n =
2
nJ ( ) =
2 J 0 ( ) + 2 J n ( ) = 2 J 0 ( ) + 2 J 1 ( ) + 2 J 2 ( ) + 2 J 3 ( ) + L
n =1
2

2 2 2
Table for Bessel function J n ( )
Single underlined: >70% power confined; double underlined: >98% power confined
Angle Modulation: Bandwidth (FM)

s ( t ) = Ac J n ( ) cos( c + n m )t
n =
=
m

For small ( << 1) only J0 and J1 are significant, so the spectrum will consist
of carrier and two sideband lines.
W B 2 m Narrowband FM
cM c c+M
For 1, the spectrum, which confines >98% of total power, will consist of
carrier and more sideband lines, from the table of Bessel function, we observe
Thus, n>98% ( + 1)
W B 2 ( + 1) m or W B 2( + m )
For very large ( >> 1), W B 2 m or2

Thus,
W B 2 Wideband FM
Angle Modulation: Bandwidth (FM,PM)
k p am for PM
Recall:
= k f a m
= for FM
m m
FM PM
<< 1 W B 2 m W B 2 m
1 W B 2 ( + 1) m W B 2 ( + 1) m
>> 1 W B 2 W B 2 m
Consider am = constant, 1
no change forPM forPM

m ;W B
forFM slightly or no change forFM
Angle Modulation: Line Spectra for FM

s (t ) = Ac J n ( ) cos( c + n m )t
=
n = m
Constant m Constant
Angle Modulation: Arbitrary
The modulation index is only defined for sinusoidal message signal
For arbitrary message signal x(t),which is bandlimited to M, we define
peak frequency deviation

D= =
bandwidthof x(t) M
Bandwidth
WB 2( D + 1) M
If D<<1, then WB 2 M
If D>>1, then WB 2
Angle Modulation: Example
Example: Consider an angle-modulated signal s(t)=10cos[(108)t+5sin2(103)t].

Find the maximum phase deviation and maximum frequency deviation.
Solution:
(t ) = c t + (t ) = (10 8 ) t + 5 sin 2 (10 3 )t
and (t ) = 5 sin 2 (10 3 )t

' (t ) = 5(2 )(10 3 ) cos 2 (10 3 )t
Thus, maximum phase deviation is |(t)|max = 5 rad;
maximum frequency deviation is = |(t)|max =5(2)(103) rad/s

=104 rad/s (or f=5kHz)
Angle Modulation: Example
Example: Consider an angle-modulated signal s(t)=10cos(ct+3sinmt].
Assume PM and fm=1kHz, s PM (t ) = A cos[ c t + k p x(t )] = 10 cos( c t + 3 sin m t )
With x(t ) = a m sin m t s PM (t ) = 10 cos( c t + k p a m sin m t )
Thus, the modulation index = k p a m = 3 and bandwidth WB 2( + 1) f m = 8kHz
When fm is doubled, fm=2kHz, =3, and thus bandwidth WB=2(3+1)2=16kHz
When fm is halved, fm=0.5kHz, =3, and thus bandwidth WB=2(3+1)0.5=4kHz
t
Assume FM and fm=1kHz, s FM (t ) = A cos[ c t + k f x( )d ] = 10 cos( c t + 3 sin m t )

0
k f am
With x(t ) = a m cos m
s FM (t ) = 10 cos( c t +
t sin m t )
m
k f am
Thus, the modulation index = = 3 and bandwidth W B 2 ( + 1) f m = 8 kHz
m
When fm is doubled, fm=2kHz, =3/2, and thus bandwidth WB=2(3/2+1)2=10kHz
When fm is halved, fm=0.5kHz, =6, and thus bandwidth WB=2(6+1)0.5=7kHz
Angle Modulation: Generation
Generation of narrowband angle-modulated signal:
NBPM: s NBPM (t ) Ac cos c t Ac k p x(t ) sin c t
x(t) sNBPM(t)
kp
+
Acsinct
/2
Accosct
t
NBFM: s NBFM (t ) Ac cos c t Ac k f x( )d sin c t
0
x(t)
sNBFM(t)
kf
+
Acsinct
/2
Accosct
Generation of wideband angle-modulated signal:
Indirect Method: - produce a narrowband angle-modulated signal first;
- convert to wideband signal by using frequency multiplier
s NB (t ) = Ac cos[ c t + (t )] sWB (t ) = Ac cos[ n c t + n (t )]
Frequency
multiplier
For example, the input-output characteristic of an ideal square-law device is

v o (t ) = av i2 (t ).
If the input signal is the FM signal, v i (t ) = A cos( c t + sin m t ),
the output is vo (t ) = aAc2 cos 2 (c t + sin mt )
= (1 / 2)aAc2 + (1 / 2)aAc2 cos(2ct + 2 sin mt )
1444442444443
frequency doubled signal
Similarly, use of an nth law device followed by a filter yields a carrier and a
modulation index that have been increased by a factor of n.
Use of frequency multiplication increases the carrier of the FM signal as
well as the modulation index very high carrier frequencies
To avoid this, frequency converter is necessary to shift down the carrier

frequency.
NBFM signal WBFM signal
x(t) Frequency s (t)

NBFM multiplier BPF
fc1, nfc1, (nfc1fc2)
f1 n nf1
fc1 fc2
Example: Consider an NBFM signal passes through a frequency multiplier.
s (t ) = A cos( c t + sin m t )
With <0.5 and fc=200kHz. Let fm ranges from 50Hz to 15kHz, and let the
maximum frequency deviation f at the output be 75kHz. Find the required
frequency multiplication n and the maximum allowed frequency deviation at the
input.
f
Solution: Using = , thus
fm
75(10 3 ) 75(10 3 )
min = =5 max = = 1500
15(10 3 ) 50
If 1=0.5, where 1 is the input , then the required frequency multiplication is
n 1 max max 1500

n= = = 3000
1 0 .5
The maximum allowed frequency deviation at the input, denoted f1, is
f 75(103 )
f1 = = = 25 Hz
n 3000
Direct Method: - the modulating (message) signal directly controls

the carrier frequency
A common method used is to vary the inductance or capacitance of a tuned
electronic oscillator, e.g. Voltage-controlled Oscillator (VCO).
Consider an LC circuit, if Lo and Co are the initial inductance and capacitance,

respectively (without any applied signal), the frequency of oscillation is
1
c =
Lo C o
If the capacitance Cis varied according to the message signal x(t),
Then C = C o + k f x (t ) ; and
1 1 1 1 kf
s = = = c 1 x(t )
Lo C Lo [C o + k f x(t )] Lo C o kf 2C o
1+ x(t )
Co
Advantage: large frequency deviation possible

Disadvantage: carrier frequency will drift need frequency stabilization circuit
Angle Modulation: Demodulation
Demodulation: To provide an output signal whose amplitude is linearly
proportional to the instantaneous frequency of the input
angle-modulated signal.
Direct Method: To use a system that has a linear frequency-to-voltage transfer
characteristic.
Such a system is called a frequency discriminator.
Conceptually, differentiator with a linear amplitude versus

frequency characteristic can be used as frequency
discriminator.
Output
voltage
Input
fc frequency
frequency discriminator Ideal discriminator characteristic

s FM (t ) = Ac cos c t + k f
t
For a general FM signal:
0 x ( ) d

Assuming that Ac is a constant, we have
= Ac [ c + k f x (t )] sin c t + k f
ds (t ) t
e (t ) =
dt 0 x ( ) d

If kf x(t) << c , it assembles of an AM signal whose envelope is

kf
x D (t ) = Ac c 1 + x (t )
c
and whose instantaneous angular frequency is c + k f x (t )
The resulting AM signal can be detected by an envelope detector and the slight
variation in the carrier frequency would not be detectable by the envelope
detector as long as kf x(t)<<c.
Example: An FM signal, s(t), is applied to a RC circuit as shown:
C
s(t) R v(t)
Transfer response of the RC circuit: R jRC

H ( ) = =
1 R + 1 ( jC ) 1 + jRC
For << ; then H ( ) jRC
RC
For the output v(t ) = s (t ) h(t )
V ( ) = S ( ) H ( ) = S ( ) jRC
df (t )
Recall the property of Fourier transform: jF ( )
d (t )
v(t ) = RC [s (t )]
d
Thus,
dt
So, the function of this circuit acts as a differentiator and the envelope of the
output is proportional to the message signal (demodulated).
RC circuit as differentiator
FM Demodulation by Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)
s(t) e(t)
Loop filter v(t)
h(t)
r(t)
Voltage-
controlled
oscillator
s (t ) = Ac cos [ c t + s (t ) ] where s (t ) = k f
t
x ( ) d
0
r (t ) = Ar sin [ c t + r (t ) ] where r (t ) = k r
t
v ( ) d
0
e(t ) = s (t )r (t ) = Ac Ar sin[2 c t + s (t ) + r (t )]+ Ac Ar sin[ s (t ) r (t )]

144424443
v(t ) ={Ac Ar sin[ s (t ) r (t )]}* h(t)
filteroutput
= {Ac Ar [ s (t ) r (t )]}*h(t) forsmall[ s (t ) r (t )]

= Ac Ar d (t ) * h(t )where d (t ) = s (t ) r (t )
Take Fourier transform on both sides,
V ( f ) = Ac Ar d ( f ) H ( f )
t
d (t ) = s (t ) r (t ) = s (t ) k r v ( ) d
0
d d (t ) d s (t )
= k r v (t )
dt dt
Take Fourier transform on both sides,
j 2f d ( f ) = j 2f s ( f ) k rV ( f )
kr
d ( f ) = s ( f ) V( f )
j 2f
Substitute into V ( f ) = Ac Ar d ( f ) H ( f )
gives k
V ( f ) = Ac Ar s ( f ) r V ( f ) H ( f )
j 2f
Ac Ar k r H ( f )
1 + V ( f ) = Ac Ar s ( f ) H ( f )
j 2 f
L( f )
V ( f ) = ( f ) forL( f ) = Ac Ar k r H ( f )
k r L( f ) s
1+
j 2f
L( f )
V ( f ) = ( f ) forL( f ) = Ac Ar k r H ( f )
k r L( f ) s
1+
j 2f
j 2f
V( f ) s ( f ) for L( f ) >> 1
kr
Take inverse Fourier transform on both sides,

1 d s (t )
v(t )
k r dt
kf t
v(t )
kr
x(t )Q s (t ) = k f x( )d
0
So, the PLL acts as a differentiator and the output v(t) is proportional to the
message signal x(t).
FM Demodulation by zero-crossing detector
s FM (t ) = Ac cos c t + k f x( )d = A
t
cos (t )
0
c
Let t1 and t2 (t2>t1) denote the times associated with two adjacent zero crossings of s(t)such
that s(t1)=s(t2)=0
t2
Thus,
(t 2 ) (t1 ) = = c (t 2 t1 ) + k f x( )d
t2 t1
With x( )d x(t )(t
t1
2 t1 )
[ c + k f x(t )](t 2 t1 ) =

k f x(t ) = c
t
Let N denote the number of zero crossings of in time Tand t1,t2,t3, denote the times of
zero-crossing with T1=t2t1,T2=t3t2, .
Thus, T=T1 +T2 + +TN

Using the result k f x(t ) = c
t
gives

k f x(t ) = c fori = 1,2,3,..., N
Ti

Ti =
c + k f x(t )
N
T=
c + k f x(t )
N
k f x(t ) = c 1 ensures there are zero
T <T crossings within time T
fc
kf N 1
x(t ) = fc T << ensures no excessive
2 2T fM averaging (or smoothing)
of x(t)
fM: Bandwidth of s(t)
Angle Modulation: FM Receiver
It is similar to the AM superheterodyne receiver with the exception of the

addition of a discriminator and possibly a limiter.
CommercialFMradio
f =75kHz

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Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency-division multiplexing is the positioning of signal spectra in frequency

Example: commercial radio and

Heterodyning means the translating or shifting in frequency.

The signal is amplified at the IF before demodulation.

The intermediate frequency chosen must be

(a) Determine the intermediate frequency of the first radar receiver.

(b) f IMAGE = f c + 2 f IF = 2 .80 GHz + 0 .12 GHz = 2 .92 GHz.

A continuous-wave (CW) sinusoidal signal can be varied by changing

s (t ) = A cos [ c t + (t ) ] where [ c t + (t) ] x (t )

i(t) A: magnitude of the phasor

(t ) = c t + k p x (t ) + 0 i .e. (t) x (t)

where c,kp ,0 are constants.

As the phase is linearly related to x(t), this type of angle modulation

and , (t) is called instantaneous phase deviation.

If the instantaneous frequency iproportional to the input signal, we have

where c,kf are constants.

and; d (t) is called instantaneous frequency deviation.

Phase Modulation (PM) Frequency Modulation (FM)

s PM (t ) = Ac cos[ c t + k p x(t ) + o ] s FM (t ) = Ac cos[ c t + k f x ( ) d +

The signal consists of an unmodulated carrier plus various amplitude-

which is called the narrowband (NB) angle-modulated signal.

Define a new constant called the peak (maximum) frequency deviation,

: peak frequency deviation

If (t) has a bandwidth of WB, the NB angle-modulated signal will have a

Bessel function of the first kind of order n and argument : Jn().

When =0 J0(0) =1 and all other Jn are zero

The spectrum consists of carrier-frequency component plus an infinite

Thus the average power dissipated by the angle-modulated signal over a 1-

The bandwidth of the angle-modulated signal with sinusoidal modulation depends

In principle, the number of sidebands is infinite the required bandwidth to

In practice, large portion of the total power is confined to a finite number of

Table for Bessel function J n ( )

For very large ( >> 1), W B 2 m or2

no change forPM forPM

The modulation index is only defined for sinusoidal message signal

For arbitrary message signal x(t),which is bandlimited to M, we define

peak frequency deviation

Example: Consider an angle-modulated signal s(t)=10cos[(108)t+5sin2(103)t].

and (t ) = 5 sin 2 (10 3 )t

Thus, maximum phase deviation is |(t)|max = 5 rad;

maximum frequency deviation is = |(t)|max =5(2)(103) rad/s

Assume FM and fm=1kHz, s FM (t ) = A cos[ c t + k f x( )d ] = 10 cos( c t + 3 sin m t )

When fm is halved, fm=0.5kHz, =6, and thus bandwidth WB=2(6+1)0.5=7kHz

NBPM: s NBPM (t ) Ac cos c t Ac k p x(t ) sin c t

For example, the input-output characteristic of an ideal square-law device is

To avoid this, frequency converter is necessary to shift down the carrier

NBFM signal WBFM signal

x(t) Frequency s (t)

n 1 max max 1500

The maximum allowed frequency deviation at the input, denoted f1, is

Direct Method: - the modulating (message) signal directly controls

Consider an LC circuit, if Lo and Co are the initial inductance and capacitance,

Advantage: large frequency deviation possible

Conceptually, differentiator with a linear amplitude versus

frequency discriminator Ideal discriminator characteristic

If kf x(t) << c , it assembles of an AM signal whose envelope is

Transfer response of the RC circuit: R jRC

e(t ) = s (t )r (t ) = Ac Ar sin[2 c t + s (t ) + r (t )]+ Ac Ar sin[ s (t ) r (t )]

= {Ac Ar [ s (t ) r (t )]}*h(t) forsmall[ s (t ) r (t )]

Take inverse Fourier transform on both sides,

Thus, T=T1 +T2 + +TN

It is similar to the AM superheterodyne receiver with the exception of the