PDAC-SEG Gold Deposits Curso Marzo 2011

PDAC International Convention 2011
Toronto, Canada
Gold Geology and

Deposit Types
Friday, March 4 and Saturday, March 5, 2011 PDAC2011
A workshop presented by:
Gold Geology and Deposit Types

Friday, March 4 and Saturday, March 5, 2011
Agenda
Friday, March 4, 2011

Introduction to gold deposit models (RG) 8:30 - 9:00
Orogenic gold (RG) 9:00 - 10:20
Break 10:20 - 10:40
Orogenic gold (RG) 10:40 - 12:30
Lunch 12:30 - 1:30
Intrusion-related gold (CH) 1:30 - 3:00
Break 3:00 - 3:20
Intrusion-related gold (CH) 3:20 - 5:00
Saturday, March 5, 2011

Epithermal gold (NW) 8:30 - 10:10
Break 10:10 - 10:30
Epithermal gold (NW) 10:30 - 12:15
Lunch 12:15 - 1:15
Magmatic arc gold overview (SG) 1:15 - 2:30
Break 2:30 - 2:50
Carlin gold deposits (SG) 2:50 - 4:40
Summary and final questions 4:40 - 4:55
Evaluations 4:55 - 5:00
Gold geology and deposit types
Biographies
Steve Garwin
Steve Garwin obtained his B.S. from Stanford in 1984 and M.Sc. from the University of
British Columbia in 1987, both degrees in the field of geology. He was awarded a Ph.D.
in geology (with distinction) in 2000 from the University of Western Australia. Steve has
twenty three years experience as an exploration geologist with large and small mining
companies working in Southeast Asia and the western Pacific, western USA, British
Columbia, Mexico, Peru and Chile. He has extensive knowledge of porphyry-,
epithermal- and Carlin like-systems and applies methods of structural geology and
geochemistry towards gold and base-metals exploration. He has been involved in
several exploration and mining projects, which include the Batu Hijau porphyry deposit,
the Indo Muro epithermal vein system and the Mesel sediment-hosted deposit in
Indonesia; mines of the Carlin trend and Battle Mountain district in Nevada; and the
Whistler porphyry deposit in Alaska.
Early in his career, Steve worked with the US Geological Survey on regional mapping-
and laboratory based-projects in the western USA. He was employed by Newmont
Mining for ten years, including more than two years as Chief Geologist Nevada, and by
Geoinformatics Exploration for four years as a Principal Geologist. Presently, Steve is an
independent consultant based in Perth, Australia. He has been an adjunct research
fellow at the Centre for Exploration Targeting at the University of Western Australia since
2001.
Richard J. Goldfarb
Richard J. Goldfarb is a senior research geologist with the Mineral Resources Program
of the U.S. Geological Survey, where he has been employed for more than 30 years.
Richs major expertise has been on the geochemistry and geology of ore deposits with
emphasis on Phanerozoic lode gold. Much of his earlier career work was concentrated
on the Tertiary orogenic gold deposits of southern Alaska. Results from this work were
used to develop ore genesis models for giant gold deposits elsewhere in Alaska and in
other parts of the North American Cordilleran.
In recent years, Rich has conducted detailed studies on the understanding of the
distribution of gold deposits through space and time, compiling the most comprehensive
global description of their distribution and evaluating the controlling tectonic/geologic
features. He has senior-authored and co-authored more than 190 refereed publications
in economic geology. Rich has served as President of the Society of Economic
Geologists, is a past Silver Medalist, International Exchange Lecturer, and Thayer
Lindsley lecturer of the society, has served as chief editor of Mineralium Deposita, and is
presently on the editorial boards of Economic Geology and Gondwana Research.
Gold geology and deposit types
Biographies
Dr. Craig Hart
Dr. Craig Hart is the Director of the Mineral Deposit Research Unit at the University of
British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada. Growing up in Hamilton, Ontario, he eventually
saw mountains for the first time when he was 19 years old and it changed him for life.
He completed geology degrees at McMaster University (BSc, 1986), the University of
British Columbia (MSc, 1995), and the University of Western Australia (PhD, 2005)
spanning three decades and always moving west.
Most of his career was spent as a regional mapping and mineral deposit geologist with
the Yukon Geological Survey where he was exposed to tectonics, mineral deposits,
granites and geochronology which provide the foundation for his research interests. He
also spent three years as a Senior Research Fellow at the Centre for Exploration
Targeting in Perth where he focused on Asian gold metallogeny and exploration
targeting. He currently leads a tema of 10 senior researchers and 20 graduate students
focusing on gold deposits, intrusion-related metallogeny, porphyry copper systems and
new exploration techniques. He is a past recipient of the Geological Association of
Canada Boldy Award for most significant and creative mineral deposit paper presented
(2005) and was the 2010 Distinguished Lecturer for the Society of Economic Geology.
Dr. Noel C. White

Dr. Noel C. White is an Australian geologist, educated at the University of Newcastle, NSW
(B.Sc. Honours), and the University of Tasmania, Hobart (Ph.D.). On completion of his
university studies in 1974 he was employed as a geologist in BHP Minerals Exploration,
with operational roles in a variety of deposit types. In 1983 he moved into research and
project generation and was appointed Chief Geologist for BHP Minerals Exploration in
1992. He has worked in 50 countries with postings in four Australian States, in London and
San Francisco. Apart from many years as an operations geologist and program manager,
his work has also involved research, graduate recruiting, staff training and staff career
development. In 1999 he set up an independent consultancy, based in Brisbane, Australia,
offering technical and operational advice and training to companies worldwide. He remains
active in exploration-oriented research through the Australian Research Councils Centre of
Excellence in Ore Deposit Studies (CODES) at the University of Tasmania, Hobart,
Australia.
Noel is a member of the Society of Economic Geologists, Society for Geology Applied to
Mineral Deposits, International Association on the Genesis of Ore Deposits, Geological
Society of Australia, and Australian Institute of Geoscientists. His professional
appointments include Research Associate at Monash University, Melbourne, The Natural
History Museum, London, the University of Tasmania, Hobart, and Auckland University,
New Zealand. He is Adjunct Professor of the University of Queensland, Guest Professor of
China University of Geosciences, Beijing, Visiting Professor at Fuzhou University, and
Distinguished Professor of Hefei University of Technology, China. He was a member of the
judging panel for the GoldCorp Challenge exploration competition 2000, 1998
International Exchange Lecturer and 2008 Thayer Lindsley Lecturer for the Society of
Economic Geologists, and is an Associate Editor of the journal Mineralium Deposita.
PDAC and SEG Short Course - Gold Geology and Deposit Types - March 4 and 5, 2011
GOLD DEPOSITS MODELS Mineral Deposit Models for

Exploration
Convert commodities (i (i.e.,
e Au) to geology
(orogenic
orogenic,, epithermal, Carlin, etc)
Identify possible mineralized
environments relative to barren
environments to maximize chances of
success
Better define exploration strategies and
Gold Geology and Deposit Types SEG Course select most effective exploration
March 4 and 5, 2011 techniques
Richard J. Goldfarb, U.S. Geological Survey
goldfarb@usgs.gov
Different Textures, Different

Descriptive vs Theoretical
Models
DESCRIPTIVE=various
DESCRIPTIVE=various attributes are
essential, but relationship between each
is unknown
THEORETICAL=attributes
THEORETICAL=attributes are
interrelated through fundamental
concepts so we limit number of models
Explorationists tend to use both,
building theory into description
1
DANGERS WITH MODELS

MODEL SELECTION
It is important for model identification Decidingg on model must follow observations,, not take
the lead
that field geologists recognize and
record rock textures, alteration mineral Deposits often forced into preconceived ideas and
assemblages, and structural data observations are ignored or selectively used
It is important to select the correct
Not all deposits can be explained by existing models,
model because of the economic but it is equally dangerous to define new model on
implications limited justification
Different models have significantly
different grade/tonnage curves
Grade Tonnage Models

Pre-
Pre-mining grade and tonnage of a deposit.
Current resources at the lowest cutoff grade are
added to past production
production.
Use resource figures to represent the mineralized

material in a deposit in order to allow for possibly
different technologies and mining costs to be
assumed.
Describe frequency distribution of tonnages and

grades of well-
well-explored deposits of each type.
2
Gold Production: Larger

Tonnages and Lower Grades
increase in gold
price and
cyanide
processing
20th century=increased from 500 t/yr to 2500 t/yr

250050 t/yr, but with slight decline
Last decade=gold steady at 2500
Lack of growth due to:
1) 50% decrease in South African production last 12 years
2) Fewer and small discoveries
Estimated world reserves=42,000-
reserves=42,000-85,0000 t Au (17-
(17-34 years)
New wealth in BRIC countries=increasing demand
after Peattie, Anglogold Ashanti, 2008
3
GOLD DEPOSIT
TYPES DURING
THE EARLY Hypothermal
1900s:
(300-600o)
Mineralogy
Based(Lindgren)
Mesothermal
(200-300o)
Epithermal
((100-200o)
GOLD DEPOSIT DESCRIPTIVE

MODELS (first half 20th century)
GOLD DEPOSIT DESCRIPTIVE
MODELS (1970s)
EPITHERMAL (Cripple Creek, Goldfield, Republic, Indonesia, 1) Magmatic (Montana)
Romania, Comstock, Tonopah)
2)) Skarn
MESOTHERMAL (Mother Lode, Grass Valley, Bridge River, Kirkland 3) Replacement
Lake, Meguma, Haile, Bendigo, Charters Towers, Boliden) 1) Massive (Noranda, Morro Vehlo, Rossland)
2) Lode (Kirkland Lake, Homestake, Kolar)
HYPOTHERMAL (Homestake, Juneau, Porcupine, Noranda, Red 3) Disseminated (Carlin)
Lake, Dahlonega, Morro Velho, Rossland, Kalgoorlie, Kolar) 4) Cavity Filling
1) Fissure veins (Mother Lode, Cripple Creek, Kalgoorlie,
after Emmons, 1937
Philippines)
Three deposits types under one (magmatic) genetic model 2) Stockworks (Victoria)
3) Saddle Reefs (Bendigo, Nova Scotia)
Basically Lindgrens (1933) temperature classes defined on mineralogy 4) Breccia
and related textures; Boddington (1935) stated many higher T;
Schmitt (1950) emphasized < 3km depth and independent of T 5) Placer
6) Residual
Models based on mineralization styles after Jensen and Bateman (1981)
4
GOLD DEPOSIT DESCRIPTIVE GSC LODE GOLD DESCRIPTIVE

MODELS (1970s
(1970sRussia) MODELS (Boyle, 1979)
1) Skarn 1) Auriferous igneous rocks (essentially insignificant)
2)) Plutonogenic
g hydrothermal
y 2) Skarns
1) Gold-
Gold-quartz (Muruntau, Bendigo) 3) Veins, stockworks, lodes, pipes, and silicified bodies in fractures, faults,
and shear zones in volcanic terranes (Superior, Yilgarn, Kolar, Mother
2) Gold
Gold--quartz
quartz--sulfide (Kolar, Urals) Lode, Romania, Hauraki, SW PacificTonopah, Cripple Creek, Comstock)
3) Volcanogenic hydrothermal 4) Veins, lodes and saddle reefs in fractures, faults and, shear zones on
anticlines in sedimentary terranes; also replacement ores in reactive rocks
1) Gold-
Gold-quartz
quartz--chalcedony-
chalcedony-sulfide (Cripple Creek, Baley) (Meguma, Cariboo, Caolina, Massif Central, MuruntauReefton, Pilgrams
2) Gold
Gold--silver
silver--quartz
quartz--adularia (Porcupine) Rest)
3) Gold
Gold--sulfide (Maikain VMS) 5) Veins, lodes, stockworks, and silicified zones in mixed lithologies (Juneau,
Grass Valley,
y Rossland, Kirkland Lake, Central City) y)
4) Metamorphogenic
M t h i
6) Disseminated gold deposits (Lamaque, Camflo, Berezovsk
Berezovsk--
--Urals,
Urals,
1) Mm placer (Wits) Morning Star
StarVic, Homestake, Morro Vehlo, Carlin)
2) Mm black shale (Homestake) 7) Quartz-
Quartz-pebble conglomerates (Wits)
5) Placer
Models based on host rocks; subdivided by mineralogy Models based mainly on host rocks
after Smirnov et al, 1981
USGS Lode Gold Descriptive Models-80s

1) Porphyry Cu-
Cu-Au (Afton, Copper Mountain) Clans of Gold Deposits
2) Au-
Au-Ag-
Ag-Te veins (New World, Cripple Ck)
3) Hot Spring Au-
Au-Ag (Round Mountain, Sleeper)
4) Creede-
Creede-type epithermal (Creede, Pachuca)
5) Comstock-
Comstock-type epithermal (Comstock,
(Comstock Republic)
6) Sado-
Sado-type epithermal (Hayden Hill)
7) Epithermal quartz-
quartz-alunite (El Indio, Goldfield)
8) Carbonate-
Carbonate-hosted Au-Au-Ag (Carlin)
9) Distal disseminated Ag-
Ag-Au (Candelaria, Cove)
10) Quartz pebble conglom Au-Au-U (Wits)
11)) Olympic
y p Dam-Dam-type
yp Cu-
Cu-U-Au
12) Low sulfide gold-
gold-quartz veins (Bralorne, Mother Lode)
13) Homestake-
Homestake-type Au (Lupin)
14) Gold-
Gold-antimony deposits (Reefton, Olympiada)
15) Gold on flat faults (Picacho)
16) Kuroko (Noranda-
(Noranda-type) VMS(Horne, Dumagami)
IRGS? Au skarn? GSC models, after Poulsen et al, 2000
5
TECTONIC SETTINGS OF AU UNIFYING MODEL FOR GOLD IN

METAMORPHIC ROCK: MID-
MID-1980s
Low- Sulfide
Mesothermal
Mother Lode
Metamorphic
Orogenic
g
Evolution and classification scheme for epithermal deposits

Descriptive and genetic Sillitoe (1977) Acid Alkaline
models least controversial Enargite gold

Ashley (1982)
for epithermal Au deposits
Giles and Nelson (1982) Hot-springs type
B h
Bonham (1986),
(1986) 1988) Hi h sulfur
High lf L
Low sulfur
lf Alk li deposits
Alkalic d it
Hayba et al. (1985)

Today there are two widely Heald et al. (1987)
Acid sulfate Adularia-sericite
Hedenquist (1987), White

recognized types of and Hedenquist (1990,
1995)
High sulfidation Low sulfidation
epithermal hydrothermal Berger and Henley (1989) Alunite-kaolinite Adularia-sericite

Albino and Margolis (1991) Type 1 adularia-sericite Type 2 adularia-sericite
systems that have very Sillitoe (1989,

(1989 1993a) High sulfidation Low sulfidation
fundamentally differences High sulfide + base metal Low sulfide + base metal
White and Poizat (1995) High sulfidation Low sulfidation
Au-Ag-Cu Au-Ag-Cu Au-Ag deposits
Sn-Ag- Ag-Au-
deposits with deposits with With alkaline
base metal base metal With calc-alkaline
vuggy quartz pyrophyllite- volcanic
deposits deposits volcanic rock
alteration sericite alteration rocks
Differences first stressed by Hedenquist et al.
High sulfidation
Intermediate
Low sulfidation Alkalic
(2000),Einaudi et al. sulfidation
Sillitoe in the late 70s (2003), Sillitoe and
Hedenquist (2003)
from Simmons et al 2005
6
Quartz-adularia or low- Quartz--alunite (HS) type deposits

Quartz
sulfidation (LS) type deposits
Past analogs of typical near-

near-neutral pH alkaline-
alkaline-chloride water
geothermal systems; less direct magmatic connection than HS
from Cooke, 2009
Cunningham et al, 2002
Porphyry--epithermal relationships
Porphyry
Carlin-
Carlin-
Type
Gold
Deposits
--Inland
-- Inland
of
Accreted
Terranes
Linkages between porphyry, high- and intermediate-

sulfidation epithermal, skarn, carbonate-replacement,
and Carlin-like environments now widely appreciated
Sillitoe, 2006
7
CTGD - Models TERMINOLOGY HAS BECOME CONFUSING

Crystallizing magma Carlin
Carlin--type gold deposits also called sedimentary rock-
rock-hosted
0.006 oz/t produced heat + disseminated gold deposits
hydrothermal fluids +
1.42 oz/t
metals (Sillitoe
(Sillitoe & Bonham, There are also Carlin-
Carlin-like and Distal disseminated gold
1990; Henry & Ressel, deposits
2000; Johnston & Ressel,
Wispy unit 2004))
2004 The distal disseminated classification is typically used for
deposits that have established genetic links with magmatism
Deeply circulating meteoric fluids leached and
remobilized metals (Ilchik & Barton, 1997; Emsbo The Carlin
Carlin--like classification is typically used for poorly
et al., 2003) understood deposits with disseminated gold or with a Au Au--Sb-
Sb-
Metamorphism produced ore fluids that Hg signature
transported metals (Seedorff, 1991; Hofstra
& Cline, 2000) from Cline, SEG Nevada
Reduced Intrusion
Intrusion--related Gold Systems IRGS MODEL (Hart 2010)
Thompson, Sillitoe et al. (1999) IRG with W-
W-Sn in MD;
Thompson and Newberry (2000) SEG Gold in 2000
volume; Lang et al. (2000) SEG Newsletter
Recognized
g g
gold-mineralization
gold-
associated with more reduced,
more felsic, more aluminous
(S--typey), more lithophile
(S lithophile--rich
(W--Sn) plutons
(W
No associated copper
Emphasized low-
low-oxidation state
(reduced) of associated plutons
and fluids to differentiate from
Fractional crystallization, fluid exsoln, & metal partitioning
IRGD of Sillitoe (1991) Zoned systems or different deposits and occurrences
8
Orogenic Au--High Preservational Potential in the

Orogenic Gold Deposits Geological Record
Gold Geology and Deposit Types SEG Course

March 4 and 5, 2011
Richard J. Goldfarb (goldfarb@usgs.gov)
Fluid Flow Environments & Au Tectonic Controls on Global Gold Resources
9
LOW PRESERVATIONAL POTENTIAL:

PORPHYRY Cu-Au AND EPITHERMAL Au-Ag DEPOSITS
Fish Lake
McDonald
Bingham
Hishikari Cripple Creek
Comstock Lode
Round Mountain
Pachuca-Real Del Monte
Baguio Pueblo Viejo
Santo Tomas II
GrasbergPorgera Pacific Ocean
Kelian Yanacocha
Ladolam
Batu Hijau
Panguna
OK Tedi
Refugio
Bajo De La
Cadia Hill El Indio Alumbrera
Waihi
Subduction zone Gold-rich porphyry deposit

Spreading ridge Epithermal gold deposit
Archean Lode Gold Deposits Phanerozoic Lode Gold Deposits
Greenstone Belts in granitoid-greenstone terranes

Yilgarn, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Tanzanioa, central Accreted oceanic sequences; Continental margins
Brazil, Kolar, Superior Metasedimentary host rock terranes
Tholeiitic basalt, dolerite, ultramafics, granitoid, but Mother Lode, Russian Far East, Tasman, Otago,
also BIFs and carbonaceous seds in greenstones Central Asia, Eastern Cordillera (S.A.), Alaska, BC
10
Spatial/Temporal()
Spatial Association with VMS Deposits
Association with
Granitoids, but NOT
Genetic
Crustal-scale Deformation (1st Order Faults)

KEY REGIONAL EXPLORATION Zones
FEATURES FOR TARGETING AU
IN METASEDIMENTARY ROCKS
1) Structural architecture
2) Metamorphic setting
3) Potential physical or chemical traps
11
Golden Mile (1,200 t)
Gold Deposit=Focused flow

of large fluid volume; controlled
by rock permeability and thus
crustal deformation Harvard Pit, looking SE, California Mother Lode Belt
FOCUS OF ORE FLUIDS: VARIATIONS IN

Spatial Association with Deep Crustal STRIKE OF CRUSTAL-SCALE FAULTS
Faults/Terrane Boundaries (Juneau)
12
SEISMICITY AND AU Geophysics: Identification of Main

Faults
Dennis et al., 2010

Sibson et al, 1988
Magnetotelluric surveys by Geoscience Victoria in Lachlan fb
Fluid pressures and stress regimes enhance permeability (transient), and thus Transient electromagnetic method for upper 100s meters
define flow pathways Major faults=high conductivity ( i.e., fracture density, graphite)
Orogenic Gold Tonnages: Archean MM Settings

GOLD-GREENSCHIST ASSOCIATION
(from R. Kerrich, 2009)
13
CRITICAL STRUCTURAL
CONTROLS
Late structural timing of gold is important
constraint.
constraint
Geometry visible today is close to
geometry during mineralization.
For selective failure of specific rock units
need:
a)) Large
g strength
g contrasts between
units.
b) Complex geometry
c) Isolation of competent units in
incompetent units.
Ore Deposition POSTDATES Metamorphism of Host Rocks
Late-kinematic Timing
Orogenic gold models: what are the traps? Physical Trap=Intrusive Body in Metasedimentary Terrane
Sub PRESERVATION
Greenschist
1 1
Mid -
Dolerite TRAP (& SEAL)
Greenschist
Sedimentary Sequence
Volcanic Rock
ACTIVE PATHWAY(S)
FLUID RELEASE &
Amphibolite
MIGRATION
Metamorphic Fluid
Distal Granite
Magmatic II SOURCE(S)
Fluid
Granulite
Metamorphic Fluid
Granite I Fluid from

after D. Groves Subcreted Oceanic
Hydric Fluid from Mantle Crust
14
Chemical vs. Physical Traps for Orogenic Au

Chemical Trap=Homestake Fm BIF
from D. Groves
2nd and 3rd order faults: Shear hosted Deformation Styles

discrete veins and network veins in
tension fractures
15
Meguma VeinsAll Synchronous
from Dan Kontak, 2005
Orogenic & Epithermal/Porphyry=Majority of the Giants
16
17
Gold in the Superior - Multiple Giants Metal Precipitation by Pressure Fluctuation
Hollinger-McIntyre, Dome = overprinting of early Cu-Au system
Tanzania = multiple giants (Bulyanhulu, Geita) - overprinting of VMS?
Gold Occurrences
Metal Precipitation by Wallrock Sulfidation
18
Alaska-Juneau Deposit Paragenesis--Mafic Host Rock

Mineralogy of Giants
Is gold really a later event!!!!!
Sericitic Alteration
Visible Wallrock Alteration
sericitization, carbonization, (de-)silicification, sulfidation

discoloration, (bleached haloes; >10cm -10s m)
chlorite + albite + CO2 + H2O + Au(HS)2
sericite + Fe-Mg carbonates + sulfides + Au

carbonate spots
sulfide porphyroblasts (pyrite + arsenopyrite; 3 cm)
Bierlein & Crowe, 2000
19
Carbonization SULFIDATION
of wallrocks
from Hodgson, Gold 2000 Hodgson, Gold 2000
Arsenopyrite and/or pyrite haloes Geochemistry of Alteration
Whole rock data:

CO2, K2O, H2O, S, Au, As ( Ag, Bi, Sb, Mo)
SiO2, Na2O, ( MgO, P2O5, Sr)
REE, HFSE
Bulk chemical changes at constant mass (lithological variations)

Alteration Index (CO2 + K2O)/(CO2 + K2O + Na2O + Al2O3)
Bierlein & Crowe, 2000
20
CHANGING MINERALOGY WITH WALLROCK VARIATIONS Liswanites in Pz metased terranes, Xinjiang

Alteration
(qtz-carb-Cr mica)
after Chris Ash
Mineralogical Alteration Zoning

Listwanite
Charters Towers, granodiorite hosted, Kreuzer, 2006
21
Gold: The Best Pathfinder? Geochemical Alteration Zoning
from Groves, Ore Deposit Models
The Continuum Model for Orogenic Gold=Changes with T
Colvine s
Colvines
observations that
there is a P-T control
on ore style in the
Superior province
(Groves, 1993)
22
HIGH TEMPERATURE OROGENIC GOLD PLACER GOLD
Yilgarn (Southern Cross) Muruntau stockworks
Best Inclusions - Sulfide Pressure Shadows
Fluid Inclusions
Ore Fluid Chemistry
P-T of Ore Deposition
Ore fluid Source?
23
Generally 5-20 mole % gas CO2-rich Fluids
orogenic
IRGD
Ridley, Gold 2000
Relative abundance of fluid types in lode-gold deposits Laser Analysis of Volatiles
from Ridley, Gold 2000

Ridley and Diamond, Gold 2000
24
Immiscibility Unmixing
FLUID INCLUSION PRESSURES

Caribou Tangier Orogenic Gold Fluids
Temperatures ~ 250 400 oC
250-400
Pressure >1-4 kb
Fluid comp H2O-CO2 + CH4, N2, H2S
Salinity <5-8 NaCl eq
Imply large fluctuations in pressure

(a la Robert et al., 1995)!
after Kontak, 2005
25
PRECIPITATION MECHANISMS
Sulfidation and pressure drop are dominant

after Mikucki, 1998
POSSIBLE FLUID SOURCE REGIONS 34S of Alaskan Orogenic Deposits
ISOTOPIC STUDIES?
from Ridley and Diamond, Gold 2000
26
Oxygen Isotopes of Ore Quartz

Pb isotopes - Meaningful?
Fluid Inclusion Waters-- Isotopically Heavy Fluids--Orogenic Au

Meaningful D?
27
Metal Depletions in Otago Mm Belts: Metals versus Grades

Schist, NZ
P-P: 3-22 ppm As, 160-910

ppb Sb, 12-123 ppb Hg
from Pitcairn, 2006
Sillimanite: 0.3-0.9 ppm

Depletion of metals in schist As, 20-40 ppb Sb, <5 ppb
relative to mm temps. Hg
Concentration of metals in Same trends for B, Bi, W

deposits at higher crustal levels
GREENSCHIST-AMPHIBOLITE P-T
SUPPORT FOR METAMORPHIC
MODEL
No Gold in High Grade MM Rocks
Gas Chemistry of Ore Fluids
D and 18O of Ore Fluids
Uniform 18O Values for Veins
Change in As, Au, Bi, Hg and Sb with MM
grade
28
Relative Timing Relation: Au 50-200 m.y. Younger than Host Rocks
CONFUSION BETWEEN DEPOSITS
after Bierlein et al.
Precambrian Orogenic Gold

Phanerozoic Goldfields
Boring
Billion
29
OROGENIC AU &
Lessons from Alaska EVOLUTION OF
THE
CORDILLERAN
OROGEN
Dozens of
allochthonous
terranes added
since 180 Ma
GOLD FM DURING GROWTH TERTIARY LODES OF THE INNER AND OUTER FOREARC
OF THE MARGIN=OROGENIC,
SKARN, PORPHYRY,
EPITHERMAL (110 MA-
PRESENT)
YOUNGEST PRODUCTIVE
OROGENIC AU DEPOSITS--
S. ALASKAN CORDILLERA
(60-50 MA)
30
The Inner Fore-arc GOLD-GREENSCHIST ASSOCIATION
LACK OF AU IN HIGH Alaska-Juneau

MM GRADE ROCKS
31
Treadwell
Kensington/Jualin 40Ar/39Ar dates from veins in the
Juneau Gold Belt
Shear Hybrid Tension
Kensington
g 56.5 Ma 54.9 Ma 54.1 Ma
55.0 54.4 54.0
55.3 53.5
54.3
54.0
Jualin 55.5 55.3
53.2 52.8
Treadwell 55.1
52.8
A.J. 56.1 54.2
Sumdum 55.1
(1 sigma ~0.1-0.3 m.y.)
Changes in far-field stresses Willow Creek District: Ores within the Arc
Juneau gold belt, Alaska
A change from orthogonal to
oblique subduction at ca. 55
Ma in the N Pacific basin
caused d a shift
hift to
t strike-slip
t ik li
motion on terrane-bounding
faults
A series of seismic events

between ca.
ca 57-54 Ma formed
the Juneau gold belt
Changes from compression to
transpression or transtension are
inferred to have triggered
orogenic gold mineralization
32
Chugach Accretionary Prism (Outer Forearc)--Kenai Peninsula

to Chichagof
Talkeetna Batholith: 74-67 Ma

Gold ores: 66 Ma
Dextral s-s: ca. 70-50 Ma; Regional uplift: 68-61 Ma
Southern Alaska Accretionary Prism--2000 km Chugach terrane
33
Turbidite-hosted Gold Deposits Flysch Melt Granitoids
Accretionary Prism 2ndary Gold YOUNGING OF GOLD AGES TO THE EAST
Zones of focused fluid flow

2ndary gold restricted to greenschist domains
34
Subducting
Spreading Ridge
COMPRESSIONAL OROGENESIS (FORE-ARC)

Slab Window
Progressive flysch melt, mm devolatilization
35
EARLY MZ COLLISION--LOW-T, NO AU
INTERIOR AK--HISTORIC ALLUVIAL GOLDFIELDS
ERODED MID-K LODES
MID-K SLAB ROLLBACK AND EXTENSIONAL OROGENESIS Orogenic Gold Seward Peninsula (110 Ma)
Slab rollback, Barrovian metamorphism and plutonism=110-80 Ma

Deposits ca. 109 Ma; small extensional fractures in greenschist facies
No large regional faults
36
Big Harrah (27,000 oz) Rock Creek--New Resource
>500,000 oz, 5 g/t

E Pz qtz
E. qtz-musc-chlor
musc chlor schist
Thin quartz veinlet systems
Extensional fractures
Seward Peninsula Rivers Beaches of Nome
1Moz alluvial gold 6Moz alluvial gold
37
EXTENSIONAL OROGENESIS (Fore-Arc) Orogenic Gold Formation:Related to

Lithospheric-Scale Thermal Processes
MID-CRETACEOUS (120-100 Ma)

PORPHYRIES
Quartz monzonite and diorite--Wrangellia and Gravina belt

1,000 Mt of 0.20-0.35%Cu in 7 deposits (Orange Hill, Bond Creek)
Average 0.02% Mo
Less dioritic bodies with classic potassic/phyllic/argillic/propylitic
Fort Knox Au; 90 Ma; YT) zones
90 Ma
38
CALCIC Fe-Cu-Au SKARNS LATE CRETACEOUS

PORPHYRIES: PEBBLE
Late Triassic Wrangellia limestone

Nabesna Cu skarn
15 km NW of Orange Hill
90 Ma tonalite-gd batholith 24.7 billion lbs Cu (>0.3 %)
114-109 Ma
Kahiltna terrane (J-K flysch) Chalcocite/digenite supergene
2t Au recovered from pyrite 26.5 Moz Au (>0.3 g/t) zone
lenses Open most directions
KENNECOTT COPPER DEPOSITS
In Chitistone lmst, within 100m of

Nikolai Greenstone (160 ppm Cu)
Brines leached greenstone and
deposited bornite in faults above
Massive chalcocite replaced bornite
544,000t Cu, 280 t Ag (1913-1938)
39
Shear-related Veins
Pogo, Alaska
POGO: 105 Ma
MID-K
OROGENIC
& IRGS,
EASTERN
ALASKA
(within arc?)
Shear-related Veins
Liese Zone Fairbanks District
Gold Occurrences Chatanika Terrane
High-level iv e r
ika R
ta n
Composed of at least three tabular quartz veins Vein/disseminated
Replacement
C ha
Christina
Hi -Yu
(L1
L1,, L1.5
L1.5,, L2 and possibly L3
L3)) emplaced along low Skarn
True North
CLEARY SUMMIT
Intrusion-hosted AREA
angle shear zones. Placers
Tolovana
Dolphin
k.
PEDRO DOME
C
AREA
Veins are up to 60 thick. L1 averages 21 thick. Frederich Fis
h
Gil
Au is associated with Bi, As, and Te. GILMORE DOME Fort Knox
65 N AREA
Contains approximately 3% metallic minerals: Stepovich

Yukon-Tanana Terrane
including py, po, cpy, asp, lo, Bi-
Bi-Te minerals ek
Cer
am
Current
C resource 10
10.7 mt @ 00.522 opt ffor 5.6
6 Moz.
tre
ds
ol
G
Cretaceous felsic intrusions
(73% in L1 zone and 27% in L2 zone) ESTER DOME Chatanika Terrane
AREA slate, felsic schist, marble
>92% gold recovery through gravity/flotation/ Yukon-Tanana Terrane
schist, quartzite, amphibolite
Ryan Lode
cyanidation processes. en
a Riv
er
FAIRBANKS Faults
Strike-slip, thrust, normal
h 0 10
80% of gold <50 microns C
kilometers
from Rombach, Intrusive Gold 2002
40
FORT KNOX DEPOSIT

Tolovana--92 Ma
IRGS (92 Ma)

Shears and sheeted veins
1.5 Moz prod (1996-2000)
3.7 Moz reserves, 0.93 g/t Au
East-central Alaska Grade and Tonnage

(note log-log scale)
100
Nixon Fork
Horn Honker Cleary Summit
Longline shear veins Pogo
skarns
10
Marn
Illinois Creek
Vinisale
Liberty Bell Golden Zone
replacements
Ryan Lode Donlin Creek
True North epizonal
Brewery Creek
Fort Knox Pogo Gil Dublin Gulch
0 93 g/t; 5
0.93 5.4
4 Moz 18 9 g/t; 5
18.9 5.8
8 Moz 1 Shotgun
Dolphin
intrusion Fort
F t Knox
K
veins
Bi, Te, W Tabular, shear-hosted, epizonal
shallow veins
Sheeted vein
Orthogneiss and
replacement, other
skarns
Pluton and veins=92 Ma paragneiss host rocks intrusion-hosted
0.1
Veins=104 Ma; 0.0 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
Dikes=107 Ma; millions of tonnes
Batholith=94 Ma
41
ALASKA
-500 km from
Donlin
ult convergent margin

Creek
YUKON
Fa
Shotgun
rk Vinasale
n Fo Mtn
-N
ixo Within region of
Golden od
tar dextral strike slip
Horn Idi
fault related to
Granite oroclinal bending
Decourcy Mt Hg Creek
Donlin
Creek
and opening of
lt
au Bering Sea
ll F
we
Horn Mt are
l i-F
Red Devil Hg na
De
0 50
Kilometres After Bundtzen
And Miller (1997)
Plutonic - volcanic complexes (LK-eT)
Volcanic fields (LK-eT)
Porphyritic rhyodacite, rhyolite and
granite complexes (LK-eT)
Kuskokwim Group overlap
assemblage (Mz)
Upper Cretaceous Kuskokwim Group Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary

Magmatism
Coarse- to fine-grained clastics 20 calc-alkaline, intermediate volcanic-plutonic complexes

(76-63 Ma)
>10 km thick Mafic to intermediate dikes (70-65 Ma)
ca. 95-77 Ma strike-slip basin fill Felsic to intermediate, porphyritic dikes and plugs (70-65 Ma)
42
EPIZONAL Hg-Sb LODES
Donlin Creek Deposit
More than one dozen drilled prospects

Indicated and inferred resource=25.4 Moz Au
Cut-off grade=1.5 g/t
Open at depth and along strike
43
Donlin Creek Deposit Rhyodacite porphyry Lamprophyre
8 x 3 km zone N- NE-strikingg
felsic dikes
Rhyodacite porphyry
Dike ages=74-66 Ma
granodiorite
Vein Paragenesis
V3
NE-Striking Vein Types-Donlin Creek
V1
Dominant Grade Average

Vein type Relative Age
mineralogy ~ (g/t) orientation
V1 Sulfide 2.7 020/67 Oldest
V2 Qtz-Sulfide 3.9 022/68
V3 NA, St, Re 7.4 028/72
V4 Carbonate 0.6 028/65 Youngest V2 V4
from Piekenbrock and Petsel, 2003
44
Hydrothermal Alteration Age of Mineralization - 40Ar/39Ar
69.11.1 Ma (Gray et
al., 1997; Snow)
73.60.6 to 67.80.3
carbonatization Ma (Szumigala et al.,
2000; Queen and Lewis)
68.01.0, 65.10.9 Ma
(Szumigala et al., 2000;
Dome)reset?
sericitization
45
Exploration Criteria
Competency contrasts between regional NE and E-W structural

domains
High Sr, low Nd isotopes of igneous rocks
Depleted 34S of ores
46
Hydrothermal Environments
Epizonal Donlin Prospect
25 Moz, ca. 70 Ma epizonal Au deposit
Qtz-carb veinlets in ca. 74-66 Ma porphyritic, flysch-
melt dike complex
Ore fluids: 3-7% CO2CH4, low salinity, 275-300oC, Donlin Creek
1-2 km
Fluid source: flysch melt or magmatic exsolution
Sulfur source: diagenetic
g py
pyrite and/or organic
g matter
Lead source: crustal
Ultimate control: subduction-related mantle melts
Dome prospect: same or older hydrothermal system?
Analogous Deposits?
Orogenic Gold in Space and
Time
Brewery Ck, Livengood, and True North (TGP)--MAYBE

Shotgun, SW Alaska--NO
NE Russia (e.g., Maiskoe, Sarylakh, Kyuchus)--YES
Willis, Barometer, Kolmakof, Red Devil--all anomalous Au
Mountain Top--anomalous sulfur isotopes
47
Mesozoic Gold Cordilleran

Gold
Districts
Klondike Gold
15 Moz placer
Unprod. lodes in
Permian mm
Triassic-Jurassic(?)
defm and vein fm
48
Bralorne Deposit (Bridge River District)

Bridge River District:
LANDWARD of the
Arc
Mid 1880s - Discovery of Placer gold on Cadwallader Creek

1896 First lode mines located - Mine closed 1977
Produced in excess of 4 million oz. (18 g/t)
from Chris Ash
Bridge River Au-Sb-Hg District

Jurassic to
Cretaceous
Gold:
Deformed
T
Terranes above
b
Young
Cover
49
CALIFORNIA LODE FIELDS

CALIFORNIA ALLUVIAL AU
East (upstream) of
lode fields
65 Moz Au
produced
West of Sierra
batholith
Source:
35+ Moz lode Au
Eroded Mz lodes? Mainly Mother Lode, Grass Valley, Alleghany
Nevada goldfields? Foothills plutons=155-123 Ma; Sierra batholith to the east=120-80 Ma
Tectonism in the
Sierra Foothills
Alleghany District
Grass
Valley 272-166 Ma terrane accretion
District
197-177 Ma thrust faults
(sutures?) in J-Tr arc belt
Mother Lode 160-125 Ma sinistral S-S

Belt
Post-125 Ma major dextral S-S
125-80 Ma Sierra batholith
Gold deposition????
Harvard Pit, looking SE, California Mother Lode Belt

from Snow and Scherer, 2006
50
Alleghany district=Melones
Mother Lode strands and serpentinites
Belt along
MLB Geol Melones
fault zone
after Knopf (1929, Figure 3)

with revised legend using
data from Graymer and Jones
Grass Valley district=L Jurassic dates

New Sierra Foothills Argon Age Data on E-W veins
Oxford Mine 117.3 0.8 Ma
Sixteen to One 114.7 1.4 Ma

Grass Valley Geol
Grass Valley distr. 152-143 Ma
124.30.7 Ma
Quartz Hill, Placerville 124.3
Sutter Hill 129.8 2.3 Ma Eureka insufficient Re
Royal Mountain King 125.4 0.2 Ma Confidence 128.2 0.7 Ma
Carson Hill 134.3 1.0 Ma

Jack Adit 124.3 0.7 Ma McAlpine ~123 Ma
Alameda 130.4 1.5 Ma
Harvard 129.9 0.7 Ma 115.61.3 Ma
Pine Tree/Josephine 115.6
129.70.7 Ma
Quartz Hill 129.7
51
Magmatism, Initial phase of Au mineralization 152-143 Ma

Convergance
Rate & Au Quartz Hill
GV ca.152-143,
hosted in Jura-
Triassic and
Calaveras and 159
GOLD
GOLD
Ma granodiorite
Grass Valley
QH ca. 147, hosted
in NF terrane
from Ernst et al., 2008
from Glazner, 1991
Separation of SNFH and Klamath Mtns Changes in far-

far-field stresses Mesozoic
orogenic Au in California and east Asia
135 Ma 124 Ma
Q t Hill
Quartz
Grass Valley
Ca. 124 Ma emplacement of the Ontong-Java plume

change in plate motions
changing stresses along continent margins
from Ernst et al., 2008
formation of orogenic Au deposits in California and east Asia
52
Tectonic History, Sierra Foothills Province

Tectonic History, Juneau Gold Belt
Tectonic History, Talkeetna Mountains Tectonic History, SE Coast Belt
53
La Herradura
Cordilleran Relationships
(Sonora)
Gold Spatial Temporal Tectonic
(Ma) (Batholith) (Batholith) Event
Juneau Gold Belt 57-53
57 53 Seaward overlap
p ((final stage)
g ) change
g pplate motion
Sierra Foothills 130-115 Seaward overlap (initial stage) change plate motion
Talkeetna Mts 67-66 Host post (a few m.y.) initial S-S
SE Coast Belt 68-64 Landward post (25 m.y.) initial S-S
Hosted by 1.75 Ga gneiss between Jurassic clastics and late Pz limestone; Mojave-
Sonora megashear?
Ca. 64-54 Ma dates for six deposits in Precambrian rocks
8 Moz Au @ 0.75 g/t; mining distal alteration
Cordilleran
Mercury
Districts:
"There are certain interesting
The Tops to analogies between the gold-
Regional quartz veins of the Sierra
Nevada and the quicksilver
(Orogenic Gold) deposits of the Coast
Flow Systems Range."
--Lindgren,
Li d 1895
54
New Almaden Mercury Deposit

SILVERQUICK, BRIDGE RIVER, BC
Along splay of San Andreas fault

Late Jurassic-Cretaceous melange; ores in Cinnabar in brecciated conglom.
serpentine Minor Hg production in mid-60s
Silica-carbonate alteration

Lower gs facies host rocks
100 ppb Au (Church, 1995)
Cinnabarnative Hg, stibnite, minor b.m.
40% USAs Hg production (>1 million flasks)
Pliocene to Pleistocene
Bridge River Au-Sb-Hg District San Andreas Transform

Fault System
Geysers Clear Lake
Geysers-Clear
Area
Pull-apart Basin
3-m.y.-old slab
window
Anomalous Ag, g Au.
B, Hg, and Sb
Meteoric and non-
meteoric waters
55
Orogenic Gold - 50 M.Y. from Now Mesozoic Gold
After Hyndman (1990)
After Hyndman and Lewis (1995)
Eastern Russia
Natalka proposed
new pit with 1500 t
(48 Moz) Au @ 1.7
g/t
56
China has been

producing Au for
>4000yrs
Global Gold Production
700
>1,000 operating South Africa

gold mines 600
tonnes of gold produced per year

Many small-scale
mines (25-100
tpday) 500
Largest mines 2-3t

China is #1
Au/yr (50-70 koz) 400
>300 t Au
USA in 2008
300
Australia
200
Canada
100
China
1949-2000 2000-2008
1000t Au 2500 t Au
0
1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Output of industrial value is $7.5B, up 36%, profits up 42% since 2005

Chinas gold reserves up to 650 t Au, plan to increase to 3000 t Au over 5 years
JIAODONG GOLD PROVINCE

30t Au/year; 850 t Au
resource
>95% granitoid-hosted
orogenic
east side of Tan-Lu fault
Precambrian basement;
Yanshanian plutons (165-
125 Ma)
Gold formation ca. 124-120

Ma
Linglong-style; quartz vein

LINGLONG GOLD DEPOSIT
Jiaojia-style disseminated
57
Jiaodong Peninsula
Jiaobei terrane=2.94-2.67 Ga basement

Sulu terrane=Paleoprot (UHP mm=240-210 Ma)
Mesozoic granitoids (165-150, 130-126 Ma)
Tan-Lu=500 km Mz sinistral strike-slip
Zhao-Ye Belt Linglong Goldfield
>85% gold resource

NE-splays off NNE
Tan-Lu
E-W basement
faults?
Zhaoping fault=130
fa lt 130
km x 10-20 km
Deposits along contacts and between intrusions

E. Linglong, W. Linglong, Taishang, Lignan, Dongfeng
58
Linglong-type ores
Veins in 2nd and 3rd order normal faults

Moderate to steep dip (60o) Large quartz veins (124-120 Ma)
300 t Au; 9.7 g/t Au in main part of field Brittle fractures along reactivated shears
NW-SE extension
Veins=1-2 km x tens of meters; hundreds of meters Brecciated and fractured veins; little lamination
down-dip
Jiaojia-type Orebodies San-Cang

Goldfields
Along contacts
NE strike; 30o NW dip
Ore in py-ser-KF altered
granite
Broader silicif.
Mm barren
Au:Ag 1:1
120 Ma Ar-Ar sericite (Li et
al,, 2003))
59
Cangshang Fluid Chemistry (from Qiu et al, 2002)

250-350oC; < 1 kbar
H2O-CO2CH4
Largest open pit Au Low-moderate salinity
mine 18O:
O 9.4-13.1
9 4 13 1 per milil
Mined to -70 m D: -91 to -78 per mil
Discovered 1984: 34S: 6-10 per mil
Mining 1990
Genesis:
50 t Au; 3.5 g/t Au
Younger granites at depth?
75% mined out
Devolatilization of underplated material?
2t Au/year
Mantle degassing?
Southern Margin of the NCC ARCHEAN HOST ROCKS
2.8-2.6 Ga Taihua Group

Amphibolite and granulite facies
Gneiss is most common Au host
Protolith = seds and volcanics
60
Xiaoqinling area JINQU DEPOSIT
Largest producer in orogen Reserves 12-16 t Au

15 t Au and 25 t Ag mined (1991-2004) Grade 5-6 g/t (locally 100)
Present annual prod. 2.5 t Au Refine pyrite concentrate
JINQU DEPOSIT
Late Mesozoic
tectonism
R
Removall off 80
80-140
140
km of Archean
lithosphere
High heat flow
Orebody is 4 large veins with massive Widespread

aurifer py magmatism
Mined over 700m of depth; open at depth
Longest vein = 300 m
Width avg. 70 cm (locally 1 m)
Varied orientation
61
E. Cretaceous Gold in Precambrian Rocks! Changes in far-

far-field stresses Mesozoic
orogenic Au in California and east Asia
135 Ma 124 Ma
Ca. 124 Ma emplacement of the Ontong-Java plume

change in plate motions
changing stresses along continent margins
formation of orogenic Au deposits in California and east Asia
Otago Auriferous orogenic hydrothermal systems in

Mesozoic schist
Goldfields
Hg
Waikaka
Waitahuna
62
Gold-Greenschist Association
From Craw, 2005

from Craw, NZ 2005
Macraes - Orogenic Gold?
Consistencies with orogenic model (Craw Inconsistencies (de Ronde et al., 2000):
and co-workers): >99% H2O, with light hydrogen isotopes
Major shear, jogs, brittle - ductile 1-2 wt% NaCl eq.
Greenschist facies BUT CH4, N2; some clathrate and 4 wt%
Vein P-T, mineralogy, 18O, 34S NaCl eq. flincs
From Craw, 2005
from Craw, NZ 2005
63
Orogenic Gold in Space and Time: Paleozoic The Tasmanides in

Eastern Australia:
Au-Rich Pz Fold Belts
g Cover
& Younger
Series of N-S Pz fold belts

80 Moz Au
Veining & defm=ca. 440 Ma
Lachlan
Thomson
Hodgkinson-Broken River
New England (Permo-Tr)
Lode Gold
Deposits,
Tasman Fold
Belt
from 2005 Bierlein, 2005
64
Western Lachlan: Orogenic Gold

~2,500 t of gold since 1851 (e.g. Ballarat, Bendigo,
Stawell)
almost entirely structurally controlled; Au-qtz veins
(l d stockwork
(lodes; t k k systems,
t di
disseminated)
i t d)
Ballarat Ballarat
60% of production from placers (about 50 Moz Au)
WL: Cordilleran-style
Westland, South Island
accretion to craton
(Bendigo, Ballarat)
CL: Mature magmatic

arc above eastward
subduction
EL: Evolving
g oceanic
island arc system over
westward subduction in
northern portion
(Cadia, Parks)
65
Offshore Potential
Erosion of Westland Lodes
Eastern Gondwana PALEOZOIC ANTARCTICA
66
Terra Australis Orogen

EASTERN
CORDILLERA:
A POTENTIAL
WORLD-
CLASS
OROGENIC
GOLD
PROVINCE?
Paleozoic Gold Orogenic Gold in Space and Time: Paleozoic
150 Moz
250 Moz
100 Moz
100 Moz
7 Moz prod.
67
MEGUMA DEPOSITS
L. Paleozoic metaturbidites
Slate-belt hosted deposits
30 g/t vein deposits
Assoc. with accretionary tectonics
Avalon Terrane
Meguma Terrane
100 km
from Dan Kontak
EUROPEAN PALEOZOIC/ALPINE GOLD
from Hagemann, Gold 2000
68
Europe -
Collision = 400-320 Ma; extension collapse = 320-280 Ma; plutons = 330-280 Ma
Central Asia -
Final closure of Paleotethys = 250 Ma; plutons = 330-260 Ma
China -
Final closure of Paleotethys = 200 Ma; plutons = 320-220 Ma
Mid-Late Paleozoic Au - Tien Shan Uzbekistan orogenic gold
after Yakubchuk et al (2005) after Drew et al (1998); Yakubchuk et al (2005)
69
Muruntau Geochronology: Multiple Events?

Muruntau (W. Tien Shan)
Early Pz carbonaceous
siltstone; dissem.
pyrrhotite; 20-50 ppb
Au?
Sil-Dev metamorphism &
folding
Late Carb.-Permian
magmatism/s-s/ gold
Morelli et al (2007)=Re-Os
on pyrite=288 Ma
175 Moz Au; 3.5-5 g/t;
tonnage mainly in flat
veinlets
PGE produced
Bierlein and Wilde, 2010

from Bierlein and Wilde
2010
MURUNTAU PIT GEOLOGY MURUNTAU: Why So Large?
Approximately 6 kilometres
Approximately 6 kilometres
Approximately 300m deep
after Graupner et al
Ores in carbonaceous lower parts of Besopan Fm (Early Pz) Major jog in South TS-Central TS suture?
Carbonate platform sequence to the north (Dev-Carb)
Murunski granite stock at 4 km depth (ca 287 Ma) Carbonate platform rocks (e.g., Carlin processes)?
Besopan sediments originally gold rich?
70
Kumtor (E. Tien Shan)

Vendian carbonaceous
phyllites (Dzhetymtau
Fm)
Late Pz mineralization
(~ 297-284 Ma argon
dates)
Veins, stockworks,
breccia
after Abzalov. 2007 570 t Au, 3.58 g/t
g
14 pits; much underground; all <300 Along major offset &
m sheared batholith
7 x 0.3-1 km belt of orebodies along margin
after Abzalov (2007)
contact of E. Permian granite Fine gold in pyrite
Re-Os aspy=286 Ma (Seltmann, 2010)
600 t Au (?); perhaps mined only 100-
Mx still open at depth &
200 t of the Au since 1980 along strike
Kumtor=Margin to Late Paleozoic

batholith
KUMTOR ORES
Stockworks Breccia
Albite HG Zones Dissem. Pyrite

Centerra, 2010
71
Central Asian Orogenic System (510-310 Ma)

Hg-Sb Lodes Southern Tian Shan
X Hg-Sb deposit
after Sengor and Natalin 1996
Muruntau, Kumtor, Zarmitan, etc all ca. 290-285 Ma
Permian shift from right- to left-slip (Yin et al., Briggs et al., GSA 2005)
Ore Zone IV (Xinjiang)

4 km strike length; avg
width 20-25 m; 1.75-2
g/t Au
Continues into
Kyrgyzstan (Savoyardy
deposit)
NE strike , 70-80 NW
dip
Majestic
j Gold Corpp-
2005: 41 holes. >7000m
drilled, 12 trenches
72
Sawayaerdun Ore WANGFENG Orogenic Au
Graphite-rich breccia
Aspy-py-stibpo, cp; Au-As correlation Hosted in Devonian orthogneiss, high-
1:1 Ag:Au, BUT common Ag dominant zones in core grade core to Tien Shan
Chlorite-carb. alteration Ores silicified disseminated, low
Age???? 285 Ma? sulphide
Grade 8-15 gpt Au, small tonnage 100kt
WESTERN Hatu district: Dalabute

fault zone
JUNGGAR
Dev-E Carb marine

seds and ophiolite
320-245 Ma granitoids Qiqiu #1 ore

>300 gold deposits
Qiqiu (Hatu district)

>30t Au; 7.5g/t
73
Orogenic Au
Altai Shan Placer Au Saidu
1991 startup, 2t/yr, 7t
reserves, 6.5 g/t
Dev. metaseds along
Duolanasayi sheared
h d granite
it margini
Saidu
K-Ar (musc) = 300-280 Ma
Silicified knobs
WULASHAN DEPOSIT
60t Au
peg veins (5-9 g/t)
altered wallrock (>8g/t)
Archean gneiss and
amphibolite
Orogenic gold in basement uplifts 900t Au resource
1500 km E-W, northern NCC 75% in basement, 25% in granitoids L Pz granite batholith 2 km
west
74
SAIYINWUSU DEPOSIT E. Pz. orogenic gold deposits of NW

Kazakhstan=accretion onto Kazakstania
15 km NW Bayan Obo
2 km south of Junggar fault
Neoprot - E Pz BIF and metaseds
26t Au (50% mined)
veins/breccias 15 g/t Au
(after Windley et al, 2007; Seltmann, 2010)
Charsk Gold Belt Kokchatev Gold Province
after Spiridonov, 1996
75
OLDEST DEPOSITS OF
CAOB=MARGINS OF SIBERIAN Baikal Province
CRATON
Sukhoi Log
g
Sukhoi Log (Baikal fold belt) NOT a disseminated Au

deposit!
Late Prot. carbonaceous sediment

Metamorphosed Neoprot passive margin
Abund. syn-sedimentary pyrite Au-bearing veins dated at 345 by Ar-Ar (Goldfarb et al, 2001)
Axial zone of tight anticline
Assoc with ca. 340-280 Ma Angara-Vitim batholith
Neoprot-Cambrian Re-Os dates on syngenetic/diagenetic py
1048t Au; 2.6 g/t; significant Pt do not date the gold resource
76
CODES STUDY (Large et al)=GEOCHEM OF PY PARAGENESIS
77
IN OTHER WORDS, CODES STUDY HAS DOCUMENTED THE

METAMORPHIC MODEL WORKS; THAT IS, THE SOURCE OF
THE GOLD IN OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS IS REGIONAL MM
Yenisey Ridge Province Central Asian Orogenic Gold Giants
Carbonaceous, black
shale carbonate
Stockwork/veinlets
Olympiada (disseminated)
Gold associated with
aspy, stib
High salinity fluids
78
Tectonic Setting for Orogenic Gold Evolving Earth & Orogenic Au
Early Archean Rocks Archean

Gold
Preserved
in
Cratons:
Kenorland
Sutures?
Granite (30%) - greenstone (10%); high-grade gneiss terrains (60%)

Greenstone belts = broad greenschist facies
Plate tectonics (plume-driven?) vs. anorogenic tectonics; lateral vs.
vertical growth
Crustal heat production = 2x-4x present
Tectonometamorphic ages decrease with structural level
Late Archean = >50% cont. crust
79
Archean Au - cratonization & buoyant SCLM Oldest Orogenic Gold Deposits
The Earth was hotter in the Archean and plume tectonics dominated
200 km thick, buoyant, low density SCLM keels below greenstone belts 3230-3080 Ma=Kaapvaal accretionary tectonics
The keels hindered uplift and preserved greenschist facies units (and thus 3080 Ma=Shift to transtensional, Saddleback-Inyoka f.s.
gold) as cratonic blocks at the Earths surface for 2+ billion years. (DeRonde and DeWit, 1994)
Supercratons & Supercontinents & Wits Au Supercratons & Supercontinents & Wits Au
80
Supercratons & Supercontinents & Wits Au Paleoprot.

Gold
NA/Greenland +/- central Australia, Africa/SA. N. Asia

63% gneiss, 12% plutonic, 25% metasupracrustal (mostly gs)
Supracrustal = turbidites and greestone belts (Churchill, Guyanas,
Birimian)
Stable shelf facies; uplift and erosion of shelves/Archean cratons
Au in Paleoprot. (Ghana) and Archean ( Moro Velho; Gabon) rx
Meso- 1.8-0.6 Ga
Neoprot
Gold
55% of exposed Precambrian crust

Stabilized continental crust; cover from reworked cratonic blocks
Broad scale extension, basin formation, anorogenic magmatism
Rodinian orogens (1.3-1.0 Ga); most poorly preserved
Latest Neoproterozoic Au: East African/Trans Sahara orogen Paterson
orogen (Telfer), S. Angara craton (Yenisei, E. Sayan)
after Zhao et al. (2004), Teixera et al. (2007)
81
Meso-Neoproterozoic-NO RODINIAN GOLD! TECTONIC RECONSTRUCTION OF RODINIA: EVIDENCE OF

PHANEROZOIC-STYLE PLATE TECTONICS
BUT NO GOLD
Precambrian Goldfields
82
Late Neoproterozoic Au Precambrian Orogenic Gold

Boring
Billion
Phanerozoic Goldfields Phanerozoic Gold
83
GREATER
CAUCASUS
-- 5 Ma (?)
<50 Ma=Not Unroofed
From Hou and Cook, 2009
TEMPORAL DISTRIBUTION OF OROGENIC GOLD DEPOSITS: A STRONG

REFLECTION OF TECTONIC AND LITHOSPHERIC EVOLUTION
EARTH PROCESSES
75% of juvenile crust at 3.0-2.5 Ga and 2.15-1.80 Ga
(preserved in platforms
(p p and inliers; ~30% covered))
Transient whole mantle convection forming new crust
Sudden slab failures (i.e., Condies avalanche)
Since 1.7 Ga, cooler Earth; more homogenous mantle

andd shift
hif to lless episodic
i di plate
l tectonics
i
Cordilleran-style tectonics rather than broad, buoyant

crustal blocks
84
Intrusions are
among the
greatest
Intrusion-Related Gold Systems contributors and
hosts for gold in
with
i h emphasis
h i on Y
Yukon
k and
d Al
Alaska
k the upper crust
Fort Knox, Alaska

7 million ounces of
gold
Craig J.R. Hart
Mineral Deposit Research Unit
University of British Columbia Boddington, WA
Vancouver, Canada
chart@eos.ubc.ca
23 million ounces of
gold
Pataz-Porcoy
x
Districts
x x
x
x Are these
x intrusion-related
gold deposits?
10 km
85
Distinguishing Intrusion- Historical Development of

Related Gold Deposits Intrusion-related Gold Models
and Classifications
Murutau, UZB USGS Deposit Models
Models, Cox and Singer
Pogo, AK US GAC Ore Deposit Models volumes
Donlin Creek, AK US BCGS Mineral Deposit Models
Otago, NZ Economic Geology 75th Anniversary Volume
Victoria AUS (Stawell)
What exploration model is most appropriate?? Gold-rich porphyries & gold-only skarns
but NO intrusion-related ggold models or veins
cf: greenstone-gold, Archean-gold, turbidite-gold, shear-zone
Historical Development of Classifications gold
Characteristics vs Distinguishing Features Do they exist? Why has it taken so long to recognize? Are
their characteristics just too variable?
Intrusion-Related Gold Deposits Gold-Rich Porphyries

First suggested by Sillitoe (1991) Sillitoe (1993)
6 sub-classes, first indication of system Many were gold-rich, but still copper-
porphyry, intrusion-hosted, skarn, carb- bearing
replacement, non-carb replacement, breccia,
vein Also included lithocaps or epithermally
Of 25 examples,
examples most are associated with modified ((e.g.
g Marte))
Cu, most are I-type, metaluminous,
oxidized..most are arcy
Included Muruntau
86
Gold (-only) Porphyries Plutonic-Related Gold

Long-used,
Long used general term for any low-grade,
low grade Newberry et al.
al (1995) and McCoy (1997),
(1997)
intrusion-hosted gold-only (copper-poor) mostly using Alaskan examples
mineralization Included a wide-range of gold deposit types
Used in CIM Porphyry volume, and by from numerous districts throughout Alaska
Hollister (1991), Bakke (1995) for Fort that were lumped into a single genetic
Knox model
Plutonic Related Gold

Intrusion-Related Gold Veins
Thompson & Sillitoe (1998)

Identified numerous gold veins that were
thought to have been genetically associated
with a proximal pluton
Included Shandong,g, Dongping,
gp g, Ryan
y
Lode.
Would probably include Pogo (AK),
Stawell (Vic)
87
Intrusion-Related Gold with Sn-W Intrusion-Related Gold Systems

Lang et al. (2000)
Thompson,
Thompson Sillitoe et al.
al (1999) SEG NNewsletter
l tt
Recognized gold-mineralization associated Benefit of field
with more reduced, more felsic, more work in Yukon and
peraluminous (S-typey), more lithophile- Alaska
rich plutons
Emphasis on
No associated copper system
Tintina Gold Province

Tintina Gold Belt
TGB entrenched in
exploration
l ti lexicon
l i
Round Up conference ALAS KA
TIN YU KO N
volume 2000 AG FB
CL TI N
A
KALT Fairbanks
EG
RP RS GP
Included papers on T I N A G O
L 40 60 Dawson
N KT BO D KD TB
I P R Mayo
T TG
Pogo and Donlin,
Donlin and LL
CH DE
NA
LI DR
O
V I N C
WE E
RE F
deposits with KK FA Anchorage FA
U
AU
LT TY
LT
questionable plutonic Whitehorse
associations
160
500 km
88
Reduced
Thermal Aureole Gold
Intrusion-related Gold Systems
Vic Wall (2000) Thompson and Newberry (2000) SEG SEG
Proximity, or above plutons are good places Gold in 2000 volume
to explore Emphasized low-oxidation state of
No obvious genetic connotations, but heat, associated plutons and fluids to differentiate
ppermeability,
y, fluid mobility,
y, gradients
g from IRGDeposits of Sillitoe (1991)
Included a wide range of deposit types

Reduced Porphyry Cu-Au Mineralization Styles EPIZONAL
Donlin Creek
Hart et al (2002) True North
Brewery Creek
Rowins (2000) Geology INTRUSION RELATED

INTRUSION-RELATED
?
Moderate gold, but low copper contents Sheeted Veins
Fort Knox ?
Due to poor mobilization/enrichment of Cu Dublin Gulch
in reduced systems Skarns
Marn, Gil ?
Suggested same as IRGS Stepovich Dolphin
Replacements/Breccias Pogo
Scheelite Dome
Bear Paw Ryan Lode
SHEAR-RELATED
HiYu,Tolvana
Christina, Longline
89
Models, Classification, Mess

Gold-rich Porphyries A Redox Regime for IRGS
Gold only Porphyries
Intrusion related Gold Deposits
Intrusion-related
Gold-only
Plutonic Gold 1 km Porphyry
Reduced Alkalic
Intrusion-related Gold Veins Reduced Copper
Oxidized
Porphyry Porphyry
Intrusion-related Gold in Sn-W districts IRGS Copper Gold-rich
IRGD Copper-Gold
Porphyry
Intrusion-related Gold Systems
3 km Copper
Tintina Gold Belt
R d d Cu-Au
Reduced C A P h i
Porphyries
Thermal Aureole Gold 5 km
Reduced Intrusion-related Gold Systems
Alkalic Gold-rich Porphyries 8 km
Alkalic Gold Intrusive Complexes REDUCED OXIDIZED
Reduced Intrusion-Related Gold

Systems
contact skarns
Au-W - calc-alk
NOT gold porphyries!!!
Au-Cu - alkalic Au-As veins
SbAu, As veins economic base metals
small elongate pluton sheeted veins Ag-Pb-Zn widespread alteration
aplite & pegmatite dikes veins
distal
horn fe ls
skarns concentric shells of alteration

tensional zones,
replacement & veins & lamprophyres multi-directional stockworks
disseminations
low-angle faults
meteoric fluid contribution
meteoric
li
m
structurally prepared oxidized magmas or fluids

it
roof zone thermal aureole hanging wall

hydrothermal above pluton
breccia
90

Tectonic Setting
Intrusion centred
Intrusion-centred &
small high-level pluton
Granite Series Metallogeny
Assocd skarns
Distal Pb-Ag-Zn veins
Possible epizonal ores
Where else in the world Global Examples of RIRGS

TGP TGP
Abitibi
NB Mokrsko Vasilkovskoe Mokrsko Vasilkovskoe
Salave Salave
Rio Narcea Niuxinshan Rio Narcea Niuxinshan
Dongping Dongping
Jiaodong
La Colosa
Kori Kollo Kori Kollo

Telfer Timbarra Telfer Lachlan
Boddington Kidston Boddington New Englan
91
Tectonic
T i
Setting of
Intrusion-
related ores
Alaska/Yukon Redox State
110 Ma
120 Ma 95 Ma
W-Sn
Reduced
W-Sn
Ilmenite-series
Cu-Fe-Au
Oxidized
Magnetite-series
Alaska-Yukon Mid-Cretaceous Plutonic Suites
92
Granite Series & Metallogeny Across-orogen Metallogeny

Oxidized
Accreted Terranes Continental Margin
-post-accretionary -post-compression, weak extn
C A
Cu-Au Peraluminous, bio-musc
Metaluminous, hb-
Cu-Mo granites
Fe2O3 granodiorites
FeO Mo Ilmenite series, S-type
Magnetite series, I-type
Oxidized and primitive Reduced and radiogenic
W Chalcophile dominated
Lithophile
Lith hil d dominated
i t d
metallogeny (Cu-AuMo)
Sn metallogeny (W-SnMo)
Subduction-related
mantle-derived arc Crustal source +
Reduced
mafic felsic source lamprophyres
Granite Series & Metallogeny

Oxidized
110 Ma
C A
Cu-Au
Cu-Mo
120 Ma 95 Ma Fe2O3
W-Sn Tombstone Gold Belt FeO Mo
Cu-Fe-Au
W-Sn
Au
Wu
Sn
Reduced
mafic felsic
93
Styles of Mineralization
Tectonic Setting associated with
Setting: Inboard continental margin arc to Intrusion-related
far back-arc G ld S
Gold Systems
t
Timing: Post-deformation to post-collision (IRGS)
Result: Crustal melting and continental
margin extension=lamprophyres
Metallogeny: Au in a W district

Placer Gold
30 Moz placer production, >40 Moz lode reserves
ALAS KA
Fairbanks
TIN
TI N
YU KO N
CL A
AG FB
KALT
RP
Fairbanks
RS GP EG Tombstone
T I N A G O
L 40 60 Dawson
N KT BO D KD TB
I P R Mayo
T CH DE
TG
NA O
LL LI DR V I N C
WE E
KK RE F
AU TY
FA LT
Anchorage FA
U LT
Whitehorse
160
500 km
94
Cantung-9Mt of 1.6% WO3

Placer Scheelite Paleozoic
carbonate
Cretaceous granite
Silver Veins Styles of Mineralization-Diversity

Keno Hill, Yukon
95
Zoned RIRGS Model Intrusion-hosted

Intrusion-hosted Proximal Distal
Dublin Gulch, Yukon
Au-Bi-TeW, Mo, As Au-AsW,Sn,Sb Au-As-Sb-HgAg,Pb,Zn granodiorite
qtz-bio hornfels
contact skarns
Au W - calc-alk
Au-W calc alk pyroxene skarn
Au-Cu - alkalic Au-As veins
SbAu, As veins qtzite, phyllite, schist
h Olive
Tin Gulc
small elongate pluton sheeted veins Ag-Pb-Zn
aplite & pegmatite dikes veins Dome lin
distal ub
horn fe ls
D
skarns
k
tensional zones,
Cre e
Ray Gulch
replacement & veins & lamprophyres tungsten skarn
Ra
disseminations
y
low angle faults
low-angle Steiner
Gu
lch
li
Haggart
m
structurally prepared
it
roof zone thermal aureole Eagle Zone

hanging wall
breccia 6401
0 1
Peso-Rex Ag-Pb Keno Hill Ag-Pb
km
Intrusion-hosted
Fort Knox, Alaska 186 Mt of 0.93 gpt Au , 7Moz
Monte Cristo
1472200
Creek Melba
Creek
645930
150 meters
Coarse-grained granite Mafic hybrid Pegmatite
Medium-grained granite Schist/Quartzite Shear zone
Fine-grained granite
96
Intrusion-hosted
Sheeted Veins Sheeted Veins
Reduced
10 cm Au Skarns
Horn, Yukon
Dublin Gulch sheeted veins
97
Reduced Skarns Scheelite Dome Hornfels Aureole Stockworks,

ELEMENT FA-4
Mo
Cu
4
3927
breccias, replacements
Pb 7
Zn
Ag
52
5
Scheelite Dome
As 3367
Sb 36
Bi 426 auriferous approx limit of
approx.
W 161 sheeted veins contact metamorphism
Au 17
Te 12
Scheelite Dome 0 1
quartz-monzonite
Diopside-plagioclase gangue stock km
ELEMENT TZL-1
Mo 6
b
Cu 72 100 ppb 40 pp
Pb 85
10
Zn 37 Au in soil
0
pp
Ag 11 anomaly
b
100
As 99999 ppb
40 pp b
Sb 208
Bi 3961
13600
W 4153
Au 152
Te 110
6345 mineralized faults
Phlogopite gangue
Hornfels Aureole Stockworks, RIRGS Model

breccias, replacements Intrusion-hosted Proximal
Au-Bi-TeW, Mo, As Au-AsW,Sn,Sb
Distal
Au-As-Sb-HgAg,Pb,Zn
Scheelite Dome
contact skarns
Au W - calc-alk
Au-W calc alk Au-As veins
Au-Cu - alkalic
Sulphide-rich SbAu, As veins
pyrrhotite>
pyrite distal
horn fe ls
skarns
Arsenopyrite- tensional zones,
rich replacement & veins & lamprophyres
disseminations
low angle faults
low-angle
li
m
it
breccia
98
RIRGS Model Mineralization

EPIZONAL
Styles & Deposits Donlin Creek
True North
Mineralization style and metallogeny are Brewery Creek
zoned outward from a central p pluton in a
predictable fashion
INTRUSION RELATED
INTRUSION-RELATED
?
?
Sheeted Veins
No single feature defines this model (e.g. Fort Knox
Bi), but a suite of characteristics are Dublin Gulch
required Skarns
Marn, Gil ?
Stepovich Dolphin
Replacements/Breccias Pogo
Scheelite Dome
Bear Paw Ryan Lode
SHEAR-RELATED
HiYu,Tolvana
Christina, Longline
Epizonal Gold Brewery Creek
68 34
30
30
30
24
29
1 km 38
99
Grade and Tonnage

(note log-log scale)
100
Nixon Fork
Cleary
y Summit
10
Horn Honker
00
to
Longline
10
Pogo
nn
0t
10
es
on
A
to
ne
ggrams per tonne Au
u
nn
10
s
es
Marn
Au
A
Illinois Creek
u
Vinisale
1
Liberty Bell Golden Zone
to
n
Ryan Lode Donlin Creek
ne
A
Brewery Creek
u
True North
Gil Dublin Gulch
1 Shotgun Fort Knox
veins Dolphin
epizonal
replacement, other
skarns
intrusion-hosted
0.1
0.0 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
millions of tonnes
Characteristics of
IRGS Characteristics
Intrusion-Related Gold Systems
Interior parts of orogenic belt
Wide variation in styles of mineralization
Variation results from differences in host
rocks, distance from pluton, and depth of
emplacement Igneous rocks vary, but are
reduced
Sedimentary or metasedimentary host rocks
Structure,
Structure structure,
structure structure
Either Au-Bi-W-As or Au-As-Sb-Hg assocn
Intrusion-hosted sheeted veins are most
characteristic mineralization Craig J. R. Hart
Mineral Deposit Research Unit
University of British Columbia
100
Location in Pluton
Cupola
Carapace
Hard shell at top
Pluton shape
Metallogenic Zonation - vertical

Level of erosion
Emplacement Depth and Erosional Level
Carapace
0 Brewery Creek
volatiles metals Cupola
Epizonal Red Mountain/Len
Au-Sb-As-Hg Dublin Gulch/
3 Brewery Creek Scheelite Dome/
metres
Clear Ck./
Fort Knox
kilom
Mesozonal
5
Au-Bi-Te-W
Dublin Gulch Roop Lakes
7 Plutonic
W
101
Plutonic Features of IRGS Plutonic Characteristics-

Fractionation
Lithologically
g y variable,, felsic>mafic,, associated lamprophyres,
p p y , Rb
homogeneous or zoned plutons
Evidence of fractionation and fluid exsolution - pegmatites,
aplites, UST, miarolites, tourmaline
S-type character, I-type chemistry
metaluminous>peraluminous, sub-alkalic>alkalic TUNGSTEN
High SIR (0.71), low eNd (-15), heavy 18O (10-15)
Low primary oxidation state
Fe2O3/FeO~0.3, ilmenite> magnetite, low mag susc
GOLD
Ba Sr
Alkalic Association Lamprophyres
102
Smoking Gun Pluton
Features indicative of high fluid/

volatile
l til contents
t t andd exsolution
l ti
How Reduced? Magnetic

Intrusions are ilmenite NOT magnetite series
Susceptibility
Low
Lo Fe203/FeO ratios (0.1-0.3)
(0 1 0 3)
Granites have low magnetic susc (0-0.5 x .001 SI)
Flat aeromagnetic signatures
Fluids locally have CH4
P h tit l ll it
Pyrrhotite-lollengite-arsenopyrite-pyrite
it it
fO2 -14 to -17, NNO-QFM
Ilmenite Magnetite
series series
103
Ferric:Ferrous Ratios
Bismuthite Crystals
from miarolitic cavities
Metal Associations
Scheelite, Bi-Te-Au
NO copper
104
Reduced Skarns Scheelite Dome

ELEMENT FA-4
Mo 4
Cu 3927
Pb 7
Zn 52
Ag 5
As 3367
Sb 36
Bi 426
W 161
Au
Au 17
Te 12
Diopside-plagioclase gangue
ELEMENT TZL-1
Mo 6 Au
Cu 72
Pb 85
Zn 37
Ag 11
As
Sb
99999
208
Au
Bi 3961
W 4153
Au 152
Te 110
Phlogopite gangue
Metal Associations
Intrusion-hosted ores Au-Bi-Te (W)
Au:Bi
1:20
Bismuthinite
in reduced,
pyrrhotite-rich
skarn
Au:Te
Au:W
1:0.8
105
Bi:Au
High correlation
for intrusion-
hosted
Poor correlation
Metal Zoning for country-rock
hosted
Au-Bi-Te (W) intrusion-hosted

Au-As
A A (Sb) country-rock
t k (aureole)
( l )
hosted
Pb-Zn-Ag distal
Flanigan et al., 2000
As:Au Regional Silt Geochemistry - As
High
correlation
for
country-
rock
hosted Dawson
deposits Mayo
50 km
106
Silt Geochemistry
Dublin Gulch Metallogenic Zonation - lateral
21
Au/As/W
4 contact skarns
6 bd Au-W - calc-alk Au-As veins
10 Au-Cu - alkalic
SbAu, As veins
4
9 Au-As
34/551/50 small elongate pluton sheeted veins Ag-Pb-Zn
Au-Bi-Te-W Sb-As
distal Ag-Pb-Zn
horn fe ls
7 31/320/40 17/639/250 skarns
299/576/250 tensional zones,
replacement & veins & lamprophyres
120/1340/250 12/147/40 disseminations
30/526/60 low-angle faults
li
Eagle Zone
m
it
bd roof zone thermal aureole hanging wall
11 hydrothermal above pluton
breccia
1 km
16/98/60 bd
Paragenesis Metals & Zoning

550 Intrusion-hosted deposits Au-Bi-Te (W)
Anhydrous
W skarn
Country-rock
Co ntr rock hosted deposits Au-As-S-Sb
A As S Sb
e, pegs, lamprophyre dykes
s
Temperature C
450 Hydrous
Au skarn
Qtz-ksp-scheelite veins Distal deposits are Ag-Pb-Zn
W
Qtz-pypo, aspy veins
Epizonal deposits are Au-As-Sb-Hg
350 Au-Bi-Te
QFP, aplite
Q
Qtz-aspy
As Qtz-stibnite Property to district-scale
Sb
250 Carbonate-base metal veins Pb-Zn-Ag
T im e
107
The Role of Structure Favourable Structural Geometry

s3
contact skarns
Au-W - calc-alk Au-As veins
Au-Cu - alkalic
SbAu, As veins

distal
horn fe ls
skarns
tensional zones, s1
replacement & veins & lamprophyres
s1
disseminations
low-angle faults
li
m
it

breccia
s3
Geochronology of Gold Mineralization
Coeval Timing
Duration of magma emplacement,

hydrothermal
h d th l mineralization,
i li ti lessl
than two million years Fort Knox
108
Fort Knox
95
96
Clear Creek
94
93.5 95
93
93.5-92.4 Ma
92.5 1.1
1 1 my 92.4
92.6 94
92 93.6 93.6 93.4
93 93.6 91.7 Ma
91 92.5 92.7
92.3 1.9 my
92
90 91.7
91.4 91.5 91.3
89 91
88.9
88 88.1 87.9 90 90
87.4
87 86.8 89
86 88
on
n
ite
te
te
rk
on
on
on
on
in
hf
co
2
ite
pe
or
or
ni
ni
hf
ol
ol
ol
an
wo
rc
ve
an
rc
rc
rc
rc
kw
kw
zir
e
de
de
m
zi
tit
gr
e
ck
zi
zi
zi
zi
c
us
tit
tit
yb
yb
oc
oc
io
S
us
P
b
o
Pb
Pb
Pb
-O
-O
-O
io
e
rm
M
rb
Pb
IM
ol
ol
st
st
st
tit
-P
rm
rb
TI
Re
Re
Re
U-
U-
U-
m
io
-A
R
U
c
U-
-A
-A
-A
us
us
us
rb
SH
Pb
Ar
s
P
Ar
Ar
-O
-O
Ar
rm
rm
rm
M
-A
U-
Pb
RI
Re
Re
Ar
-A
-A
-A
SH
U-
Ar
Ar
Ar
Thermal Modeling
Duration of IRGS 800C
of a Cooling Pluton
1.1 (2.7
1 1 my (2 7 my) Fort Knox
1.1 my (2.5 my) Dublin Gulch 2 km
1.9 my (4.0 my) Clear Creek

1.9 my (5.2 my) Scheelite Dome 400C
2 0 my
2.0 m (3.7
(3 7 my)
m ) Mactung
Mact ng
300C
1.1 to 2.0 million years 200C
109
IRGS Redox Regime

Oxidized IRGS Reduced IRGS
IA, CMA, subduction Continental margins
Highly oxidized, hb qtz Moderately reduced,
diorite - granodiorite white monzonites
Ca>K+Na Ca=K+Na
Hypabysal porphyritic Plutonic holocrystalline Exploration
g , concentric
Large, Limited and weak
alteration halo, magnetite alteration, no magnetite
Methods &
Challenges
CuAuMo AuBi-TeW
Alkalic good Alkalic good
Exploration Challenges Exploration Challenges
110
Under-Cover Exploration
Exploration variable oxidation
Largely unglaciated geochem anomalies are not
diluted, transported or overlain by drift.
Geochemistry
G h i t is i King.
Ki
Placer gold, scheelite and other heavies
Heap leaching works, even in winter
Surface oxidation has liberated refractory gold
Soil Geochemistry
Soil Geochemistry
Brewery Creek
Scheelite Dome
auriferous approx limit of
approx.
sheeted veins contact metamorphism
Scheelite Dome 0 1
quartz-monzonite
stock km
b
100 ppb 40 pp
10
Au in soil
0
pp
anomaly
b
100
ppb
40 pp b
13600
6345 mineralized faults
111
Magnetic Doughnuts
Geophysics - Magnetics
Zeta 6400
E
Hobo N
O
E
Z
A I N
Lost Horses N S T R
O Pluton T O
T M B S
form
Clear Creek sten Anti
cQu e
Rhosgobel
Bear Paw
M
To Dawson
Scheelite Dome
T
IN Hawthorne
T 6345
IN
A
F
A
13630
13730
U
LT
10km
Paleozoic Selwyn Tombstone Plutonic thrust fault

Basin strata Suite (92 Ma)
Proterozoic Selwyn McQuesten Plutonic mineral occurrences
Basin strata Suite (65 Ma)
Red Mountain Gold
Kgr
112
x x
x
x
x
x
113
E ith
Epithermal
lGGold
ld D
Deposits:
it
Characteristics, Processes, Products, Epithermal Gold Deposits
and Interpretation What are they?
Why are they Important?
N lC
Noel C. White
Whit
noelcwhite@hotmail.com Noel C. White
SEG--PDAC Short Course Gold Geology and Deposit Types March 4-

SEG 4-5, 2011 SEG--PDAC Short Course Gold Geology and Deposit Types March 4-
SEG 4-5, 2011
Epithermal Gold Deposits Relative Amounts of Gold

(>5 Moz deposits, 1997)
A very important style of gold deposit
Can
C b be very big:
bi 50% Witwatersrand
Wit t d
Lihir, PNG 170 Mt @ 3.5 g/t Au
12% Epithermal
Porgera, PNG 85 Mt @ 5.8 g/t Au, 33 g/t Ag
10% Porphyry (+ intrusion hosted)
Can be very rich:
Cripple Creek, USA 630 t Au in veins grading 15 - 30 g/t 12% Sediment hosted (incl. 4% Carlin)
Hishikari,
Hishikari Japan 220 t Au,
Au Honko veins 70 g/t Au,
Au 49 g/t Ag
9% Greenstone lode (orogenic)
Epithermal gold deposits are
very important economically 7% Other (Fe Fm, VHMS, etc.)
Arribas, 2000
114
Epithermal Gold Deposits: Production + Reserves (~2000)
Giant Gold Deposits

(31 >20 Moz deposits)
Inter. sulfidation
1 (7) Witwatersrand
Alkalic LS subtype
7 Porphyry (+ 1 intrusion hosted)
8 Epithermal (3 HS, 2 IS, 1 LS, 2 LSa)
Vi?
6 Sediment hosted (incl. 2 Carlin)
5 Greenstone lode (orogenic)
4 Other (Fe ox, Fe Fm, Archean diss.)
Sillitoe, 2000
Location of Principal Epithermal Gold Deposits

What does Epithermal mean?
Refers to deposits formed at low temperature.
Epizonal refers to deposits formed at shallow depth
The term Epithermal was coined by

Lindgren in 1933 based on
observations of
mineralogy of ores and alteration
textures of ores and alteration
and inferences about
}
temperature of deposition
Different classes
of epithermal deposits depth of formation
115
We can recognise epithermal deposits by Epithermal deposits show a variety of

Their characteristic minerals and textures deposit styles they are not all the same!
Their characteristic hydrothermal alteration The different deposit classes are not fully
mineralogy and zoning characterized
h t i d nor fully
f ll understood
d t d we
are still learning!
From these we can infer that they
Not all epithermal deposits contain gold
Formed at low temperatures
some are dominated by other metals,
(100o-320o, typically 170o-280o)
notably Ag, Zn, Pb, Cu, Sn
Developed
p at shallow crustal levels
(typically <1 km below the water table) S
Some are closely
l l related
l t d to
t intrusions,
i t i
some are not. The related intrusions need
not be porphyry copper-related intrusions
There is no SINGLE criterion that allows
us to say a deposit is epithermal Terminology is very confused!
Classification depends on MULTIPLE features
Terminology in Chaos!
Origins of Deposits
Epithermal deposits include a wide range of deposits
with different characteristics
M
Many diff
differentt tterms h
have b
been used
d tto classify
l if If we consider the origins of epithermal
epithermal deposits deposits we can distinguish three classes
Hot spring based on the dominant fluids that formed
Adularia-sericite and acid sulfate the deposits: two formed dominantly from
High- intermediate- and low-sulfidation (with conflicting definitions!) end-member fluids, and one from a
Many others combination:
G
Getting
tti th these right
i ht iis iimportant
t t if you are writing
iti a Magmatic
paper for publication in Economic Geology Magmatic-meteoric
Practical geologists do not need to worry about it too Meteoric
much!
I will simplify it and focus on what is really important!
116
Fluids: magmatic dominant in core

MAGMATIC mixed with meteoric on margins MAGMATIC-METEORIC Fluids: dominantly meteoric, with
high salinity magmatic fluids at depth
Metal Associations: Metal Associations:
1 I-type: a) Cu-Au-Ag Ag-Zn-Pb-(Au)
b) Zn-Pb-Ag Ag-Zn-Pb-(Cu-Sn)
yp Sn-Ag-(Zn-Pb)
2 S-type: g( ) Alteration:
1 3 A-type: Au-Ag 1
mostly neutral pH
Alteration: Examples:
1a,b and 2: proximal very acid Fresnillo, Mexico
2 2
3 proximal not seen; distal neutral Comstock, USA
Examples: Thames, New Zealand
3
1a) Lepanto, Philippines 3 Cikotok, Indonesia
Summitville, USA
Chelopech, Slovakia
4 El Indio,
I di Chile
Chil 4
km 1b) Cerro de Pasco, Peru km
San Gregorio, Peru
2 Cerro Rico de Potosi, Bolivia
3 Emperor, Fiji
Porgera, PNG
METEORIC Fluids: meteoric (magmatic?)

Metal Associations:
Au-Ag (very minor Zn, Pb)
Alteration: hypogene neutral pH;
To simplify discussion we will consider two
gas condensates acid end-members:
1 Examples:
McLaughlin, USA
Hishikari, Japan Gold is the dominant economic metal in
2 Waihi, New Zealand
Gunung Pongkor, Indonesia deposits associated with neutral pH,
3 dominantly meteoric fluids (low-sulfidation)
4
deposits associated with acid pH, dominantly
km ? magmatic fluids (high-sulfidation)
I will explain intermediate-sulfidation later
117
MAGMATIC MAGMATIC-METEORIC METEORIC
1
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
3
3 3 3
4
4 4 4
Epithermal Gold Deposits
km
km km km ?
Characteristics: Mega to Micro
Textures: restricted Textures: diverse, modest Textures: diverse, N lC
Noel C. White
Whit
spectacular
INTERMEDIATE
HIGH SULFIDATION LOW SULFIDATION
SULFIDATION
Au-Ag-Cu What I will describe Au-Ag

SEG 4-5, 2011
Where do they occur? Form of Deposits

Neutral-pH, meteoric Acid-pH, magmatic
L
Low- S lfid ti
Sulfidation Hi h S lfid ti
High-Sulfidation
Low-Sulfidation High-Sulfidation
Calc-alkaline to alkaline Calc-alkaline volcanic arcs Open-space veins Veins subordinate, locally
volcanic arcs (tholeiitic rare) dominant dominant
Subaerial environments Mostly subaerial environments, Stockwork ore common Stockwork ore minor
rarely submarine
Disseminated ore mostly Disseminated ore
Mostlyy intermediate to distal Proximal volcanic settings
g minor dominant
volcanic settings
Replacement ore minor Replacement ore common
In volcanic rocks or basement In volcanic rocks, rarely in
basement
White and Hedenquist, 1995 White and Hedenquist, 1995
118
Stockwork, Golden Cross Vein, La Guitarra

Chinkuashih La Coipa
Akeshi Sulfide vein, El Indio
Vein, Hishikari Vein, Golden Cross
FORM FORM
La Guitarra Golden Cross
Characteristic Textures
Neutral-pH, meteoric
Neutral-pH Acid-pH, magmatic
Acid-pH
banded veins vuggy quartz
breccia veins massive quartz
drusy cavities massive sulfide veins
crustification y banded veins
crudely
lattice texture
White and Hedenquist, 1995

TEXTURES Dealul Crucii, Baia Mare Aginsky
119
Vuggy quartz
Ore Minerals in Au-rich Ores
frequency of occurrence (abundance)
Pyrite ubiquitous (abundant) ubiquitous (abundant)
Sphalerite common (variable) common (very minor)
Galena common (variable) common (very minor)
Chalcopyrite common (very minor) common (minor)
Enargite-Luzonite rare (very minor) ubiquitous (variable)
Tennantite-Tetrahedrite common (very minor) common (variable)
Covellite uncommon (very minor) common (minor)
Stibnite uncommon (very minor) rare (very minor)
Orpiment rare (very minor) rare (very minor)
Realgar rare (very minor) rare (very minor)
Arsenopyrite common (minor) rare (very minor)
Cinnabar uncommon (minor) rare (very minor)
Electrum uncommon (variable common (minor)
Native Gold common (very minor) common (minor)
Tellurides-Selenides common (very minor) uncommon (variable)
TEXTURES White and Hedenquist, 1995
Mineralogy of Gangue
frequency of occurrence (abundance) Hydrothermal Alteration
Quartz ubiquitous (abundant) ubiquitous (abundant) Low-Sulfidation High-Sulfidation
g
Chalcedony common (variable) uncommon (minor)
Associated with near-neutral pH acid (pH <1 to >3)
Calcite common (variable) absent (except overprint)
ores
Adularia common (variable) absent
Illite common (abundant) uncommon (minor)
Mineral illite (sericite) alunite, kaolinite,
Kaolinite rare (except overprint) common (minor)
assemblage interstratified clays pyrophyllite,
Pyrophyllite-Diaspore absent (except overprint) common (variable) (illite-smectite)
diaspore
p
Al nite
Alunite absent (e
(except
cept o
overprint)
erprint) common (minor)
Barite common (very minor) common (minor)
Zoning zoned higher T zoned acid
lower T neutral pH

120
Ages of Epithermal Deposits

Geochemical Associations Epithermal deposits are most common
in young environments (due to
preservation, not process)
Low-Sulfidation
Low Sulfidation High-Sulfidation
High Sulfidation They can be found wherever
favourable geology is preserved
High Au, Ag, Au, Ag, Youngest deposits are forming now;
As, Sb, As, Sb, Bi, oldest known are Early Archean
Zn, Pb, Hg, Cu, Pb, Hg,
Se, K, Ag/Au Te, Sn, Mo,
Te/Se
Low Cu, Te/Se (unless alkaline) K, Zn, Ag/Au
White and Hedenquist, 1995 North Pole Mining District, Pilbara, Western Australia
3.5 billion year-old epithermal vein textures
Ya
RMt
Vi To
Epithermal Gold Deposits
Key Processes in their Formation
Noel C
C. White
HS IS LS
Hedenquist et al., 2000 SEG--PDAC Short Course Gold Geology and Deposit Types March 4-
SEG 4-5, 2011
121
Boiling of Hydrothermal Fluids

The features that
Sinter
characterise the lithostatic
epithermal
environment
i t result
lt 200
from rapid
changes that
Depth, m
400 more
gas
more
salt
occur in both
space and time.
600 hydrostatic
What are the key (water + 1 wt% CO2 )
processes?
800
100 200 300

Temperature, oC
Hedenquist et al., 1998
Pohutu geyser, Rotorua, New Zealand
Boiling of Hydrothermal Fluids

Boiling is a powerful and complex Gold deposition by boiling
mechanism. It is associated with Au(HS)2- + 2H+ + e- Auo + 2H2S
reduction
Lowering of temperature and pressure
It causes
Porgera, Zone 7
Sleeper, Nevada
Loss of gases (mostly H2O, CO2, H2S) Papua New Guinea
Increase in pH
Increase in oxidation state ((slight)
g )
Champagne Pool, Waiotapu, New Zealand
122
Adularia deposition by boiling Calcite deposition by boiling

HS- + H+ H2S Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
HCO3- + H+ CO2 + H2O
Adularia crystals, Mexico
Hedenquist et al., 1998 Hedenquist et al., 1998 Lattice texture
Silica deposition by cooling Silica deposition

is affected by pH
Neutral pH
Quartz, chalcedony
and amorphous silica
deposit
Spectacular textures!
Acid pH
Silica deposition
suppressed
No siliceous veins
Low sulfidation vein texture, McLaughlin, California, USA

123
Anhydrite
Fluorite in Epithermal Deposits
We see anhydrite in 4 settings in arc
Minor amounts of
environments:
fluorite occur in some
epithermal LS or IS 1. Phenocrysts in magmatic rocks (high fO2)
deposits 2. Veins in porphyry Cu and skarn deposits
It is generally provincial 3. Anhydrite(gypsum)-pyrite veins in propylitic
in distribution (some halo to porphyry systems
have it,
it some dont) 4 IS veins in some provinces (e.g.,
4. (e g SW Pacific)
Does it imply a
magmatic connection?
Fluorite crystals in vug in epithermal
breccia, Beijiantan, China: Jurassic age
Probably not
Anhydrite vein in skarn deposit, Central China
Anhydrite in Epithermal Deposits Remember

Anhydrite has reverse solubility so Anhydrite changes to gypsum in contact
will not deposit on cooling with water at T< 42C
Why it occurs in epithermal veins is Gypsum can also form by weathering of
sulfides where Ca is available
not understood
Veins of gypsum sulfides in absence of
It probably results from fluid mixing other oxidation products could have been
anhydrite
h d it
Gypsum is relatively soluble so easily
removed
Anhydrite in Victoria vein, Lepanto, Philippines
124
Manganese Minerals in Behaviour of Magmatic Gases

Epithermal Veins
Some epithermal veins contain manganese
minerals,, mainly
y rhodochrosite,, manganoan
g The main magmatic gases are:
calcite or rhodonite (look for pink colour)
H2 O
This is a typical feature of intermediate
sulfidation deposits (discussed more later) CO2
They typically contain moderate levels of HCl
base metals and commonly have high Ag
SO2 (dominant in oxidised systems)
Mn minerals weather to black oxides that
cause hydrogen peroxide solution to fizz H2S (dominant in reduced systems)
Rhodochrosite, Capillitas, Argentina Sampling a volcanic fumarole on White Island Volcano, New Zealand
Behaviour of Magmatic Gases Behaviour of Magmatic Gases

At high temperature HCl is a weak acid
Around 300oC sulfur dioxide disproportionates
At low temperature HCl is a very strong acid
4SO2 + 4H2O 3H2SO4 + H2S
Acid Forms
+ pyrite
SHALLOW Strong dissociation Acid leaching sulfate
Low T
acid pH Dickite, kaolinite for
alunite
Pyrophyllite
DEEP
Weak dissociation Sericite (muscovite)
High T neutral pH
Active crater, White Island Volcano, New Zealand
125
Lithocap ( HS) settings only LS settings only

(steam-heated blanket possible) H2S + 2O2 H2SO4
Significance of Alunite Steam-heated waters,

LS, IS, HS possible
Its formation requires

1. Acid conditions
2. High sulfate 2. STEAM-HEATED
3. Available alkalis 1. MAGMATIC

(HCl, SO2)
These conditions can occur from

1. magmatic
1 ti gases (HS)
2. near-surface condensation of boiled off Any sulfide-rich setting
gases (HS, IS, LS)
3. WEATHERING
3. From supergene oxidation (any sulfide
Sillitoe, 1993
rich rock)
Temperature oC
Mineral 100 200 300
pH Alunite
Jarosite Mineral Mineral
Significance of Pyrophyllite Halloysite
Kaolinite
Stability Stability
Acidic
Dickite
Pyrophyllite
Its formation requires acid conditions Diaspore
Zunyite topaz
Zunyite,
BUT Anatase
Rutile
Mineral assemblages
allow us to estimate
If at quartz saturation, T ~ 300oC Cristobalite
Quartz temperature and acidity
Pyrite
If supersaturated w.r.t. quartz, T low Neutral
Marcasite
Smectite
Sinter
lithostatic
Illite/smectite
Chlorite/smectite 200
In practice
p Illite
Chlorite
Depth, m
400
Pyrophyllite + dickite/kaolinite means T high Epidote

Biotite
Pyrophyllite + chalcedony or amorphous Adularia

Alkaline
600 hydrostatic
Calcite (water + 1 wt% CO2 )
silica means T low Mordenite

Laumontite 800
Wairakite 100 200 300

Temperature, oC
Epithermal ore deposition Hedenquist et al., 1998

after Reyes, 1990
126
PNIRS
China ~US$10,000 SWIR spectra can be used to
identify alteration minerals
illite determine their crystallinity
Australia ~US$20,000 estimate chemical variations
Na-alunite
Some advantages over XRD
but some disadvantages too
1300-2500 nm K-alunite
Measurements are fast and cheap
PIMA pyrophyllite Suitable for large surveys
TerraSpec
It is now easier to study
alteration mineralogy using diaspore
USA ~US$50,000
US$50,000
field portable infra-red
infra red
spectrometers
350-2500 nm
Structure and Epithermal Deposits

Permeability and Porosity
Most gold deposits are controlled by
structures,, but they
y mayy be very
y subtle These are very different:
All hydrothermal deposits are controlled by
Porosity relates to holding water (or whatever)
hydrology (i.e., permeability)
Permeability relates to letting it through
Most epithermal deposits are not
controlled by major faults Some rocks are both porous and permeable
Many show no relationship to faults Some rock are one or the other
Most attempts to relate epithermal deposits Permeability may be
to classical structural analysis fail Bulk permeability (i.e., through the whole rock)
Think about permeability and fluid flow, not Fracture permeability (i.e., only on fractures)
faults and tectonics
127
Epithermal Deposits and Host Rocks So What?

Some rocks are favourable for epithermal When exploring,
exploring think about the
deposits, whereas some are unfavourable volcanic stratigraphy and facies
Critical characteristics are If exploring weak mineralisation in
unfavourable rocks, what is below?
1. Reactivity
If more favourable rocks occur below,
2. y
Permeability the mineralisation may become stronger
3. Porosity Where are permeable rocks? Where
4. Mechanical properties could they focus fluids? Where should
ore deposit?
Common Fallacy! Another Common Fallacy!

You will read of fluids being trapped or
dammed against impermeable barriers Caldera margins are often cited as
Hydrothermal
H d th l ore systems
t require
i favourable structures for epithermal
deposits
through-flowing fluids resulting in
deposition under high water:rock There are very few examples where this
conditions relationship can be demonstrated (but
Fluid diversion is possible, but block many where it is speculated!)
fluids anywhere and there will be no flow Sillitoe showed why calderas are not
and no ore favourable for epithermal or porphyry
ores:
The highest grade possible with this
mechanism is Epithermal: too hot for low-T fluids
ore fluid concentration x % porosity = very little Porphyry: Volatiles escape
128
Kujusan Sulfur Mine, Kyushu, Japan
High-Sulfidation Deposits
Noel C. White

SEG 4-5, 2011
White Island, NZ: Quiescent eruption (~10,000 yr period)

White Island, New Zealand
NW Earlier profile
Present
Metal deposition SE
profile eyo
Likely origin
g o of ejecta
Spring
(bars)
0
(m)
Pressure
50
500
epth
De
100
1000
Liquid Two- Vapor Degassing

phase magma Hedenquist et al., 1993
White Island, NZ: 300 t Au flux to atmosphere over life of ~10,000 yrs
129
White Island, New Zealand Satsuma Iwojima, Japan

passive degassing (~1000 yrs) Intense acid leaching
Acid water mixing 0.4 Mt rhyolite leached per year

with sea water i.e., 200 m thick, 1x1 km in 1000 yrs
Acid water mixing

with sea water
Kawah Ijen, Java: acidic crater lake
Werner Giggenbach
Geochemist, 1937-1997
Condensation of magmatic
vapor + HCl + SO2 generates
acidic (pH ~1) waters:
causes leaching of rocks (vuggy
quartz), and hypogene advanced
argillic alteration (alunite, kaolinite)
View: rhyolite, 99.9% SiO2
130
shallow advanced deep advanced

argillic alteration argillic alteration
ore
body
water table
200
300

200
250
basement
1 intrusion
km 1 km
Kawah Ijen, Java
High sulfidation gold deposits
GAS PHASE
low density
high SO2, HCl
low NaCl,
NaCl metals
MAGMATIC Partitioning changes

FLUID with changes in P, T
LIQUID PHASE
higher density
low SO2, HCl
high NaCl, metals
At shallow depths (< 4 km)
aqueous magmatic fluids Gas phase
Liquid phase
split into two separate phases White, 1990 Meteoric water White, 1990
131
powdery acid leached zone

Nansatsu-type High-Sulfidation Epithermal Deposits 0m
Alteration Zoning andesitic flows

hydrothermal
porous acid leached zone
explosion
breccia pyroclastic
rocks
commonly 2-3 metres
silicified milled breccia
Silicic Clay Propylitic hydrofracted

quartz-
alunite
alteration alteration alteration vein stockwork
zone
vuggy to andesitic flows

massive feeder vein
pH
p quartz 2 kaolinite 3 kaolinite 4 illite 5 chlorite electrum, pyrite, kaolinite-smectite zone
alunite alunite illite smectite albite enargite-luzonite,
barite
pyrite carbonate quartz-kaolinite-alunite
kaolinite epidote zone
dickite sphene
400 m
White, 1990
Nansatsu gold deposits, Japan
Urashima et al., 1981
X Akeshi
ARABIRA
IWASHITA
X Iwato
X Kasuga Makurazaki MARUYAMA
MARUYAMA
3 km HIGASHI
East China Sea
Sili i alteration
Silicic lt ti zone
Post-ore rocks (Ignimbrite) 300m
Ore body
Host rocks (Andesitic volcanics)
Nansatsu District
Basement rocks Kyushu, Japan Iwato Gold Mine
Silicic alteration zones X Mines
Japan
Urashima et al., 1987 Urashima et al., 1987
132
Vuggy quartz
Propylitic Quartz pyrite

Quartz-pyrite
alteration
Quartz-pyrite
Iwato, Japan
TEXTURES
Advanced argillic slides: 11

Au Ag As SbBi Cu Pb Zn Te Se Hg Mo W Sn
(if scanned can be reduced to 5)

Hypogene alunite, El Tambo
Residual quartz, Pierina
Levels 0.00X - 0.X - X00 - X0 - X - X0 - X- X- X- X- 0.0X - X X X-

(ppm) X00 X00 X0,000 X0,000 X00 X0,000 X0,000 X00 X00 X00 X000 X000
VERTICAL METAL ZONING IN

HIGH SULFIDATION Cu-Au SYSTEMS
based on unpublished data by N.C. White
PRELIMINARY ONLY, MAY 2000
Residual quartz, Summitville Quartz-alunite, Summitville
133
Lepanto-FSE, Philippines
SE NE SW
NW b v
v
v v
v v v v v v v
v v v 1200
v
1200 v v v v Breccia pipe v v
v v (m)
v v
(m) v v v
v v
Lepanto v
800 Epithermal ore 1000
>2.5 wt% Cu equiv.
v v
v
Main breccia ore
400
Porphyry ore 800
>1.0 wt% Cu equiv. FSE
+ 200 m
+
0 +
a 400 m b Stratabound ore
+ + +
Fresh Quartz-alunite
Quartz alunite Vuggy
dacite halo quartz ore Note syn-hydrothermal
fault offset, creating
enargite-cemented breccia
body
Hedenquist et al, 1996

Hedenquist et al, 1996
Lithocaps are large,

What is a Lithocap? topographically prominent
masses of pyritic advanced
argillic and argillic
alteration that are located
between the subvolcanic
intrusive environment and
the paleosurface. The
subvolcanic intrusions may
h t porphyry
host h Cu
C or AuA
deposits, but, if of suitable
chemistry, may also give
rise to Mo or Sn deposits.
Lithocaps commonly
exceed 20 km2 in original
areal extent and 1 km in
thickness, but in most
cases their dimensions
have
a e bee
been reduced
educed
appreciably by erosion.
A contribution to the large

areal extent of lithocaps is
made by lateral flow of the
From Sillitoe, 1995 acidic solutions down the
hydraulic gradients typical
of volcanic edifices.
134
Lepanto lithocap outcrop to South

From Hazard to Help
Previously, lithocaps were a major Surface projections:
challenge for explorers Lepanto
Far Southeast Mohong Hill
Now they can be a help! Victoria
Research at CODES, University of
Tasmania has defined simple
exploration tools to locate the fluid Lithocap
source in lithocaps
Points to possible HS or porphyry
porph r
deposits
What is needed?
Whole rock geochemistry of altered rocks
SWIR spectra
Quartz-alunite from rhyolite, La Coipa, Chile From Palidan slide
Lepanto lithocap outcrop to NNW Lepanto Spanish workings

outcrop of Lepanto ore with
advanced argillic halo
To SE Massive quartz with pyrite

and enargite-luzonite
135
Cavity-filling octahedral pyrite Massive enargite

and enargite
Covellite and enargite
Massive pyrite
Lepanto, Philippines Lepanto, Philippines

Scale bars in centimetres Scale bars in centimetres
Chinkuashih, Taiwan
Chinkuashih
Taiwan
Dacite
High-sulfidation lodes
intrusion Historic production
~4 moz Au
Chinkuashih
Buffalo
Chuifen Pine
Changjen CHUIFEN
Tortoise
Intermediate sulfidation veins
Intermediate-sulfidation
Penshan Historic production
~ 1 moz Au
View from north (coast)

0 km 1
136
Chinkuashih, Taiwan
Chinkuashih, Taiwan
Central Penshan Zone
Qtz-py
Qtz-py
Qtz-py
Qtz-py
Qtz-py
Ore structures
South Penshan pit
El Indio, Chile
El Indio, Chile 100 m
Early HS and late

high-grade IS veins
Jannas et al., 1990
137
El Indio Pyrite with enargite
Chile
Jannas et al., 1990 Massive enargite vein

High grade siliceous vein
ALTERATION AT SIPAN GOLD DEPOSIT, PERU
138
Sauzal, Mexico
139
Advanced argillic alteration size matters (much of the time, cf. El Indio)
Porphyry environments
are characterised by
p uplift
rapid p and erosion
HS ore, if present, can
be remote from, or
overprint porphyry
Depths and intervals
El Indio 8 Moz
between HS deposits
and top of porphyry
vary
Arribas et al., 2000
140
A Challenge for Explorers no groundwater
Many HS deposits have SPECTACULAR intense acid leaching

alteration no groundwater
But very little gold!

Why does it happen?
magmatic gases
rock saturated
with groundwater
N.C. White, unpublished
no groundwater
BARREN Most HS deposits occur in volcanic
host rocks (i.e., low buffering
capacity)
no groundwater
ORE
Some occur in buffering host rocks
what then?
magmatic liquids
rock saturated
with groundwater
N.C. White, unpublished
141
Zn-Pb-Ag skarn
Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag deposits
Mineral Zoning at San Gregorio
Bendez and Fontbot, 2002
Au-Ag high sulfidation deposits
ZONE 1 Enargite-pyriteluzonite Quartz-alunitebarite
3 km ZONE 2 Pyrite-chalcopyrite Dickite-kaolinite-siderite-

tennantite-Bi-Ag- quartzalunite-barite
Cerro de Pasco sulfosalts-bornite
N Pyrite-sphalerite-galena- Dickite-kaolinite-quartz
ZONE 3
Q Quaternary cover chalcopyritehematite- siderite-alunite
Mi Diatreme-dome complex magnetite
Eo Ol
Eo-Ol Dome complex
Colquijirca ZONE 4 Pyrite-galena-sphalerite Sideritekaolinite-
Eo Limestone-marl
dolomite-Zn-bearing
K Limestone
Smelter carbonates
K Basalt
K Sandstone
Tr-J Limestone and dolostone Cu-Au Cu-Zn Zn-Pb Pb-Zn
P-Tr Sandstones
San Gregorio Ag-As Ag Cu-Ag Ag
D Phyllite Bendez and Fontbot, 2002
Bendez and Fontbot, 2002 Other Examples

Cerro de Pasco, Peru
dacite
Quaternary cover dome
carbonates
East Tintic, USA
basement Where
e e high-sulfidation
g su dat o
mineralisation occurs in
buffering (carbonate) host-
Cu-Au Zones 1 and 2, Cu-rich Zones 3 and 4, Zn-Pb rich rocks, Zn and Pb are
associated with Cu-Au.
Distal deposits have been
called sedex or MVT.
Barren core of silicification

with pyrite
Copper-gold ore mined early
Major Zn-Pb producer
Ore replaces carbonates
Massive pyrite and silica, core zone, Cerro de Pasco, Peru Cerro de Pasco, Peru
142
Total Au and Ag
in Low and Intermediate
Sulfidation Epithermal
Deposits
(n=58)
Epithermal Vein Deposits

Low- and Intermediate-Sulfidation LS
LS (alkalic)
IS
Noel C. White

SEG 4-5, 2011
Au Gemmell, 2004 Ag
Au Ag Relationships in Low and Intermediate Sulfidation Epithermal Deposits

45000
Low sulf.
40000 Low (alkalic) Form of Deposits
35000 Int. sulf.
30000
25000
Ag (t) Open-space veins Veins subordinate, locally
20000
dominant dominant
Stockwork ore common Stockwork ore minor
15000
Disseminated ore mostly Disseminated ore
minor dominant
10000
Replacement ore minor Replacement ore common
5000
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Au (t) Gemmell, 2004
143
Form of Deposits
Veins are the commonest form for
Low-Sulfidation
Low Sulfidation Intermediate-
Intermediate High
High-Sulfidation
Sulfidation
epithermal deposits
Sulfidation There are many variations, including
Open-space veins Open-space veins Veins subordinate, Stockworks complex vein arrays
dominant dominant locally dominant
Vein breccias breccia zones with
Stockwork ore Stockwork ore Stockwork ore the form of veins
common common minor
Most veins show complex histories
Di
Disseminated
i t d ore Di
Disseminated
i t d ore Di
Disseminated
i t d ore
mostly minor mostly minor dominant Opening, deposition, sealing,
re-opening, more deposition, etc
Replacement ore Replacement ore Replacement ore
minor minor common
Classical Low-sulfidation schematic

model
Epithermal
Model Silicified blanket
Buchanan,, 1981
This enduring model was

produced before the
distinction between
different deposit types Illite adularia
was recognised.
144
Taupo Volcanic Zone

New Zealand
Central Taupo Volcanic Zone New Zealand
Meteoric water
Shallow advanced
argillic alteration Silica sinter Low-Sulfidation epithermal gold deposits
Water table
Ore body Form from upwelling deep geothermal
200
fluids
Basement
Fluids dominantly near-neutral pH
meteoric water (possible small magmatic component)
Deposits occur in zones of high
200
250
300
permeability (mostly open fractures)

Characteristic vertical and lateral
1 km
alteration zoning
1 km
Intrusion Characteristic textures and zoning
Henley and Ellis, 1983
New Zealand low sulfidation model Mineralogy and textures tell you where you are in the system!
145
Depth Temp
m oC Alteration sinter
Vein textures/Mineralogy Depth Temp
m oC Alteration Vein textures/Mineralogy
sinter
0 100 0 100
massive massive
150
Smectite chalcedony 150
Smectite chalcedony
100 Illite- banded 100 Illite- banded
smectite quartz- smectite quartz-
h l d
chalcedony h l d
chalcedony
adularia
200 200
200 200
banded banded
gold gold
300 225 300 225
400 400
Illite Illite
quartz
q quartz
q
500 500
lattice lattice
600 600
calcite calcite
250 250
adularia
700 700
Vein, Muntnovskoye, Kamchatka, Russia
Ohaaki Early Carboniferous sinter

sinter New Zealand North Queensland
Rotorua
New Zealand
Rotorua
Silica sinters
New Zealand Modern and Ancient
146
Osorezan, Japan
vein
sinter
Crater lake
As-Sb sulfides with Au
El Salvador
Silica sinters
sinter
Amethyst Vein
Creede, Colorado, USA Aginsky,
Interlayered comb quartz Kamchatka, Russia
and chalcedony
Multiple vein stages,

Golden Cross interlayered fine quartz
New Zealand and adularia, needle
Contrasting bands of fine-grained quartz adularia, cockade
Multiple veins and breccias texture, vein breccia.
147
Lattice texture
Quartz after lattice calcite, Bimurra, Queensland

Calcite scale, geothermal bore, New Zealand
McLaughlin
California, USA
Banded fine-grained quartz and Lattice calcite, Martha, New Zealand
massive adularia; vugs
Breccia with chalcedony, adularia and fluorite
Adularia crystals on surface of chalcedony-fluorite vein Beijiantan, China

Jurassic age, Beijiantan, China Jurassic age
148
Yalwal 5 cm
Bimurra
NSW, Australia Queensland
Devonian age Vein breccia
Shattered wallrock
Jigsaw fit breccia

H the
Has h fform off a
vein but is
composed of
fragments of
altered wallrock
and earlier vein
Vein quartz with lattice texture
Golden Cross, New Zealand

Complex multi-stage veins and breccias
Cockade Texture
Cikotok,Java, Indonesia
149
Golden Cross, New Zealand Golden Cross, New Zealand
Hishikari, S Kyushu
Sleeper, USA
500 m
Gold/electrum
lattice texture
colloform-crustiform banding Izawa et al., 1990
Photo provided by J. Hedenquist
150
Hishikari Hishikari
Honko vein
Long Section B-B
system
Greywacke
basement
Faure et al., 2002

Izawa et al., 1990
Hishikari, Japan Hishikari, Japan
Complex irregular veins
151
Round Mountain, NV
Disseminated LS deposit, >300 t Au (with high grade veins, both above and below)
Round
Mountain
Geology
Saunder and
Einaudi, 1990
B 500 m
Round
Round Stebbins
Hill Mountain
Mountain
Ore and
Alteration
Model
Round Mtn.
Fairview
Hill
N
A
A Alteration Silicification B
2000
(m)
1800
Argillic
Saunder and Quartz-adularia-sericite 1600 Saunder and
Einaudi, 1990 Einaudi, 1990
152
Intermediate-Sulfidation Epithermal Deposits

Acupan, Baguio, Philippines
Silver-Gold-Base metals ~ 8 Moz Au mined from Acupan veins
between 1931 and 1993
e.g., Fresnillo, Pachuca, Comstock Lode, Creede ~ 3 Moz bulk minable resource defined in
Ag or Au dominant economic metal; Au minor in mid 1990s
some. Ag/Au commonly X000-X0000 Diatreme volcanism around 1 Ma
Zn and Pb typically ~1%; Cu and minor Sn may >460 IS epithermal Au-Ag-(Te) veins
increase at depth formed after 0.7 Ma (av. 1 m width)
Veins typically quartz and calcite with minor Quartz-carbonate-base metal veins hosted
chalcedony; some adularia, Mn carbonate, fluorite, in granodiorite, diatreme and andesite
gypsum, anhydrite Modified from Cooke and Bloom(1990)
Textures diverse, may not be so well developed

Vein strike length variable; can be very long (>20 km)
Not likely to have formed in geothermal systems like
todays
Magmatic input probably important
Balatoc Diatreme
Virac Granodiorite
These can be Giant deposits! Ampucao Dacite Porphyry

Zig-Zag Formation
Vein rhodochrosite, Capillitas, Argentina Modified from Cooke et al (1996)
Acupan Epithermal Au Veins Acupan Epithermal Au Veins
Clast of Au-rich grey quartz breccia overgrown by colloform calcite Colloform bands of quartz, calcite, rhodochrosite and base metal sulfides
Balatoc Mine Camp
Brecciated qz-pyrite vein Potassic and propylitic-altered Virac Granodiorite

Modified from Sawkins et al., 1979
153
Antamok, Baguio, Philippines

Estimated production ~ 11
Another problem
Moz at an average grade of Some IS epithermal deposits are very weak at
5g/t Au shallow levels, yet
Similar mineralogy and fluid Develop strongly at greater depth
depth, and are
chemistry to Acupan, but laterally extensive there
hosted in volcano- We do not fully understand why
sedimentary rocks How can explorers distinguish weak systems
NW veins dominant, from systems that are weak where exposed, but
subordinate E-striking veins become strong at depth?
320 vein up to 10 m wide and
rich in anhydrite hydraulic
discharge water table
Wildcat Orebody: 0.471 Mt @ low permeability

hydraulic head
1.34% Cu; conglomerate high permeability

conduit zone
400 level plan - Sawkins et al (1979)

cemented by cp & py with high permeability path
from source to discharge
sericite-altered clasts major ore
fluid source
Fresnillo, Mexico Fresnillo, Mexico

Major IS deposit, Ag-Au veins 3,600 t Ag, 22 t Au
Ore outcrops only at Co. Proao
San Luis shaft Co. Proao
Surface expression of major veins at depth
154
Fresnillo, Mexico
Baguio, Philippines
Weak surface expression of
veins mined below in Acupan
mine. Outcrop 200 m below
surrounding hills, 200 m
above major ore development.
Santo Nio vein
An Important Sub-Type Alkalic Epithermal Deposits

There is a very important sub-type of Deposits
p mostlyy resemble LS deposits
p
LS epithermal deposits Alkalic Ores occur as veins, breccias and
Epithermal Deposits disseminations
Deposits are not numerous but they Quartz veins are commonly small and
can be very big insignificant; silicification occurs;
Examples include alteration
lt ti zones are narrow and d weak
k
Ladolam, Lihir Island, PNG
Gold occurs native and as tellurides;
Cripple Creek, Colorado, USA
Porgera, PNG
Te content is high
Emperor, Fiji
155
Alkalic Epithermal Deposits

If exploring in alkaline volcanic
sequences:
Analyse for Te as well as for Au
Give attention to narrow and weak
alteration zones and silicified structures
as well as quartz-carbonate veins
Roscoelite occurs (minor distinctive
apple-green coloured alteration mineral)
Flatmake ore zone, Emperor mine, Fiji
The features discussed now are not

part of ore:
p
Geothermal waters they are part of what hides ore.
Steam-heated zones
It is very important to know about
Hydrothermal Eruption Breccias them as they can make your job as an
explorer more difficult, especially if
Noel C. White you do not recognise them.

SEG 4-5, 2011
156
In geothermal areas we see Neutral-pH chloride water

three different fluids:
The deep geothermal fluid neutral
1. Neutral-pH chloride water: the pH, low salinity
deep geothermal fluid (low salinity water) Alters rock to illite, illite-smectite or
2. Acid bicarbonate water: shallow smectite (depending on T)
and peripheral fluid from gas At surface produces boiling pools
condensation (weakly acid CO2-rich water)
and silica sinters
3. Acid sulfate water: shallow near- This is the potential ore fluid for low-
surface fluid from gas condensation sulfidation deposits
(dilute sulfuric acid)
Neutral-pH chloride water

200oC
300oC
400oC
2 km
magma
2 km Geothermal Power Station, Wairakei, New Zealand
157
Old Faithful Geyser

Yellowstone, Wyoming
USA
Pohutu Geyser
Rotorua, New Zealand Boiling Pool, Waiotapu, New Zealand
Acid bicarbonate water

Boiling
o g deep fluids
u ds expel
e pe steam,
stea , CO2 aandd
H2S
Gases condense into groundwater to
produce weakly acid water (H2CO3 and H2S)
Alters rock to produce illite-smectite, calcite
and pyrite can be very widespread
Springs deposit travertine (calcite)
NOT related to ore
Champagne Pool, Waiotapu, New Zealand
158
Acid bicarbonate water

200oC
300oC
400oC
Mammoth Springs
2 km
Yellowstone, Wyoming, USA

magma
2 km
Acid sulfate water

Acid sulfate water
Boiled off CO2 and H2S condense above 200oC
watertable
300oC
Atmospheric O2 oxidises H2S to H2SO4
strongly acid
Rock alters to kaolinite and alunite, partly
dissolves
At surface steamingg ground,
g , collapsing
p g 400oC
ground and mud pools
Responsible for silica cap
NOT related to ore
2 km
magma
2 km
159
Mud Pool, Beppu, Japan

Collapsing ground, Yellowstone, Wyoming, USA
Complex environment with

three closely associated fluids
200oC
300oC
400oC
2 km
Mud Volcanoes, Rotorua, New Zealand 2 km

magma
160
silica sinter silica sinter O2
Acid sulfate water CO2+

Ore veins Zone of steam H2SO4
heating
and gas
condensation Acid bicarbonate H2CO3
water +H2S
Host volcanic rocks

Neutral-pH CO2
chloride water +H2S
O2
H2SO4
acid leaching
Kaolinite
+ alunite
water table
silica cap amorphous silica alunite
H2CO3
+ H2S Illite-smectite
+ carbonate Very thick alunite-rich steam-heated zone, Anhui Province, China
+ pyrite Mined for alum production
Steam-heated overprint
161
Puren, Ivanhoe, NV
Steam- Chile silicified horizon
heated
alteration
Nicaragua Telkibanya,
Tokai Mts,
Hungary
Lewis-Crofoot, NV Steam-heated overprint on LS veins due to falling La Coipa, Chile

water table; similar blankets can form over any epithermal deposit Steam-heated cristobalite-alunite
blanket over vuggy quartz zone
Ebert and Rye, 1997
162
Steam-heated alteration zones are a silica sinter

High T gases rise
major problem in exploration! Local overheating
Local overpressure
Theyy overprint
p alteration related to all overheated
o erpress red
overpressured
kinds of epithermal mineralisation,
making it difficult to interpret
They look like acid alteration, possibly
related to a high-sulfidation system, but
can occur over any type of system
They form extensive blankets, hiding
possible mineralisation below Hydrothermal
Eruption
Unless veins penetrate, targeting ore Breccias
zones through them may be impractical
Hydrothermal eruption Continuing

Steam explosion!
Overburden ejected
explosion!
Sudden pressure Crater margins
reduction in ejected
ejects surrounding area
overburden
b d
Crater grows
Stops when
Not enough
steam
Flooded by cold
water
Hydrothermal Hydrothermal
Eruption Eruption
Breccias Breccias
163
Colloidal silica in acid sulfate lake

(filling hydrothermal eruption crater)
Mostly altered clasts
Hydrothermal eruption breccia
Mostly clay matrix
Breccia and banded
Lake sediments soft sediment clasts
Wood fragments
g
Silicification and
pyrite/marcasite
Rarely makes ore
Fluid flow mostly Hydrothermal

on margins
Eruption
Breccias
Guasucuran
Guasucuran Honduras
Honduras
164
Te Mate, Northland, New Zealand

Te Mate
Northland
Breccia clast in breccia New Zealand
wood
The water table is important! Rising water table

Pa and
d T in the
t e epithermal
ep t e a e environment
o e ta are
e POSSIBLE CAUSES:
linked to the water table
Thickening of volcanic cover
In a dynamic environment, the position of
the water table is not static Damming of drainage to form a lake
It moves up and down CONSEQUENCES:
It can move suddenly! Hydrothermal system progrades
It can fluctuate widely over the life of a Higher-T alteration overprints lower-T
system Earlier mineralisation may re-dissolve, move
up
165
Falling water table Never Forget

POSSIBLE CAUSES: Form and textures of high-
high and low
low- plus
Erosion of surface intermediate-sulfidation deposits are very
different
Draining of lake
Alteration zoning is very different
Deepening of drainage
Vein textures and alteration mineralogy
CONSEQUENCES: can tell you where you are in the system
Hydrothermal system retreats Steam-heated overprint can occur on any
style
Lower-T alteration overprints higher-T
Steam-heated overprint may look like
Higher-level mineralisation overprints deeper high- sulfidation but is barren (CARE!)
mineralisation telescoping [GOOD!]
Exploration Acknowledgements
Arc or back-arc volcanic belt subaerial (marine)
Not deeply eroded; subsidence favourable We constantly learn more about deposits through our own
observations but especially through discussion and sharing
observations,
Low preservation
i potential
i l rocksk preserved d insights with other geologists. I particularly want to thank
Regional magnetics can help (demagnetisation) these geologists who have contributed to my understanding:
Geochemistry (Au, Ag, As, Sb, Hg, Zn, Pb, Cu) Jeff Hedenquist Stuart Simmons
Look for alteration (remember zoning) David Cooke Bruce Gemmell
Look for mineralisation (remember textures, float!) Zhaoshan Chang Antonio Arribas
Beware of steam-heated alteration zones!
But dont expect to find nuggets!
166
Feel free to contact me:

Noel C. White
PO Box 5181
Kenmore East, Qld 4069
Australia
Email noelcwhite@hotmail.com
noelcwhite@hotmail com
I always reply!
167
Large Au - Cu Deposits in Magmatic Arcs: Global Distribution of Igneous Provinces & Porphyry Deposits
Tectono--Structural Controls to Mineralization
Tectono
Cenozoic examples from the Asia
AsiaPacific and Andes
STEVE GARWIN
Independent Consultant
sgar@iinet.net.au Grasberg, 24 Mt Cu / 2560 t Au
Major Cenozoic Arc
SEG Gold Workshop

(Seedorff et al., 2005)
5th March, 2011 Toronto, Canada
Cenozoic Magmatic Arcs of SE Asia & W Pacific

CENOZOIC MAGMATIC ARCS
Southeast Asia & Western Pacific
Middle Tertiary to Pleistocene mineralization

Tectonic events - plate collisions, slab topology,
crustal basement and cross-
cross-arc fault controls
Structural links between mantle and shallow-
shallow-
levels of arc promotes magma ascent / heat flow
Porphyry and epithermal styles abundant
Abundance of Pliocene deposits a function of
collisional tectonic events, uplift and preservation
(Garwin et al., 2005)
168
Cenozoic Magmatic Arcs and Au

Au--(Cu) Deposits
Tectonic Framework of SE Asia and W Pacific
of SE Asia and W Pacific
>10 M Oz Au Resource >10 M Oz Au Resource

> 5 M Oz Au Resource > 5 M Oz Au Resource
(Garwin et al., 2005) (Garwin et al., 2005)
Gold and Copper Contents (%, metric tonnes

tonnes)) GOLD AND COPPER - GOLD DEPOSITS
of Deposit Styles in SE Asia & W Pacific SOUTHEAST ASIA
Au)
3 1 6
old Grade (g/t A

Au 2
14 Low- and intermediate-sulfidation
classifications for data in this plot
14,900 t Au were made by Garwin in 2002;
the classifications were revised
by Garwin et al. (2005).
Average Go
Cu
115.4 Mt Cu
26 Deposits > 5 M Oz Au (Garwin et al., 2005) Deposit Size (million tonnes
tonnes))
169
Indonesian Region Tectonic Elements

Digital Elevation Model and Bathymetry of Indonesia
>10 M Oz Au Resource
10500E 11500E 12500E 13500E
> 5 M Oz Au Resource
000 000
1000S 1000S
10500E 11500E 12500E 13500E
DEM USGS EROS Data Centre Elevation Bathymetry

250 meter resolution 0m
2000m
200m
B a t h y m e t r y NOAA-AVHRR Sandwell database 1000m 0 400 800
200m KM
50m
0m
Indonesian Region Earthquake Hypocenters (1973

(1973--1999) Indonesian Region Earthquake Hypocenters (1973
(1973--2010)
Mw > 5.0 >10 M Oz Au Resource > 5 M Oz Au Resource
Mw > 4.0 (hypocenters above depth of 25 km are not shown)
Epicenter for M=9.0 event Dec 26, 2004
170
INDONESIAN REGION TECTONIC ELEMENTS &

PORPHYRY DEPOSITS BANDA ARC, INDONESIA
EARTHQUAKE FAULT PLANE SOLUTIONS
Hypocenter depths < 30 km
T b
Toba
30o
40o
Martabe
Batu Hijau
EQ
<300km
EQ Elang
>600km
55o
>70o 55o
Krakatoa 65o Roo 65o
Rise 500 km
N15oE subduction at 7 cm/yr. 2 - 3 mm/yr E-W extension on strike-slip faults.
(Modified from McCaffrey, 1988)
Tectonic Framework of Luzon, Philippines Intrusions, Subduction Slab Topology and Tectonics
100 km
60o
Uplift from
~ 4 Ma
30o
70o
Scarborough Seamounts
Uplift
171
Major Gold Deposits of the Andean Magmatic Arc Major Miocene Gold Provinces of the Northern and Central Andes
S. Ecuador: 8 Moz
Moz,, LS/IS and Po
N-Central Peru: 87 Moz

Moz,, HS, Po / Sk
7.8 cm / a
7.8 cm / a
S. Peru: 9 Moz
Moz,, LS/IS and Po
8.4 cm / a
Chile-
Chile-Argentina: 93 Moz
Moz,, HS and Po
(Barrick, 2009)
(Shatwell., 2004)
North Central Peru: Slab Topology and Subducted Seamounts North Central Peru: Slab Topology and Gold Deposits
Incan Plateau Incan Plateau
IncanGaby
Plateau (10 Ma)
~ 87 Moz
La Granja `
Yanacocha
Alto Chicama Miocene Deposits:
Uplift of Altiplano: 0.2 0.3 mm / a (total = 2300 3400 m) High
High--sulfidation
from11 Ma to present (Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000) Pierina Antamina Porphyry
Nazca Ridge Nazca Ridge Skarn
Cerro de Pasco
Yauricocha A
Aurora
Nazca Ridge (10 Ma)

(figures after Gutscher et al., 1999)
172
( = 5 km)
Northern Peru SRTM Topographic Highs (
Northern Peru SRTM Topography and Au
Au--Ag-
Ag-(Cu) Deposits
and Au-
Au-Ag-
Ag-(Cu) Deposits
N N
Yanacocha Yanacocha
Alto Chicama AltoChicama

AltoChicama
Deposit/Mines: Deposit/Mines:
Large Large
Medium Medium
Small / No size data Small / No size data
Operating mine Operating Mine
Pierina Pierina
Top-hat transform: gray-scale Antamina
Data supplied by Hochschild,
compiled from B. Harvey (deposits)
Antamina morphological operator that
Cu--Zn
Cu Zn--Ag extracts the ridges / topo highs
and Ingemmet (operating mines)
(Fathom Geophysics)
50km 50km
Northern Peru Geology, Lineaments and Au

Au--Ag-
Ag-(Cu) Deposits Northern Peru Tertiary Volcanics
Volcanics,, Lineaments
and Au-
Au-Ag Deposits
Tertiaryhypabyssal
e a y ypabyssa
N TertiaryHypabyssal
e a y ypabyssa
N
intrusion(brown) Intrusion(brown)
Yanacocha Yanacocha
Quaternary
Neogene Geologiclineament
Tertiary Sediments
Tertiary Volcanics
AltoChicama
AltoChicama AltoChicama
AltoChicama
Cretaceous Deposit/Mines:
Jurassic Large
Medium
Triassic Small / No size data
Paleozoic Operating mine
Precambrian
Deposit/Mines:
Large
Medium
Small / No size data Pierina Pierina
Operating mine Antamina Antamina
50km Tertiaryvolcanicrocks 50km

Geologiclineament
173
Alto Chicama Antamina Geology and Au-

Au-Ag-
Ag-(Cu) Deposits Alto Chicama Antamina Topography
and Au-
Au-Ag-
Ag-(Cu) Deposits
AltoChicama
AltoChicama
N
Magistral
AltoDorado
Pashpa Cordillera Blanca:

Plutons to 2.7 Ma
Deposit/Mines:
~ 4 km uplift in 3 Ma
Large
Small / No size data
Projects
Pi
Pierina
i
Antamina
ElAmanecer
El Amanecer
50km Data supplied by Hochschild,
compiled from B. Harvey (deposits)
and Ingemmet (operating mines))
= 5 km)
Alto Chicama Antamina Topography (( = 5 km),
Alto Chicama Antamina Topographic Highs ((
and Au-
Au-Ag-
Ag-(Cu) Deposits Lineaments and Au-
Au-Ag-
Ag-(Cu) Deposits
AltoChicama
AltoChicama
N
Magistral
AltoDorado
Pashpa
Deposit/Mines:
Large
Small / No size data
Projects
Pierina
Antamina
Top-hat transform: gray-scale

ElAmanecer
El Amanecer
morphological operator that 50km
extracts the ridges / topo highs
(Fathom Geophysics)
174
Papua New Guinea and Papua, Indonesia

Northern Peru Au-
Au-Ag-
Ag-(Cu) Belt: Regional Controls
Au (Cu) Deposits and Settings
Flat slab region: contraction and uplift in Neogene, in part (Garwin et al., 2005)
due to subduction of oceanic plateaus
Deposits localized along margins of regional topographic
highs near smaller-scale topographic breaks
Lineaments defined by distribution of Tertiary magmatic
and sedimentary rocks are inferred to represent faults /
fracture zones that control gold mineralization
Golpu (Au-Cu)
g
Regional g
gravity
y and topographic
p g p lineaments p
parallel and
coincide with geologic lineaments and form complex
zones of intersection
Deposits lie within or near Miocene volcanic fields,
typically associated with hypabyssal intrusions near >10 M Oz Au Resource
zones of lineament intersection at varying scales
Papua New Guinea Neogene Thrust Inversion of Mesozoic Extensional

Basement Faults and Cross-
Cross-Sructures Faults in Cratonic Basement Porgera Example (6
(6--5 Ma)
(Hill et al., 2002)
(Gow and Walshe, 2005)
175
Geodynamic Model for Structural Setting to Pliocene

Cu--Au Deposits in Papuan Fold Belt of New Guinea
Cu
GOLD DEPOSITS AGE & GOLD CONTENT
SOUTHEAST ASIA / PNG
(2560)
s)
Content (tonnes
(tonnes
Low- and intermediate-sulfidation
classifications for data in this plot
were made by Garwin in 2002;
the classifications were revised
by Garwin et al. (2005).
Gold C
(Hill et al., 2002) Age (million years)
COPPER DEPOSITS AGE & Cu CONTENT EXHUMATION RATES - OROGENIC REGIONS

SOUTHEAST ASIA
onnes))
ontent (1000s tonnes
m/ yr)
(2560)
ation Rate (mm

Boso, Japan
Alps, Italy
Alpine Fault,
NZ
Exhuma
Roti Island
Copper Co
Batu Hijau Grasberg

Kupang
Atauro Island Semau Island
Alpine Fault,
NZ
Age (million years) Duration (mybp to present)
176
LARGE Au (Cu) DEPOSITS LARGE Au (Cu) DEPOSITS

Area Selection Criteria: Asia
AsiaPacific and Andes Favorable Geological Structural Settings
Neogene to Pleistocene magmatic activity Dilational zones in long

long--lived fault systems
Porphyry and epithermal styles of mineralization Basement high / dome / anticline / horst-
horst-block
Subduction slab discontinuity (e.g., kinks / tears) Batholith / horst margins in zones of low mean-
mean-stress
seismic data and tomographic imaging of deep slab Dike swarms as paleo-
paleo-stress indicators
Arc
Arc--transverse fault zone(s) that control magmatism -orientation, composition and age
& sedimentation structural link to the mantle Thin, young cover sequences in arc-
arc-transverse belts
Region of contraction / uplift / exhumation - volc
volc--sed basins, alt magmatic centers, po intrusions
Structural settings favorable to focus heat-
heat-
Mineralized rock fragments in cover sequences
and fluid
fluid--flow (e.g., stress
stress--transition regime)
Paleo
Paleo--surface preserved below present-
present-day water-
water-table
Digital Elevation Model and Bathymetry of Indonesia Indonesian Region Gold and Copper Deposits
10500E 11500E 12500E 13500E
Martabe
000 000
1000S 1000S
10500E 11500E 12500E 13500E > 5 M Oz Au Resource
DEM USGS EROS Data Centre Elevation Bathymetry

2000m
200m
B a t h y m e t r y NOAA-AVHRR Sandwell database 1000m 0 400 800
200m KM
50m
0m
177
Simplified Geology of Sumbawa

Differential Exhumation Chronology of Map Units in Sumbawa
Least uplifted
Eastern block
Western block
Soripesa
Hu u
Hu
Central block
Elang
Most uplifted
Simplified Geology - SW Sumbawa Schematic Cross Section - SW Sumbawa
EXPLANATION
IT
Volcano-sedimentary Rocks N
A
A
A B
R
Alluvium 5 kilometers
T
Quaternary
S
Coral reef c vol caniclastic seqq

dacciti uenc
2 e 2
S
4 KM
A
Andesitic domes and dykes 9 020 000N

L
Plio- 1 1
A
Pleistocene Volcaniclastic rocks

0 km 0 km
Late Miocene- Limestones Symbols
-1 -1
Early Pliocene Dacitic volcaniclastic Quartz vein zone
Andesitic volcaniclastics Fault -2 -2
Topographic lineament
Volcanic conglomerate Batu Hijau ultimate pit
Volcanic lithic breccia Bedding
Volcano-sedimentary Rocks Intrusions
25
Early to
Middle Miocene Limestone
Volcanic sandstone BATU HIJAU Quaternary Alluvium Mid-Pliocene Tonalite porphyry
Undiff volcanics volcaniclastics
900'S
Plio-Pleistocence
Plio Pleistocence Volcaniclastic rocks Porphyritic tonalite
Intrusions
Mid- Pliocene Diatreme Late Miocence to Limestone Eg quartz diorite
Early Pliocene Dacitic volcaniclastics
Tonalite porphyry
Late Miocene Phyric andesite
Porphyritic tonalite Early to Middle Volcanic lithic breccia
Quartz diorite
Miocene
Undifferentiated quartz diorite INDIAN O C EAN
B Limestone Fault
Volcanic sandstone
480 000E 11700'E 500 000E
178
Simplified Geology - SW Sumbawa Geophysical Signature - Airborne Magnetics
EXPLANATION
IT
Volcano-sedimentary Rocks N
A
A
R
Alluvium 5 kilometers
T
Quaternary
S
Coral reef
S
A
Andesitic domes and dykes 9 020 000N
L
Plio-
A
Pleistocene Volcaniclastic rocks
Late Miocene- Limestones Symbols

Early Pliocene Dacitic volcaniclastic Quartz vein zone
Andesitic volcaniclastics Fault
Topographic lineament
Volcanic conglomerate Batu Hijau ultimate pit
Volcanic lithic breccia 25
Bedding
Early to
Middle Miocene Limestone
Volcanic sandstone BATU HIJAU
Undiff volcanics volcaniclastics
900'S
Intrusions
Mid- Pliocene Diatreme
Tonalite porphyry
Porphyritic tonalite
Quartz diorite
B
Undifferentiated quartz diorite INDIAN O C EAN
480 000E 11700'E 500 000E
Geometry of Structural Elements Batu Hijau District Interpretation of Structural Elements Batu Hijau District
480000 E 490000 E
West Nangka
Santong COMPRESSION RELAXATION
Diatreme 78
70
75
Katala
Sekongkang
g g 65
9010000 N
82
Arung
Ara to
ng
FZ
BATU HIJAU SK SD SK SD Comb veins
an 55
68 Ba
m
bu
-S 60
BH KT
70 55 70 KT
72
60
BH
78
79
72 50
38
80
70
AA AA
Bambu 68 70
85
Veins
B B
CV
1
70
Comb quartz vein zone 80
"A/B" quartz veins 9005000 N 2

79
Diatreme
79
Porphyritic intrusion
3
Equigranular intrusion 83
2
3
Quartz veins Teluk Puna 69
TP TP
Fault Veins
N Early 1 Later
Major lineament
83
ence
Minor lineament
Early porphyry and later comb-quartz vein mineralization occur during
85
0 1 2 3
Converg
on
Directi
km
a transition in stress-regime under low differential stress (1 3)

within < 100,000 years (3.75 to 3.65 Ma)
179
Kyushu Island, Southern Japan: Tectonics and Gold Deposits Hishikari, Southern Kyushu
5.5 MT @ 55 g/t Au (1996)
Since the Late Pliocene, the forearc of Kyushu 500 m
Island has rotated counter-clockwise due to
Cr-
Cr-Sm
slab rollback beneath southern Kyushu and the
collision of Shikoku Island with northern Andesite Il--Sm
Il
Kyushu. This rotation and collision led to Qz--Sm
Qz
development of compressional features in
northern Kyushu and cessation of volcanism
in the Pleistocene. In contrast, east-west
directed extension, graben development, and
bimodal volcanism in southern Kyushu
commenced at about 2 Ma.
These differences correlate with cessation of

hydrothermal activity in LS epithermal gold
provinces in northern Kyushu and the
initiation of significant LS epithermal gold
formation in southern Kyushu. In southern Andesitic Pyroclastics
Kyushu, the change of deposit style from HS
Dacite
Mine Section
(e g Kasuga) and IS (Kushikino) epithermal
(e.g.,
types to LS epithermal type (e.g., Hishikari)
at about 2 Ma is ascribed to a change in stress
Hishikari state of the arc from neutral to extensional.
This reflects slab rollback of relatively old
Philippine Sea plate crust that lies southwest
NW Regional Section SE
of the subducting Palau-Kyushu Ridge.
Izawa et al., 1990
Hishikari Hishikari
Cross--Section B
Cross B--B Honko
NW SE vein
Greywacke High > 100 g/t Au
system basement M di
Medium /L
Low =
Gravity High confidential
Andesite
Cr-
Cr-Sm Dacite
Qz--Sm
Qz
Il--Sm
Il
Ch--Se
Ch
Basement Siliciclastic Rocks
Izawa et al., 1990
180
LARGE Au (Cu) DEPOSITS REFERENCES sgar@iinet.net.au

Area Selection Criteria: Asia
AsiaPacific and Andes
Carlile, J. C., and Mitchell, A. H. G., 1994, Magmatic arcs and associated gold and copper mineralization in
Indonesia, in van Leeuwen T. M., Hedenquist, J. W., James, L. P., and Dow, J. A. S., eds., Mineral deposits of Indonesia;
discoveries of the past 25 years., Journal of Geochemical Exploration v. 50; 1-3, p. 91-142.
Neogene to Pleistocene magmatic activity Cooke, D.R, Heithersay, P.S., Wolfe, R., and Calderon, A.L., 1998, Australian and western Pacific porphyry Cu-Au
deposits, AGSO Journal of Australian Geology & Geophysics, 17(4), pp. 97-104.
Corbett, G.J., and Leach, T.M., 1998, Southwest Pacific Rim gold-copper systems: Structure, alteration and
Porphyry and epithermal styles of mineralization mineralization, Society of Economic Geologists Special Publication 6, 240 p.
Garwin, S.L., 2000, The setting, geometry and timing of intrusion-related hydrothermal systems in the vicinity
Subduction slab discontinuity (e.g., kinks / tears) of the Batu Hijau porphyry copper-gold deposit, Sumbawa, Indonesia: Unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia, 320 p. (plus figures and appendices).
Garwin, S., 2002, The geologic setting of intrusion-related hydrothermal systems near the Batu Hijau porphyry
Cross
Cross--arc fault zone(s) that control magmatism copper-gold deposit, Sumbawa, Indonesia, in Goldfarb, R.J. and Nielsen, R.L. eds., Integrated Methods for Discovery:
Global Exploration in the 21st Century, Society of Economic Geologists, Special Publication 9, p. 333-366.
& sedimentation structural links to mantle Garwin, S., Hall, R., and Watanabe, Y., 2005. Tectonic setting, geology and gold and copper mineralization
i Cenozoic
in C i magmatic
ti arcs off Southeast
S th t Asia
A i andd the
th westt Pacific,
P ifi in i Hedenquist,
H d i t JJ., G
Goldfarb,
ldf b R R. and
d
Thompson, J. (eds.), Economic Geology 100th Anniversary Volume, Society of Economic Geologists, p. 891-930.
Region of uplift / exhumation (basement high) Gow, P.A., and Walshe, J.L., 2005. The role of pre-existing geologic architecture in the formation of giant porphyry-
related Cu + Au deposits: examples from New Guinea and Chile, Economic Geology, Society of Economic Geologists
Structural settings favorable to focus heat-
heat- v. 100, pp. 819-833.
Gregory-Wodzicki, K. M., 2000, Uplift history of the Central and Northern Andes; a review: Geological Society of
and fluid
fluid--flow (e.g., stress
stress--transition regime) America Bulletin, v. 112, p. 1091-1105.
Gutscher, M.A., Olivet, J.L., Aslanian, D., Eissen, J.P., and Maury, M., 1999, The lost Incan Plateau: cause
of flat subduction beneath Peru?, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, v. 171 (3), p. 335-341.
REFERENCES sgar@iinet.net.au REFERENCES sgar@iinet.net.au
Hall, R., 2002, Cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of SE Asia and the SW Pacific: computer-based
reconstructions, model and animations: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, v. 20, p. 353-434. Sillitoe, R.H., and Hedenquist, J. W., 2003, Linkages between volcanotectonic settings, ore-fluid
Hamilton, W., 1979, Tectonics of the Indonesian region: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, v. 1078, p. 345 p. compositions, and epithermal precious-metal deposits, in Simmons, S. F., and Graham, I., eds., Giggenbach
Hill, K. C., Kendrick, R. D., Crowhurst, P. V., and Gow, P. A., 2002, Copper-gold
Copper gold mineralisation in New Guinea; Volume, Special Publication 10, Society of Economic Geologists and Geochemical Society, p. 315-343.
tectonics, lineaments, thermochronology and structure, in Korsch, R. J., ed., Geodynamics of Australia and its Sillitoe, R.H., and Perello, J., 2005, Andean copper province: Tectonmagmatic settings, deposit types,
mineral systems; technologies, syntheses and regional studies, Blackwell Scientific Publications for the Geological metallogeny, exploration and discovery, in Hedenquist, J., Goldfarb, R. and Thompson, J. (eds.), Economic
Society of Australia. Melbourne, Australia, p. 737-752. Geology 100th Anniversary Volume, Society of Economic Geologists, p. 845-890.
Tosdal, R.M., and Richards, J.P., 2001, Magmatic and structural controls on the development of porphyry
Hutchison, C.S., 1989, Geological Evolution of Southeast Asia, Oxford Monographs on Geology and Geophysics, 13,
Cu Mo Au deposits: Reviews in Economic Geology, v. 14, p. 157-181.
Carendon Press, Oxford, United Kingdom, 368 p.
van Bemmelen, R.S., 1949, The Geology of Indonesia, v. II, Economic Geology, Government Printing
Kerrich, R., Goldfarb, R. J., Groves, D. I., and Garwin, S., 2000, The geodynamics of world-class gold deposits;
Office, The Hague, Netherlands, 265 p.
characteristics, space-time distribution, and origins, in Hagemann S.G., and Brown, P.E., eds., Reviews in Economic
Geology, v. 13, p. 501-551. Yang, T. F., Lee, T., Chen, C. H., Cheng, S. N., Knittel, U., Punongbayan, R. S., and Rasdas, A. R.,
1996, A double island arc between Taiwan and Luzon; consequence of ridge subduction: Tectonophysics, v.
Mitchell, A. H. G., and Leach, T. M., 1991, Epithermal gold in the Philippines; island arc metallogenesis, geothermal
258, p. 85-101.
systems and geology, Academic Press, London, United Kingdom, 457 p.
Seedorff, E., Dilles, J.H., Proffett, J.M., Einauidi, M.T., Zurcher, L., Stavast, W.J.A., Johnson, D.A., and Barton,
M.D., Porphyry deposits: Characteristics and origin of hypogene features, in Hedenquist, J., Goldfarb, R. and
Thompson, J. (eds.), Economic Geology 100th Anniversary Volume, Society of Economic Geologists, p. 251-298.
Shatwell, D., 2004, Subducted ridges, magmas, differential uplift and gold deposits: Examples from South and Central
America, Ishihara Symposium: Granites and associated Metallogenesis, Geoscience Australia, p. 115-120 and 41 slides.
Sillitoe, R.H., and Gappe, I.M., Jr., 1984, Philippine porphyry copper deposits; geologic setting and characteristics:
UNDP Technical Support for Regional Offshore Prospecting in East Asia; United Nations, Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 89 p.
181
Clusters of disseminated sed-

sed-hosted deposits occur
Disseminated Sedimentary as linear trends in the Great Basin province of the U.S.
Rock--hosted Gold Systems
Rock
in Nevada
Steve Garwin Carlin trend
Independent Consultant Battle Mtn
Eureka trend
sgar@iinet.net.au
SRHG in Nevada
SEG Gold Workshop provide 11% of
5th March, 2011 Toronto, Canada 200 km the worlds Au
Betze - Post, Northern Carlin Trend Courtesy of Greg Arehart production
182
Grade/Tonnage of Gold Systems

Sedimentary Rock-
Rock-hosted Gold Deposits
100
10
100
10
00
To
000
To
nn
nn
Ton
es
Gold Quarry
es
Au
Post-Betze
n
es
Au
Pipeline Twin Creeks
Au
Getchell
(million Oz))
Marigold Cortez Hills
Leeville
10
Deep Post
Deep Star
Grade (g/t)
Epithermal Alkalic
Epithermal HS
Epithermal LS
1
Greenstone Lode
Other
Porphyry
SHV
VMS
Wi twaterstrand
Carli n (SRHG)
0.1
1 100 10000 100 0000 100 0000 00 1 00 0000 0000
Muntean, 2004 Tonnes Johnston & Ressel, 2005
Carlin Trend Gold Endowment Carlin Trend Exploration

(year--end 2000; metric tonnes)
(year and Mining History
1907 Lynn Creek placers; originating from Big Six
~ 75 million ounces gold produced as of 2008
1946 Discovery of Au at Bootstrap (57 (57--60 production)
1959 Au found in turquoise workings at Blue Star (61 prod)
Cumulative Reserves Resources Total
1961* Discovery of Carlin (80at
1961 RR (80 at 0
0.20
20 opt in sed rk near dike)
Production
1962 Discovery of Au in Goldstrike area
Newmont 873 400 91* 1364 1965 Carlin production commences (11 Mt at 0.32 opt)
Barrick 593 761 226 1580 1978 Goldstrike production commences (western area)
Others 25 7 ---- 25 79/82 Discovery of Gold Quarry / Post Oxide
1984 Discovery of Genesis
1986 Discovery of Deep Post - Change of strategy
Totals (t) 1491 1168 317 2976
88-89 Discovery
88- Di off D
Deep St
Star, RRodeo
Rodeo-
d -GGoldbug
ldb & Meikle
M ikl
(million oz) 48 38 10 96 1994 Discovery of West Leeville
* denotes mineralized material not in reserve 1996 Underground production starts at Deep Star & Meikle
(revised from Teal and Jackson, 1997; Bettles, 2002; unpublished Newmont data)
96--97 Deep intercepts in Little Boulder Basin (> 6000 feet)
96
Nominal 80% recovery brings total inventory to 3349 t (108 Moz) gold 2000 Deep intercepts at Ren
01--04 Deep intercepts beneath and SSE of Deep Post
01
2005 Discovery of South Arturo oxide (BD (BD--72, 300 m S of Dee)
183
Disseminated Sedimentary Rock

Rock--hosted
Gold Systems in Nevada SRHG Systems and Mineral Trends in the Great Basin
Outline of Presentation
1) Regional
R i l setting
tti and
d metallogeny
t ll
2) Carlin trend geology & geochemistry
Styles and settings of gold mineralization
Ore--related processes and mineral paragenesis
Ore
Ore-
Ore-fluid P-
P-T-X constraints
Weathering and supergene effects
3) Conceptual models and controls to mineralization
(Carlin deposit controversies session SEG / Reno, 2005)
Muntean, 2004
Crustal Structure Radiogenic Isotope Lines Gravity Worms and Crustal Structural Interpretation
(Pb 206/204 >19.3)
Muntean, 2004
184
Great Basin Gold Deposits Crustal Provinces and Structural Systems
Total gold endowment ~220 MOz

for Nevada alone
Sediment
Sediment--hosted deposits are Late Major surface thrusts
thrusts, folds and crustal
Eocene, as are Bingham Porphyry and provinces including radiogenic isotope
Fortitude Skarn lines
Bonanza low-
low-sulfidation deposits are Gold deposits and belts shown
Middle-
Middle-Miocene (13
(13--16Ma) and related to
rifting and bi-
bi-modal volcanism
Large
g disseminated epithermal
p
deposits (e.g. Round Mountain) related to
Early Miocene silicic calderas
Intermediate and high-

high-sulfidation
deposits related to the Walker Lane
Neogene magmatic arc and calderas
Extensional Domains and Gold Deposits Favourable Stratigraphic Units and Major Thrusts
Extension began in the N part of

Black units indicate Silurian-
Silurian-
the Great Basin in the Late Eocene
Devonian marine slope facies and
(~40 Ma) and migrated SW with time to
pass through the Walker Lane in the Antler Orogeny (Dev-
(Dev-Mississippian)
Miocene overlap assemblages, which contain
reactive and porous / permeable
Gold deposits display a similar temporal /
mixed carbonate / siliciclastic rocks
spatial pattern
Major thrusts shown as light blue

lines
Leading edge of extension through time (Ma)

indicated by blue lines.
185
Favourable Stratigraphic Units, Thrusts and Gold Deposits Favorable Host Rocks
Black units indicate Silurian-

Silurian-
Devonian marine slope facies and
Antler Orogeny (Dev-
(Dev-Mississippian)
overlap assemblages, which contain
reactive and porous / permeable
mixed carbonate / siliciclastic rocks
SRHG deposits lie in anticlinal

domes and windows beneath the
Roberts Mountains and Golconda
Allochthons, typically in reactive
calcareous rocks; exceptions do
occur (e.g. Marigold deposit in
fractured Valmy Quartzite)
Muntean, 2004
Isopach Map Lower Silurian & Middle Devonian Late Eocene Mineralization Event
Rb-Sr dating of 3mm

SRHG deposits lie along inferred
NW--trending basement structures
NW
Galkhaite:
that controlled deposition of
6 Siluro-
Siluro-Devonian rocks (Cs,Tl)Hg6(As,Sb)4S12
2 3 4 5
trace Cu, Zn, Cd, Rb
Sedimentary isopachs in 100s
no Sr
of meters
7 3 Zinc in stream sediment samples found at: Getchell, Rodeo, Carlin,

as a proxy for Devonian SEDEX SSX
mineralization
4 dated at: Getchell (39.5 Ma),
6
Rodeo (39.8 Ma)
paragenetically late ore stage

5 50 km
Emsbo et al, 2006
Muntean, 2004 Photo: Dave Tretbar
186
Apatite Fission Track Data for CarlinTrend Gold Deposits Carlin Trend: Fission-
Fission-track Annealing and Heat Flow
Apatite fission track dates, lesser certainty:

~ 37- 41 Ma, Carlin, hydrothermal apatite
Carlin district associated with large (~250 sq km) late Eocene

thermal anomaly
Muntean, 2004 (Cline et al, 2005)
Age Data for Disseminated Sed

Sed--hosted Gold Deposits Eocene Paleotopography North
North--central Nevada
JC
2
2.5
G Syn-mineralization
Very good maximum age constraints ages on mineralized Eocene dikes:
2 2.5 topographic contours
<37 Ma to <41 Ma
Ma, Beast
Beast, Deep Star
Star, Post
Post, Dee
Dee, Genesis,
Genesis
Jerritt Canyon BMT in 1000s of meters
2
Good minimum age constraints ages on post-mineral volcanics: Ruby Mountains (RM) as
> 34 to >38 Ma, Ratto Canyon, Tonkin Springs, Alligator Ridge, 3 2.5 major topographic high
2 1.5
Cortez, Chert Cliff
Eocene intrusive centers
Good minimum age constraints ages on post-mineral supergene alunite: 2 as loci for local surface
as old as 30 Ma (Gold Quarry), mostly Miocene AR uplift
Porphyry-related deposits overlap in time with SRHG deposits:

2.5 SRHG deposits occur
37.5-39 Ma, Bingham Canyon, Copper Canyon, McCoy/Cove, 2.5
on paleo-highs near
Hilltop, Tenabo basin margins
2
1 1.5
Eocene
sediments
50 km
Muntean, 2004
187

Rock--hosted
Gold Systems in Nevada SRHG Systems and Mineral Trends in the Great Basin
1) Regional setting and metallogeny
Ore
Ore--fluid P-
Ore P-T-X constraints Carlin Trend
Muntean, 2004
Regional Structural High - Geology

Stratigraphic Column / Deposits
(Recent work at GQ assigns more

gold ore to Rodeo Creek unit)
188
Northern / Central
Primary Host Lithologies of SRHG deposits Carlin Trend
calcareous
silty/sandy
pyritic
Major Deposits:
carbonaceous Meikle 7 Moz
dolomitic Betze--Post 27 Moz
Betze
sedimentary Carlin 7 Moz
breccias (e.g., Boulder Mike ~7 M oz
debris flow Valley Gold Quarry 22 Moz
breccias) shelf-
slope boundaries
> 35 km x 7 km x 2 km
fossiliferous
grainstones Mike
commonly Maggie
shallow dipping Creek
and thin-bedded/ Roberts Mountains
laminated Formation, Maggie Creek
Canyon, NV
Photo by Greg Arehart
Gold Quarry - Central Carlin Trend Chukar Footwall Deposit (02)

Panoramic Photo / Section Looking East 2000 x 1200 x 350m Looking Northwest
Roaster
158m/4.15
g/t Gold
North Vent
RC Drill Portal
Core Drill
oxide Bedrock Main Decline

Portal
?
295m/4.05
NRM g/t Gold
? 0 300
Deep Sulfide
Feeder Meters
+0.34 g/t Gold Shape Oxide

+2.40 g/t Gold Shape Refractory
Resource (0.2 opt Au):
380,000 oz @ 0.37 opt
189
Dee/Rossi
Northern / Central Dee/Rossi
Northern / Central
Ren Carlin Trend Ren Carlin Trend
Boot- Meikle Boot- Meikle
strap strap
Rodeo Rodeo
Betze-Post Deep Post Geology and Gold Deposits Betze-Post Deep Post
Intrusion and Dike Swarm
Goldstrike
Deep Star
Goldstrike
Deep Star
Interpretation
G
Genesis
i LBB Vivian G
Genesis
i
Beast Beast
Leeville Leeville
Lantern Carlin Lantern Carlin
Pete Pete
(Goldstrike Stock - 158 Ma)
Mike Mike
Mac Mac
Gold Gold
Quarry (generalized from NBMG Bull. 111, 2002) Quarry
Eocene Intrusions of the Northern Carlin Trend

Jurassic Alkaline Goldstrike Stock and Associated Dikes
Finely Porphyritic Rhyolite of Coarsely Porphyritic Rhyolite
Betze--Post
Betze Post--Genesis (40.3-
(40.3-39.3 Ma) of Beast (37.6 Ma)
Goldstrike Diorite Lamprophyre and Rhyolite Porphyry

Monzonite Dikes Dikes
Porphyritic Hbl Dacite of Aphyric High-

High-Si Rhyolite of
Betze--Post
Betze Post--Meikle (40.1-
(40.1-39.0 Ma) Deep Star
Star--Genesis (40.3-
(40.3-39.3 Ma)
Johnston & Ressel, 2005 Johnston & Ressel, 2005
190
Dee/Rossi
Northern / Central
Ren Carlin Trend Cross--Section, Northern CarlinTrend
Cross
Boot- Meikle
strap
Rodeo
Betze-Post Deep Post Geology and Gold Deposits
Goldstrike
Deep Star
G
Genesis
i LBB Vivian Post Anticline
A i i
Beast
Leeville
Lantern Carlin RMT

Pete

O Outline
Ore O tli
Post Fault
Mike
Mac
Gold (Section A A Plate 3, NBMG Bull. 111, 2002)

Quarry (generalized from NBMG Bull. 111, 2002)
Section Line
Dee/Rossi
Northern / Central Generalized Long-
Long-Section, Northern Carlin Trend
Ren Carlin Trend (using Drc/Dp contact as a datum)
Boot- Meikle
strap
Rodeo
Betze-Post Deep Post Geology and Gold Deposits
Goldstrike
Deep Star
G
Genesis
i LBB Vivian
Beast
Leeville
Lantern Carlin
Pete
thermal
aureole
> 0.03 opt Au
Mike
Mac
Gold
Quarry (generalized from NBMG Bull. 111, 2002)
(Modified from Jory, 2002)
Section Line
191
Folds, Thrusts and Low-

Low-Angle Features
Low-Angle
Features
Anticlines / domes
Thrust faults /
duplexes
Sills / flows
Low-angle normal
faults
Lithologic /
rheologic contrast
Post
Anticline
Photo: Greg Arehart Muntean, 2004; Teal and Jackson, 1997
Dee/Rossi
Northern / Central
Ren Carlin Trend
Boot- Meikle
strap
Dome
Rodeo Eocene Extension
Betze-Post Deep Post Structural Interpretation and Reactivation of
Goldstrike
Deep Star
G
Genesis
i Pre-existing Faults
Beast
Leeville
Lantern Carlin
NNE to N faults: dip slip
Pete
NW faults: oblique right-lateral

dip slip
WNW faults: strike slip
Mike Potential for vertical 1 and

Dome low dev. stress allows for
Mac dilation on steeply dipping
Gold faults / fractures
Quarry
(after Teal and Jackson, 1997; Nutt and Tosdal, 1999)
Muntean, 2004
192
Gold-related Structural
Gold-
Carlin - N. Wall, Main Pit (94)
Systems in Carlin Area
Looking Northwest
Hardie fault (NE)
Early NNE-
NNE- and N
N--trending
systems
Mill 1
Syn-ore NW-
Syn- NW- and WNW
WNW--
trending systems
Late NE-
NE-trending system
(not shown)
Midway fault (NW)
Jki dike-filled
(after Madrid, 2001)
Mineralized Fracture Systems
Ov Outcrop NURE Arsenic

~ 1500 feet Stream
above Rita K S di
Sediment/Soil
t/S il
resource, north Data
of Carlin mine
Strong association with
known gold resources
(black dots)
Fractures
typically contain
10-
10-50 ppb Au,
to 2000 ppm As
(after Madrid, 2001) > 20 ppm As

Muntean, 2004
193
Deposit Morphology by Size Deposit Morphology and Setting
(Modified from Jory, 2002)
Alteration Zoning - Carlin Mine

Hydrothermal Mineral Zoning and Abundance, Carlin Mine
Muntean, 2004 Bakken, 1990

Muntean, 2004 Kuehn and Rose (1992)
194
Stratiform Jasperoid outcrop, Gold Point, NV Photo: G. Arehart Decarbonatization: Sanded dolomite
Photo: G. Arehart
Jasperoid breccia,
Gold Quarry, NV
Photo: G. Arehart Dickite, Getchell, NV Photo: G. Arehart
195
Hydrothermal Dissolution Breccia, Getchell

Deep Post Underground (02)
L 4080W
realgar-
realgar-
orpiment ,
1.5 opt Au
Rock bolter
in action
Photo: G. Arehart
Deep Post Mine

Breccia Textures - Deep Post
JKi
Carbonate rock clasts SDrm Decalcified-sulfidic SDrm
in sulfidic matrix
SDrm
stls2
0.05 opt Au 0.79 opt Au
Silica-sulfidic Dp2 Late realgar after

silica-sulfidic
Collapse (dissolution) breccia in Roberts Mountains Fm.

adjacent to Goldstrike Intrusion, L 4150 W 2 cm
2.02 opt Au 0.18 opt Au
(after Marino, 2002)
196
Dissolution Breccia Texture
Relict clast
0.8 mm
Photomicrograph (plane-polarized)
SEM image 56.6 g/t Au
Photo: Tracy Cail
Getchell
As-0.02
As-14.5
Au-bdl
Au-2100
As-12.7 As-0.02
Au-300 Au-bdl
As-8.8
Au-2100
As-0.65
As-0 65
Au-bdl
As-7.0
Au-400 Getchell
Image and data 50 m 99NZ008 2732.5-1 TU00664 219 1.213 oz/t 148 Zone Image from Jean Cline
from Jean Cline
197
Interpretation Betze-Post
Rims are a proxy for evolving ore fluid Post ore

drusy
Inner (early) rims - highest Au (X000 ppm)
Metals traveling with Au: Late ore drusy
As Cu Hg Tl Te Sb (Pb)
Ore jjasperoid
p
Outer (later) rims mod Au (X00 ppm)
Metals from wallrocks: Pb, W Ore quartz is characterized by
(& diminishing ore trace elements)
jasperoid and drusy quartz lined
2.1 oz/t Au
vugs, rather than veins
Cline, 2006 Lubben, 2004
Cathodoluminescence
Late-stage
Provides control for fluid inclusion and
ion probe isotope analyses
orpiment,
Twin Creeks
Betze-Post, Lubben, 2004
Muntean, 2004
198
galkhaite Late-stage
intergrown galkhaite
and stibnite, Getchell
stibnite
25m
Images from Greg Arehart
Processes and Paragenesis
Early Decarbonatization / Decalcification

(Dolomitization & Brecciation)
volume loss
Replacement: Argillization, Silicification

Sulfidation (Au)
volume loss
Late-stage hydrothermal barite,

Open Space Development / Deposition
Meikle, NV Late cavities, fractures and breccias
Photo from Greg Arehart
199
Pre Ore Carlin Event Post Ore

Main Late
Depth and Fluid Temperature-
Temperature-Composition
calcite ? ? of SRHG Deposits
vein quart z
sericite
pyrite / pyrrhotite
chalcopyrite
sphalerite
arsenopyrite Depth
p approx.
pp 1 km (+
( 0.5km),
), inferred from glassy
g y dikes,,
galena reconstruction of Eocene volcanic stratigraphy and cooling
jasperoid ? ?
profiles for apatite closure temperatures (FT and U-Th)
drusy quar t z
marcasite ? ?
pyrite (Au and As) ? ? Temperature 115-240, mostly 180-240C for ore deposition
illite / kaolinite
marcasite (Au and As) ? ? Salinity 0-10 wt%, locally as high as 17 wt%
orpiment
fluorite Gas Content CO2-bearing, but less than 4 mole %
galkhaite
stibnite Detectable H2S, trace CH4
realgar
calcite (clear, coarse) No evidence for boiling
calcite (coarse, euhedral) ? ?
Fe-oxides
(Modified from Muntean, 2004)
Quartz Microthermometry / Fluid Inclusions Fluid Inclusions - Getchell

Cline & Hofstra,
2001
Shigehiro, 2001
ore quartz: 180-220C

Kuehn & Rose,
1992
orpiment: 180-200C
fluorite: 140-180C
Lamb, 1995
Tt = realgar: ?
180-240C
Lubben, 2004
calcite: 120-160C
3 Hofstra, 1994 Cline & Hofstra, 2000
160 220 6
200
Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotopes Sulfur Isotopes
Source fluids for

Au mineralization S isotope range in
equivocal ore-pyrite is inconclusive
or consistent with
Local evidence for sedimentary source
deep magmatic or
metamorphic ore- Local evidence for
fluid overprint by magmatic source
exchanged (e.g. Getchell, N. Carlin)
meteoric fluids
((e.g.
g Getchell,,
Deep Star)
Cline et al., 2005 Cline et al., 2005
SRHG Deposits Carbonaceous Material SRHG Deposits Carbonaceous Material

Most SRHG deposits have a close spatial association with
carbonaceous rocks
Unaltered rocks generally contain <1.5 wt% organic C; organic
C in SRHG deposits ranges from 0.1 to locally >10 wt%
Indigenous C and mobilized C
Most carbon in SRHG deposits is best characterized as
pyrobitumen (overmature, locally bordering on graphite)
No consistent relationship between gold grade and the amount
of carbon at the deposit scale
In many cases
cases, SRHG deposits appear to occupy pre-existing
hydrocarbon reservoirs
Hydrocarbons mainly accumulated and were rendered immobile
prior to mineralization; Au-bearing hydrothermal fluids cooked
oil reservoir at Alligator Ridge
Horse Canyon Pit Some syn-ore mobilization of hydrocarbons cannot be ruled out
Muntean, 2004 Muntean, 2004
201
Weathering of SRHG deposits Weathering and Oxidation
Weathering generates iron oxides (hematite, goethite), sulfates

(alunite jarosite); phosphates (variscite and similar minerals);
(alunite-jarosite);
and As oxides (e.g. scorodite)
Weathering in Nevada occurred sporadically between 30 0 Ma

based on supergene alunite and volcaniclastic rock dates
Depth of weathering varies, but may reach 500 m along

structures
O
Oxidation
id i liberated
lib d significant
i ifi Au
A to generate oxide
id ore exploited
l i d
almost exclusively until 1990
Bio-oxidation to liberate gold from ore-stage pyrite-marcasite
Current debate over supergene mobility of gold

Oxide profile, Twin Creeks megapit
Photo: G. Arehart Modified from Muntean, 2004

Rock--hosted Conceptual Model - Large Deposit
Gold Systems in Nevada (e.g. Gold Quarry)
1) Regional setting and metallogeny
Ore
Ore--fluid P-
Ore P-T-X constraints
202
Conceptual Model Muntean (2004)
Muntean, 2004 Muntean, 2004
Controls on Mineralization
Structural high - anticline or horst block

Steep faults,
faults dikes and fracture zones
- hydrothermal fluid conduits
Gently--moderate dipping lithologies and thrusts
Gently
- traps and thickened prospective section
Receptive and reactive host rocks
C t ti rheology
Contrasting h l andd porosity/permeability
it / bilit
- competency contrast and fluid channel ways
Decalcification, brecciation & silicification
- volume loss; preparation to gold deposition
Muntean, 2004
203
Restored Late Eocene Cross-

Cross-section
On the margins of large
Removes Oligocene-Early Miocene extension magmatic--hydrothermal
magmatic
Shows Eocene granitic intrusions, emplaced at >10 km depth, systems, where we propose
Carlin
Carlin--type deposits form,
could have underlain Carlin trend deposits
remobilization of at least some
wall
wall--rock components during
mineralization cannot be ruled
out, and may be the norm.
Circulation of meteoric,
Keith Howard, 2003 connate, or other fluids and the
associated remobilization of
wall
wall--rock components may
account for nonmagmatic
signatures of mineralizing fluids
and variable isotopic signatures
for mineralizing components
observed in many Carlin-
Carlin-type
deposits
Muntean, 2004 FIGURE ADAPTED FROM HEINRICH (2005) - Johnston and Ressel (2005)
Carlin Trend: Centered on the 39 to 37 Ma NCEP Complex
DEE, ROSSI
BOOTSTRAP, TARA
PROSPECTIVITY BY TYPE:
GOLDSTRIKE
PROXIMAL PORPHYRY
COMPLEX
AND/OR SKARN DEPOSITS
POLYMETALLIC VEIN OR
GENESIS LEEVILLE, ETC. REPLACEMENT DEPOSITS
COMPLEX
DISTAL CARLIN-
CARLIN-TYPE
(SRHG) DEPOSITS
LANTERN
CARLIN, ETC.
GOLD QUARRY,
39 TO 38 Ma WELCHES MIKE, ETC.
CANYON STOCK
5 km
FIGURE ADAPTED FROM SILLITOE AND BONHAM (1990) OUTLINE OF THE NORTHERN CARLIN-
CARLIN-
Johnston & Ressel, 2005 EMIGRANT PASS INTRUSIVE COMPLEX Johnston & Ressel, 2005
204
District Dimensions and Zoning
Metal and deposit

zonation around the 39
Ma Bingham stock A question of scale
(modified from Gunter Size of footprints of Carlin-type (SRHG) systems
and Austin, 1997)
are substantially larger than giant igneous-related
4 km porphyry and high-sulfidation epithermal deposits
Johnston & Ressel, 2005 Seedorff & Barton, 2005
Sizes of Intrusions and SRHG Systems

Regional
Hydrothermal
Systems
Regional systems are not only

large, but they have weak alteration
zoning
Orogenic gold systems, e.g., Mother
Lode of California
Coleman et al., 2004, Fig. 1 Note spatial proximity to igneous rocks
Tuolumne Intrusive Suite, Sierra Nevada Batholith (probably genetically unrelated)
Assembled by emplacement of plutons over 10 m.y. Note similarity in scale of Carlin trend to
Carlin trend (figures at same scale) central Mother Lode
About the same size as a large composite pluton within a batholith
Seedorff & Barton, 2005 Seedorff & Barton, 2005
205
Three Possible Scenarios Source Rocks for Au in Amagmatic Models
Magmatic
origin
Magmatic Seedorff, 1991,
fluids Fig. 20
Amagmatic
Fine-grained clastic
g
origins rocks at base of
Metamorphic miogeocline may be in
fluids appropriate setting and
Surface- have appropriate
chemistry to be the
derived fluids
source of metals
Seedorff & Barton, 2005 Seedorff & Barton, 2005 Seedorff, 1991, Table 4
Disseminated Sedimentary-
Sedimentary-rock Hosted
Gold Systems - Looking Forward Acknowledgements
High--grade u/g deposits (e.g. Deep Star)
High J. Muntean, M. Johnston & M. Ressel,
- profitability vs ounces E. Seedorff & M. Barton, C. Thorman
Rendering the upper plate (RMA) transparent
- delineate zones of structural complexity Newmont, Barrick, Placer Dome, Victoria
Geoinformatics & other Company Geologists
Non--traditional host rocks
Non
- upper plate, sub
sub--SDrm and intrusive rocks
UNR CREG, UNLV, UWA
Geological and geochemical vectors to ore
- fracture mapping, alteration zoning and 3D models US Geological Survey
Innovative underground drilling techniques
Enhancement of Bio Bio--oxidation process J. Cline, D. Groves, J. Hedenquist,
- milling of low/moderate-
low/moderate-grade refractory material T. Leach, P. Lewis, R. Madrid
sgar@iinet.net.au
206

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PDAC International Convention 2011

Gold Geology and

A workshop presented by:

Gold Geology and Deposit Types

Friday, March 4, 2011

Saturday, March 5, 2011

Dr. Noel C. White

GOLD DEPOSITS MODELS Mineral Deposit Models for

Different Textures, Different

DANGERS WITH MODELS

Grade Tonnage Models

Use resource figures to represent the mineralized

Describe frequency distribution of tonnages and

Gold Production: Larger

20th century=increased from 500 t/yr to 2500 t/yr

after Peattie, Anglogold Ashanti, 2008

GOLD DEPOSIT DESCRIPTIVE

Models based on mineralization styles after Jensen and Bateman (1981)

GOLD DEPOSIT DESCRIPTIVE GSC LODE GOLD DESCRIPTIVE

after Smirnov et al, 1981

USGS Lode Gold Descriptive Models-80s

TECTONIC SETTINGS OF AU UNIFYING MODEL FOR GOLD IN

Evolution and classification scheme for epithermal deposits

models least controversial Enargite gold

Hayba et al. (1985)

Hedenquist (1987), White

epithermal hydrothermal Berger and Henley (1989) Alunite-kaolinite Adularia-sericite

systems that have very Sillitoe (1989,

Quartz-adularia or low- Quartz--alunite (HS) type deposits

Past analogs of typical near-

Linkages between porphyry, high- and intermediate-

CTGD - Models TERMINOLOGY HAS BECOME CONFUSING

Orogenic Au--High Preservational Potential in the

Gold Geology and Deposit Types SEG Course

Fluid Flow Environments & Au Tectonic Controls on Global Gold Resources

LOW PRESERVATIONAL POTENTIAL:

Subduction zone Gold-rich porphyry deposit

Archean Lode Gold Deposits Phanerozoic Lode Gold Deposits

Greenstone Belts in granitoid-greenstone terranes

Crustal-scale Deformation (1st Order Faults)

3) Potential physical or chemical traps

Golden Mile (1,200 t)

Gold Deposit=Focused flow

FOCUS OF ORE FLUIDS: VARIATIONS IN

SEISMICITY AND AU Geophysics: Identification of Main

Dennis et al., 2010

Orogenic Gold Tonnages: Archean MM Settings

(from R. Kerrich, 2009)

Granite I Fluid from

Chemical vs. Physical Traps for Orogenic Au

2nd and 3rd order faults: Shear hosted Deformation Styles

Meguma VeinsAll Synchronous

from Dan Kontak, 2005

Orogenic & Epithermal/Porphyry=Majority of the Giants

Gold in the Superior - Multiple Giants Metal Precipitation by Pressure Fluctuation

Hollinger-McIntyre, Dome = overprinting of early Cu-Au system

Tanzania = multiple giants (Bulyanhulu, Geita) - overprinting of VMS?

Alaska-Juneau Deposit Paragenesis--Mafic Host Rock

Is gold really a later event!!!!!

sericitization, carbonization, (de-)silicification, sulfidation

chlorite + albite + CO2 + H2O + Au(HS)2

sericite + Fe-Mg carbonates + sulfides + Au

Bierlein & Crowe, 2000

from Hodgson, Gold 2000 Hodgson, Gold 2000