Sister Mae Carol
Jemison, who is an
The African American Story Part 7 (The
Second Era)
1992-
1992-1999
“Keep your dreams alive. Understand to
achieve anything requires faith and belief
in yourself, vision, hard work,
determination, and dedication.
Remember all things are possible for
those who believe.”
-Gail Devers
astronomer, a doctor,
an engineer, and once
an astronaut, taught
us about STEM fields
and courage too.
During this period of time, it was the
time of my childhood. I was from 9 to
16 years old from 1992 to 1999. It was
the era after the Cold War, but before
the 21st century. The 1990's was a very
exciting, creative time for African
Americans. It was the era where no
one could ignore the serious issues of
racism, classism, sexism, and other
evils in our world. It was the time
where flavor was shown not just in
music, but art in general, literature,
dance, and fashion. It was the time
period where it was a Golden Age of
black American television shows,
music, plays, movies, and other forms
of human expression. Likewise, the
continued problems of police brutality,
economic exploitation, and other
injustices plagued America as well.
African Americans formed
organizations and advanced unity or
solidarity in the midst of these times.
Therefore, this work shows facts about
This work is also this very impactful era, which was a
transitional epoch after the Cold War
dedicated to those with
and just before the year of 2000.
nostalgia for the 1990’s.
 Black Excellence of the 1990's

Black excellence flourished during the 1990’s. The 1990's was a

decade of new firsts for African Americans and an age of flavor,
creativity, inspiration, and outstanding talent. The first black mayor of
New York City, whose name is David Dinkins, was inaugurated on
January 1, 1990. He was 62 years old. David Dinkins ran on a
campaign of inclusion, hope for the future, and the growth of a better
New York City. By the end of the term of Mr. Dinkins, the crime rate
in NYC started to decline. Later on January 13, 1990, Douglas Wilder
was inaugurated as the first black Governor of the United States after
Reconstruction. Wilder was a Korean War veteran. His historic 1989
gubernatorial campaign had him appealing to black Americans and
many white rural voters too. As governor, he executed both
conservative and progressive policies. He won the Spingarn Medal
for 1990 from the National Association of the Advancement of
Colored People. In the same year, August Wilson won a Pulitzer
These are 2 great black women Prize for the play The Piano Lesson. August Wilson was a legendary
and friends Mae Jemison and African American playwright. In November 1990, Sharon Pratt Kelly
Sharon McDougle (who has was elected mayor of Washington, D.C., and she became the first
helped astronauts with their African American woman to lead a large American city. Marcelite
spacesuits and has worked in Jordan Harris was the first black woman brigadier general in the U.S.
STEM fields plus handling Army (back in 1990) and the first woman to command a mostly men
battalion. Also, in 1990, Walter E. Massey is the first African
safety regulations for
American to head the National Science Foundation, Donna Marie
decades). Cheek becomes the first black member of the U.S. Equestrian Team,
and Carole Ann-Marie Gist of Detroit, Michigan became the first African American to win the Miss
USA pageant. Barack Obama was the first African American president of the Harvard Law Review on
February 5, 1990. Devil in a Blue Dress on June 1990 was written by Walter Mosley. He is a great black
author.

On June 20, 1990, Nelson Mandela was released from prison in South Africa. Nelson Mandela
experienced over 20 years of imprisonment, because he opposed the nefarious evil of the apartheid
system. He toured NYC and other cities in America. In November 1990, Charles Johnson won the
National Book Award for his book on the illegal 19th century slave trade called, “The Middle Passage.”
Henry Louis Gates worked in the African Studies Department and the WEB DuBois Institute in
Harvard. This was in 1991. He worked with many scholars like Ghana-born philosopher Kwame
Anthony Appiah, William Julius Wilson, Cornel West, and historian Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham.
Future baseball Hall of Famer Rickey Henderson of the Oakland Athletics broke Lou Brock’s all time
stolen base record by stealing his 939th career base on May 1, 1991. Movies like Ghost, New Jack City,
and Boyz n The Hood showed great performances from African Americans like Whoopi Goldberg,
John Singleton as a director, Cuba Gooding Jr., Ice Cube, Laurence Fishburne, Wesley Snipes, and
Morris Chestnut. These films not only showed the diversity of black American life. They captivated
 audiences worldwide in their complex story-lines, their mature character arrangement, and their
inspirational entertainment (that deals with life lessons as well).

LEGENDARY BLACK AMERICANS

Denzel and Pauletta
Washington are people who
love each other very much.
Denzel Washington is one of
the greatest actors in
history. He is not only an
actor (in films like Malcolm
X, Remember the Titans,
John Q, The Hurricane,
etc.). He is a well-known
philanthropist, public
speaker, and a man who
greatly loves his family.
Mae Carol Jemison is a legend.
She was an astronaut and she is a
great scholar of science. The
young person next to her is a 12
year old African American girl
named Taylor Richardson (from
Jacksonville, Florida. She is an
honor student, a Girl Scout, a
triathlete, a literacy advocate,
and an anti-bullying crusader)
who aspires to be just like her
when she grows up. She wants to
be an astronaut and travel into
space. Mae Jemison is Taylor
Richardson’s hero. It is always
important to tell any black girl
and any black boy that they can
achieve greatness and they can
succeed in monumental ways.
The brilliant author Toni
Morrison has written eloquently
about black life and human life in
general. She is a teacher, an
essayist, and a professor emeritus
at Princeton University. She has
won the Pulitzer Prize and the
American Book Award in 1988
for Beloved. In 1993, Toni
Morrison was awarded the Nobel
Prize in Literature. Her citation
reads: “Toni Morrison, "who in
novels characterized by visionary
force and poetic import, gives life
to an essential aspect of
American reality.” She was the
first black woman of any
nationality to win the prize.
Julie Dash’s Daughters of the Dust came out in 1991 and it was directed by an African American
woman. The National Civil Rights Museum opened in Memphis, TN. Memphis was the city where Dr.
Martin Luther King Jr. led his final crusade for economic justice involving sanitation workers. On
August 8, 1992, The Dream Team won the Olympic gold medal in basketball in Barcelona. They
included some of the greatest basketball players in history and they further internationalized the game of
basketball too. People like Michael Jordan, Charles Barkley, Magic Johnson, David Robinson, Clyde
Drexler, Karl Malone, John Stockton, Larry Bird, and others performed in a high level. They also gave
autographs to their basketball opponents. Helicopters surrounded them when they were outside and
they increased their worldwide popularity. By the 1990’s, the WNBA would exist and basketball would
go into new heights of excellence.

By 1992, 35 year old astronaut Mae Carol Jemison (a Stanford graduate with a medical degree from
Cornel) became the first African American woman to travel into space. She is a doctor education wise
and she continues to promote STEM fields for people of color and everyone else to this very day. The
first African American woman Senator was Carol Moseley Braun of Illinois. She was born and raised in
Chicago and she was an attorney too. She celebrated her victory in Chicago in 1992 and she is a
Democrat. Derek Walcott was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. Rita Love would be Poet
Laureate in 1993. In 1993, Avery Brooks, would be Commander Benjamin Sisko on Deep Space Nine
of the Star Trek TV show series. The show lasts until 1999. Maya Angelou gave her poem “On the
Pulse of the Morning” at President Bill Clinton’s inauguration ceremony in Washington, D.C. Arthur
Ashe from Richmond, VA passed away on February 6, 1993 from AIDS related complications. A
monument which celebrates Arthur Ashe’s life was shown by 1996. Arthur Ashe constantly promoted
black freedom and wrote a book that detailed the contributions of black athletes. The Tom Joyner
Morning Show, which was ahead of its time, reached syndication by January 1994. It talked about
African American issues, relationships, health, culture, music, and other important issues.

In 1994, Isabel Wilkerson wrote about the Great Migration in her book, “The Warmth of Other Suns.”
She was the first African American woman to win the Pulitzer Prize for Journalism. To this very
day, Isabel Wilkerson has advanced progressive causes (she rightfully has condemned the hateful racism
from the white nationalists and white supremacists in Charlottesville, VA in 2017). Henry Louis Gates
and Cornel West wrote books about their lives and race in 1994. They represented the new generation
of progressive scholars during the 1990’s. Art has been promoted by Thelma Golden and Kara Walker
in NY in 1994. Dorothy West’s “The Wedding” book is popular and she was 87 years old. Shirley Ann
Jackson (she was the first black woman to earn a PhD from MIT) was sworn as the chair of the U.S.
Nuclear Regulatory Committee. She later became the first black President of New York’s Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute.

“Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and inheritance” was released by Barack Obama in 1995.
This talks about his life in honest terms. The book talked about his identity, his parents, and the
motivation that he has in order for him to achieve great accomplishments during his life. There is a
video on Youtube from the 1990’s where Barack Obama discussed about his book in eloquent terms.
On May 6, 1995, Ron Kirk won the mayoral race in Dallas, becoming the first African American mayor
of the city. Dr. Helene Doris Gayle becomes the first woman and the first African American Director
of the National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention for the U.S. Centers for Disease Control on
1995. By 1996, Muhammad Ali lit the flame in the Olympic Games in Atlanta, Georgia. Back then, I
was almost 13 years old and I definitely remember the 1996 Summer Olympics very vividly. The 1996
Summer Olympics showed the talent of many athletes like Carl Lewis, Michael Johnson, Gail Devers,
Gwen Torrance, Jackie Joyner-Kersee, and other human beings.

Heroic Financial analyst Bari-Ellen Roberts was a black woman in 1996 who fought against racial
discrimination. Discrimination was found in Texaco and Texaco agreed to pay more than $140 million
to the victims of discrimination. In June 1997, Harvey Johnson, Jr. was sworn in as the first black mayor
of Jackson, Mississippi. On October 25, 1997, African American women participated in the Million
Woman March in Philadelphia, focusing on health care, education, and self-help. In 1997, Geoffrey
Canada used his education program to help students in NYC. Wynton Marsalis's "Blood on the Fields"
becomes the first jazz composition to win a Pulitzer Prize in Music in 1997 too. In the same year, Lois
Jean White was the first African American to be elected president of the National Parent Teacher
Association (PTA). Amistad was released in 1997. This movie was about the freedom sent to Joseph
Cinque and other black people who were kidnapped on a ship by European criminals. Steven Spielberg
directed the movie. Djimon Hounsou (who was born in Benin, he lived in France, and now he lives in
America) was the lead actor in the movie. The film was magnificent.

By April 13, 1997, a 21 year old Tiger Woods won the Masters Golf tournament. His father Earl Woods
inspired him. He started a new era of more black people and people of color increasingly joining golf as
a sport. Nelson Mandela received an honorary degree from Harvard in 1998. On January 13, 1999, after
thirteen seasons and six NBA championships, professional basketball star Michael Jordan retired from
the game as a player from the Chicago Bulls (he never came back to the NBA except in 2001 to play for
the Washington Wizards). Encarta Africana was released as CD-ROM in 1999 that has images, videos,
and graphics about black history. It was edited by Henry Louis Gates Jr. and Kwame Anthony Appiah
of Harvard. The first black woman coach to win an NCAA Women’s Basketball Championship was
Carolyn Peck on March 28, 1999. She coached Purdue to victory. Peck was the first black woman to
win the New York Athletic Clubs’ Winged Foot Award. Later, she was the head coach of the WNBA’s
Orlando Miracle. Laurence Fishburne was part of the Matrix movie in 1999 too. Juneteenth was
released by Ralph Ellison posthumously in June 1999. Maurice Ashley becomes the world's first black
chess grandmasters, the game's highest rank back in 1999 too. In September 11, 1999, at Arthur Ashe
Stadium in NYC, Serena Williams (at the age of 17) beat Martina Hingis to win the U.S. Open
Championship. She was the 2nd African American woman to do so after Althea Gibson won such a
match. Venus Williams won Wimbledon in 1999 too. This started a long journey of 2 of the greatest
women tennis players in history (i.e. Serena and Venus Williams). They have transcended the sport and
Serena Williams has been called by some as the greatest athlete of the 21st century.

Bill Clinton

The Presidency of William Jefferson Clinton was definitely significant in the history of Black America. I
lived throughout both of his terms. I know about his life and his policies. When I was a child, I viewed
him as very liberal. As I became older and as I learned more about the world (and the beauty of social
democratic principles), I saw his much more moderate political views. Before he was President, he was a
leader of the DLC or the Democratic Leadership Committee. The DLC led a movement (since back
during the 1980's) away from the old school liberalism of the New Deal and the Great Society to turn
into a moderate new movement of the Third Way (or a new Democrat. We call them neoliberals).
These neoliberals promoted fiscal conservativism in many cases, globalization, and compromise with
the GOP on many issues from economics to foreign policy affairs. Bill Clinton was in that mold. Bill
Clinton has great charisma and political intelligence on a high scale. Therefore, he used a campaign to
defeat George H. W. Bush during the 1992 election. Bill Clinton promised many liberal proposals from
tax increases for the wealthy, more investments in education, and other policy positions. Likewise, he
showed his moderate streak throughout the 1992 campaign. One example is that he falsely compared
Sistah Soujah to David Duke, because he misinterpreted what Sistah Soujah had to say. Sistah Soujah is
a very wise black woman who was ahead of her time in her political views, in her courage, and in her
promotion of black self-awareness plus black self-determination.

Sistah Soujah responded to Bill Clinton in eloquent terms. Here is some her historic response:
"...Peace. I stand before you today feeling very confident, steadfast and powerful; at the same time, I am
surprised, that I as a young African woman, have impacted and effected the development of not only
national politics, but international politics as well. It is very shocking to me that in a time of American
economic recession, and inner city urban chaos, Democratic presidential contender Bill Clinton has
chosen to attack not the issues, but a young African woman who is very well educated, alcohol free,
drug free and a successful self employed businesswoman, and community servant...Bill Clinton says that
Sister Souljah is a racist like David Duke, a well known ex-Klan member and White supremacist, but
was a member in an all White segregated club up until this year...Bill Clinton portrays himself as
compassionate, yet he supports giving prisoners lobotomies, removing sections of the brain...Sister
Souljah does not own a gun, has not shot or killed anyone, did not invade Grenada, Panama, Nicaragua,
Kuwait or Angola. Sister Souljah has never ordered the National Guard into anyone's community and
has not made drug deals with Noriega.

Sister Souljah has never been a member of a terrorist organization, has no history of crime, has not
burned crosses on anybody's lawn or lynched or hanged White people from trees. Sister Souljah has not
systematically denied people the right to study and enjoy their culture in the so-called public education
system. Sister Souljah did not send Haitians back to Haiti as though they were sub-human...The context
in which my statements were made in the Washington Post was this, and I paraphrase speaking in the
mind-set and in the mind of a gang member: Were you surprised at what happened in L.A.? No, I was
not, White people should not have been surprised either; they knew that Black people were dying
everyday in the streets of Los Angeles to gang violence created by poverty and social chaos, but they did
not care. If young Black men in L.A. would kill their own kind, their own Brothers and Sisters, what
would make White people think they wouldn't kill them too? Do White people think they're better, or is
it that White death means so much more than Black death? Breaking it down, this means injustice
anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. As Sister Souljah, I reserve the right to fight against White
racism--I have not ordered anyone to kill anyone. My album creates pressure on White America--a lot
of pressure, and pressure is what America needs, deserves, and inherited--no justice, no peace."

The economic recession of 1991 influenced the victory of Clinton along with Perot being in the race.
Perot was a populist campaign and many of the Reagan Democrats voted for Clinton. Bill Clinton
during the campaign was constantly asked about an adultery allegation from Gennifer Flowers, who was
a friend of Clinton. Many in the media accused him of being a draft dodger. In essence, the 1992
campaign was the first Presidential campaign where issues dealing with many sexual scandals existed in
the high level. Clinton only won 43 percent of the popular vote. He was the first Southern Democratic
President since Jimmy Carter. 82 percent of African Americans voted for Bill Clinton while 11 percent
voted for George H. W. Bush. Black people helped carry the narrow of victory for Clinton in many
states like Ohio, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Georgia (where a high number of black people lived at back
then and today). His inauguration had Maya Angelou and other speakers.

It took place in 1993. Maya Angelou spoke beautifully and eloquently about the dream that humankind
ought to embrace. Among us (who are black Americans), there were high hopes for him. We wanted
him to take the issue of race seriously and honestly. As history has shown, his Presidency has been filled
with triumphs and failures. His Presidency was a combination of legitimate actions and serious
mistakes. Today, he is among one of the most popular Presidents and he is in the history books for
many reasons. In order to evaluate the legacy of the Clinton years fairly as it relates to black Americans,
we have to mention his Presidency in chronological order.
Immediately, his cabinet experienced scandals. Zoe Baird didn’t become the Attorney General since she
admitted that she employed undocumented workers in her home. Back then, xenophobia was abundant
like today. Kimba Wood left the nomination too. Lani Guinier, a great unapologetic progressive
woman, was slandered so much by the far right that she wasn’t the candidate for a key Justice
Department post back in 1993. She lost her fight for the post of Assistant Attorney General for Civil
Rights. Many black people were in his cabinet like Ronald Brown (as Secretary of Commerce), but many
black people opposed the backlash from many Republicans against qualified, progressive black cabinet
candidates. Spellman College President Johnetta Cole wasn’t allowed to be Secretary of Education,
because conservatives attacked her progressive political views. As early as 1993, Bill Clinton appointed
Hillary Clinton to head the Task Force on National Health Care reform. Hillary Clinton during this time
would fight for national health care. The Clinton administration fought for it, but they failed because of
massive opposition and it was taboo back then for a President to pass national health care. Shortly after
taking office, Bill Clinton signed the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 on February 5, which
required large employers to allow employees to take unpaid leave for pregnancy or a serious medical
condition.

This image showed Bill Clinton signing the Crime Bill.

This action had bipartisan support, and was popular with the public. On May 19, 1993, Clinton fired
seven employees of the White House Travel Office, causing the White House travel office controversy
even though the travel office staff served at the pleasure of the President and could be dismissed
without cause. The White House responded to the controversy by claiming that the firings were done in
response to financial improprieties that had been revealed by a brief FBI investigation. One of the most
important bills that Clinton signed was the Budget bill of 1993. It was moderate. In August, Clinton
signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, which passed Congress without a Republican
vote. It cut taxes for 15 million low-income families, made tax cuts available to 90 percent of small
businesses, and raised taxes on the wealthiest 1.2 percent of taxpayers. Additionally, it mandated that
the budget be balanced over a number of years through the implementation of spending restraints. In
November of 1993, he signed the Brady Bill, which was a gun control measure. At first, Bill Clinton
wanted gay people to openly serve in the military back in 1992, but he compromised and followed
Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell (which means that a gay or lesbian person can serve as long as he or she doesn’t
tell anyone and the military doesn’t ask anyone about his or her sexual orientation). It was gone by 2011
by the act of President Barack Obama. Surgeon General Jocelyn Elders wanted to have drug legalization
to decline crime and Clinton was a moderate, so he criticized her remarks. Elders was an expert in social
policy and medicine for decades. She was later removed from office. So, some black cabinet members
were treated with blatant disrespect and that was wrong. In 1993, Vince Foster died and Clinton issued
a missile attack in Iraq in response to the assassination plot of Iraqis who tried to assassinate President
George H. W. Bush.

Bill Clinton worked with Yasser Arafat and Yitzhak Rabin to sign the historic Oslo Peace Accords.
Both Arafat and Rabin would shake hands on that occasion. The Oslo Peace Accords was the time
when peace was so close, but so far away at the same time in the Middle East. By the end of 1993 on
December 8, Bill Clinton signed the controversial North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA.
NAFTA accelerated globalization and had mixed results. It definitely didn’t prevent millions of
American jobs from being outsourced. Also, research has shown has NAFTA has harmed workers in
America and Mexico. Here are some examples. The Economic Policy Institute estimates that the
agreement cost Ohio 50,000 jobs between 1993 and 2004. In the last seven years (from 2001-2008),
Ohio lost more than 200,000 manufacturing jobs--as a consequence of plants moving to the U.S. South,
the shallowness of the 2000’s economic recovery and increasing productivity, among other factors.
Mexican agriculture has been devastated by NAFTA because it is unable to compete with U.S.
producers, which benefited from subsidies from the U.S. government that were 20 times higher than
Mexico's as of 2005. The truth is that NAFTA was a problem because NAFTA was a policy of
neoliberal globalization that allowed the ruling class to reap massive benefits while ignoring the
legitimate economic needs of many American, Canadian, and Mexican workers (in other words, workers
internationally not just in America should unite to confront the corporate oligarchy).

By 1994, Clinton allowed President Aristide to be in power in Haiti while preventing Haitian refugees
from coming into America. In 1994, the Republican backlash came ahead with Republicans controlling
most of the House. Gingrich led the charge with the Contract with America, which was a list of
conservative plans for America. Bill Clinton was in a tough place and he worked with his advisors to
figure out what was next. Bill Clinton signed the Crime Bill in 1994. It was opposed by progressives,
many African Americans, and some conservatives (because of its gun control provisions).

Bill Clinton believed that being tough on crime and adding more police in the streets will decrease crime
and cause a better America. The problem was that the Crime Bill expanded death penalty provisions
and it didn’t understand the complex nature of crime. Crime must require rehabilitation not just
punishment. The Crime Bill definitely expanded the prison industrial complex. Hillary Clinton was
wrong to use the racially charged words of “super predators” to describe many black youth in low
income neighborhoods. Back then, a lot of people didn’t realize the unintended consequences of the
Crime Bill. The 1994 Rwanda was one of the saddest crises in world history. It was about Hutus in
Rwanda murdering Tutsis and moderate Hutus. Over 1,000,000 people were murdered in Rwanda.
While the slaughter took place, African American political scientist Ronald Walters called on black
churches to help the Rwandan refugees. The Clinton White House had done nothing to intervene even
in humanitarian aid. Clinton later admitted that this was one of his most bad foreign policy mistakes of
his administration. While this was going on, the Republicans disgracefully attacked affirmative action,
economic reforms, and other progressive policies. During the 1990’s, there was an increase of African
American church burnings. I saw news about this during the late 1990’s too.

According to the Atlanta based Center for Democratic Renewal, between January 1990 and May 1996,
57 cases of firebombing or occurring of African American houses of worship existed (there were 57
cases of firebombing of vandalism of from January 1995 and May 1996). President Clinton in June of
1996 created a National Churches Arson Task Force to investigate these racist arson attacks. Many
students cleaned up churches. Many hate crimes against black people and other minorities existed.
Religious cults grew. There was the Waco incident where cult leader David Koresh died in an explosion.
Debates about FBI’s response existed. The Oklahoma City Federal Building was bombed by Timothy
McVeigh and Terry Nicholas in 1995. Bill Clinton gave an eloquent speech of advancing resolve
including comfort and it was a turning point in his administration. From that time onward, he gained
more popularity and won the 1996 election. Before that time, attacks on affirmative action continue.
Proposition 209 banned affirmative in action in California. Economist Julianne Malveaux opposed this
plan. The Whitewater scandals continued from 1993 onward. With the 1995 crisis of Yugoslavia,
Clinton allows NATO to act in Sarajevo and other places. Bosnian Serbs negotiate with NATO to end
the bloodshed. The Dayton, Ohio peace settlement is reached in November of 1995. The government
shut of late 1995 continued and this gave Gingrich unpopularity. The GOP also was blamed by many
for the crisis (of the government shutdown).

One of Bill Clinton’s most controversial acts was the signing of the welfare reform bill. This was an
assault on the New Deal policy of helping the poor. It happened on August 22, 1996. The law is called
the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act. Bill Clinton promoted the concepts of
“personal responsibility” throughout his Presidency. Many African Americans and liberals opposed the
law. Many Democrats and Republicans helped Clinton to allow him to sign the law. This law ended the
AFDC or the Aid to Families with Dependent Children. Paul Edelman resigned from his post in the
Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) in protest of the law. The law appealed to the far
right who falsely scapegoated poor and black Americans for welfare issues when most black people
aren’t on welfare and welfare is a key part of helping families worldwide for thousands of years. The
usage of states using block grants and drug requirements involving welfare disrespected the dignity of
many struggling families. THE NET effect of Clinton's reforms has been an overall increase in the
poverty rate, from 13.7 percent in 1996 to 14.8 percent in 2014. About one in every seven Americans
lives below the official poverty line.
The rise in extreme poverty--Americans who live on less than $2 per day--increased by 159 percent
between 1996 and 2011. In the richest country on earth, a total of 1.65 million households are trying to
survive on this meager amount. On September 21, 1996, Clinton signed into law the Defense of
Marriage Act (DOMA), which defines marriage for federal purposes as the legal union of one man and
one woman, allowing individual states to refuse to recognize gay marriages performed in other states.
The 1996 election had Bill Clinton defeating Bob Dole. There was economic progress by 1996 and
Dole had great difficulty in making the case that he would be so much better than Bill Clinton. Bill
Clinton knew this and sent commercials outlining his accomplishments. Bill Clinton also eloquently
debated Bob Dole in numerous debates. Bill Clinton was the only second Democratic President in the
20th century to win a second term. The first was Franklin Roosevelt. He or Clinton moved on the right
on many issues in order for him to gain votes. Economic growth and many reforms by 1996 propelled
Bill Clinton to victory.

He was inaugurated on January 20, 1997. By 1997, Bill Clinton had some of his greatest
accomplishments. In the January 1997 State of the Union address, Clinton proposed a new initiative to
provide health coverage to up to five million children. Senators Ted Kennedy—a Democrat—and
Orrin Hatch—a Republican—teamed up with Hillary Rodham Clinton and her staff in 1997, and
succeeded in passing legislation forming the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), the
largest (successful) health care reform in the years of the Clinton Presidency. That year, Hillary Clinton
shepherded through Congress the Adoption and Safe Families Act and two years later she succeeded in
helping pass the Foster Care Independence Act. In 1997, he signed the balanced budget bill. It was
moderate with tax cuts and tax increases on the wealthiest Americans. Bill Clinton apologized for the
Tuskegee Experiment crime where innocent black people were giving syphilis without their permission
and untreated for decades since 1932. He apologized for America’s involvement in the trans-Atlantic
slave trade in 1998. He promoted a Presidential Race Initiative in order to attack racism and promote
interracial dialogue. Historian John Hope Franklin headed the program and it was going forward. There
were powerful debates on race and solutions.

By 1998, Bill Clinton’s Presidency would change. Bill Clinton by January 20, 1998 initially denied a
sexual relationship with Monica Lewinsky, who was a White House intern at the time. Later, he
admitted it and he committed adultery. This scandal would spread and many Republicans wanted
Clinton to be impeached for lying under oath. By 1998, the budget has a surplus for the first time since
1969. Clinton supported the Good Friday Peace Accords among Catholic and Protestant leaders in
Northern Ireland. In August of 1998, Osama bin Laden and his forces attacked U.S. embassies in
Kenya and Tanzania. Osama bin Laden lived in Afghanistan. Later, Bill Clinton would lead bombing
strikes in Sudan and Afghanistan. Most of the American public supported Bill Clinton during the
Lewinsky scandal. Bill Clinton apologized and Jesse Jackson was his counsel on the affair. Clinton’s
popularity soared into new heights by 1999. Clinton will not be impeached by the Senate in 1999.
NATO and U.S. bombing in Serbia started in 1999. Clinton accused Serbia of being involved of ethnic
cleansing of Albanians. He accused Slobodan Milosevic of being a war criminal. The NATO bombings
were controversial since NATO bombed civilian locations not just military targets. In 1999, Clinton
signed into law the Financial Services Modernization Act also known as the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act,
which repealed the part of the Glass–Steagall Act that had prohibited a bank from offering a full range
of investment, commercial banking, and insurance services since its enactment in 1933.
Bill Clinton continued to try to find peace among Israelis and Palestinians from 1998 into the 21st
century. The USS Cole was bombed in Yemen in October 12, 2000. The end of the Clinton
administration saw large peacetime economic growth. Much of that growth came into the lives of
Americans. Also, much of that growth involves low wage jobs. The stock market grew. There was a
new era of change. The end of the Clinton administration saw new changes, new possibilities, and the
increased polarization of the American people. The Congressional Budget Office reported a budget
surplus between the years 1998 and 2000, the last three years of Clinton's presidency. Bill Clinton has
great intelligence and he is one of the most astute political figures in American history. Also, he has his
centrist streak that didn’t go far enough at times to make the Dream real. Clinton left office with the
highest end-of-office approval rating of any U.S. president since World War II. Clinton presided over
the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history.

Many African Americans made great accomplishments during his Presidency and many African
Americans suffered during that era too (especially involving the prison industrial complex). Today, we
know the truth about Bill Clinton. He is a capitalist politician who has done many policies that
represented the transitional period after the Cold War and before 9/11. Many of his policies are
antithetical to the interests of people of black African descent without question. The Clinton Presidency
represented the resiliency of the black community and how far that we had to go in the fight for
freedom and justice.
 OJ

One of the most debated topics involving American history has been about OJ. To this very day, people
discuss about his life. His story, as others have mentioned, is an American story. His life proves that
many believe in the delusion that wealth equals happiness and just because some may allow you to have
massive material items doesn’t mean that these same people respect you as an equal. OJ Simpson has
self-hatred and this is shown by his erratic actions, his total downplaying of his Blackness, and his
unresolved insecurities. He knew the truth about racism and the system of oppression, but he made a
conscious decision to ignore the important issues of our community. One example was found in 1969.
OJ told NY Times journalist Robert Lipstye a story. He was in Joe Namath’s bar called Bachelors III in
New York. He was in a table of mostly black people. “He overheard a white woman at the next table
saying, ‘Look, there’s O.J. sitting with all those n____s,’” Lipsyte told ESPN. “I remember in my
naiveté, saying to O.J., ‘Gee, wow, that must have been terrible for you.’ And he said, ‘No, it was great.
Don’t you understand? She knew that I wasn’t black. She saw me as O.J.’” Former SWAT Officer Pete
Weireter, who recalls Simpson asking, “What are all these n___s doing in Brentwood?” after his famous
car chase on June 17, 1994. There are other stories like this which showed OJ Simpson’s sad, disturbing
internal self-hatred. In a paradoxically way, OJ Simpson is a representation of the racism,
contradictions, and the total anti-black nature of the capitalist Western system.

To begin, OJ Simpson was born in San Francisco, California in 1947. He was raised in the housing
projects of Potero Hill in San Francisco. He was raised by his mother. His mentor Willie Mays (who is
one of the greatest baseball players in history) saved his life from the situations in low income areas. He
started to play football. He played in USC in college and played for the Buffalo Bills by 1969. He was
one of the greatest players in football history. He went to the NFL Pro Bowl 5 Times (from 1972 to
1976). He won MVP in 1973. He was the rushing leader 4 times and was the rushing touchdown leader
2 times. He was the fastest player to get 2,000 rushing yards in one season. OJ was acceptable to many.

His first wife was a gorgeous black woman whose name is Marguerite L. Whitley. With a black wife and
children, it wasn’t enough for OJ. So, he started to make the great mistake of using adultery against his
first kindhearted wife. OJ Simpson dated Nicole Brown in 1977 (while OJ was married to Marguerite).
She or Nicole was a waitress in a nightclub called Daisy. Adultery is always wrong and evil. Then, the
divorce happened in 1979. He married Nicole Brown in February 2, 1985. By that time, he retired from
football. He was in commercials, he was in movies (including TV shows), and he thought
psychologically that he was immune from the system of white racism. He internalized a lot of naiveté
and ignored the truth that black people in this country are scrutinized heavily and targeted by the
capitalist order for exploitation. OJ Simpson didn’t just do adultery. He committed domestic violence
against Nicole Brown on multiple occasions, which is wrong too. His life would change forever in 1994.
On June 13, 1994, the bodies of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Lyle Goldman were found outside
of Simpson’s Brentwood townhouse. Their bodies were very bloody. 3 days later, OJ Simpson was on a
car chase with the police. His former USC teammate Al Cowlings was with him in the vehicle.
According to Al Cowlings, he talked OJ Simpson out of committing suicide. The car chase was
televised internationally. After the chase, OJ Simpson was arrested at his mansion and OJ was charged
with the murder of his ex-wife including her friend. The country back then was in shock over a
previously beloved person (especially beloved by many in white America and in black America) found
accused of murder. OJ Simpson would plead not guilty to all charges on June 20, 1994. The hearing
came about in June 1994. The judge, who presided over the case, was Judge Lance A. Ito. Simpson's
preliminary hearing was held.

Prosecutors wouldn't seek the death penalty against OJ as they said in September 9, 1994. They wanted
him to be in prison for life without parole. More than 200 prospective jurors reported for duty as the
trial of OJ. Simpson started in late September 1994. The jury was made of mostly black men and black
women. Ultimately, the jury was made up of 9 black people, 2 white people, and one Latino person.
They are sworn as jurors on November 3, 1994. They are sequestered in a secret location by January 9,
1995. The trial is televised worldwide. Much of the coverage is shown every single day on various
networks or channels. The leading prosecutors in the case were Deputy District Attorney Marcia Clark
and Christopher Darden. On January 24, 1995, the prosecution presents the argument that since OJ
couldn’t control Nicole Brown Simpson, he murdered her and her friend out of malice and jealousy.
The prosecution also said that DNA analysis has shown Simpson's blood at the scene of the crime, then
OJ Simpson is guilty.

Much of the evidence that the prosecution has shown to the jurors like the — bloody glove, bloody
socks, blood in and on the Bronco — was discovered by Los Angeles Police Detective Mark Fuhrman.
The bloody shoe prints at the crime scene were identified by FBI shoe expert William Bodziak as
having been made by a pair of extremely rare and expensive Bruno Magli shoes; only 29 pairs of this
style were sold in the United States. The large size 12 (305 mm) prints matched Simpson's shoe size. OJ
soon released his book in 1995 called “I Want to Tell You.” The Defense team is led by Defense
attorney Johnnie L. Cochran Jr. Many labeled the defense team as the dream team which included very
popular lawyers like F. Lee Bailey, Alan Dershowitz, Robert Kardashian, Shawn Holley, Carl E.
Douglas, and Gerald Uelmen. Barry Scheck and Peter Neufeld were two additional attorneys who
specialized in DNA evidence. Johnny Cochran said that the DNA evidence is corrupted and issued
other words in his opening statement that makes him believe that OJ Simpson is innocent (on January
30, 1995).

Two attorneys specializing in DNA evidence, Barry Scheck and Peter Neufeld, were hired to attempt to
discredit the prosecution's DNA evidence. Cochran and the defense team also said that misconduct by
the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) is related to systemic racism. Many LAPD people came on
the witness stand like Officer Robert Riske of the LAPD. He said that he picked up Nicole’s phone
without glove and without dusting it for fingerprints. By February, the jurors, Judge Ito and attorney
visited the Simpson Rockingham Avenue home, the crime scene, and other locations. The prosecution
lost the case in part because of Mark Fuhrman. Fuhrman was a gift to the defense team. Fuhrman was a
LAPD Detective. He was cross examined by attorney F. Lee Bailey. He or Fuhrman lied and denied
making racist comments and dismissed the suggestion that he messed with evidence involving the
murder investigation of OJ Simpson. He committed perjury and new tapes have shown him making
racist remarks.

On March 21, 1995, Brian “Kato” Kaelin took the stand about the hours before the stabbings of Nicole
Brown Simpson and Ronald Lyle Goldman. LAPD criminalist Dennis Fund admitted under oath that
errors were made at the crime scene on April 4, 1995. DNA evidence is researched and told by
Cellmark Diagnostics lab director Robin Cotton. By early June of 1995, jurors saw the autopsy
photographs of the 2 victims. On June 15, 1995, OJ Simpson tried on the gloves. He said that they are
too tight. On July, the prosecution via Marcia Clark said that the people rest. Then, the defense used its
argument. Arnelle Simpson (or the daughter of OJ Simpson) testified on her father’s behalf in the trial.
Arnelle supports her father completely. The defense shows blood samples that they claim that the
prosecution didn’t show. Later, on August 1995, it is revealed by Screenwriter Laura Hart Mckinny that
Mark Fuhrman used racial slurs and gloated about police brutality (as found on tape). In September
1995, Mark Fuhrman pleaded the 5th Amendment against self-incrimination after asked by defense
lawyers who charged that he framed OJ Simpson. He refused to answer the questions but cited the 5th
Amendment.

Judge Ito ordered the prosecution to begin its rebuttal even though the defense hasn’t rested yet on
September 12, 1995. Both sides rest their cases in September 22, 1995. Prosecutors Marcia Clark and
Christopher Darden delivered their final arguments on September 27, 1995. Defense attorneys Johnnie
Cochran Jr. and Barry Scheck delivered their closing argument. “If it doesn’t fit, you must acquit,”
Cochran told the jury. Marcia Clark released 911 tapes of Nicole Simpson calling for help because of
domestic violence abuse on 1989 and on 1993. On October 3, 1995, the verdict is read.
OJ Simpson is found by the jury to be not guilty. I
was in the 7th grade in my classroom when the
verdict was read. The classroom had used the
television to allow the entire classroom to witness
the verdict of the trial. Many black people in
America cheered and many white people were
shocked by the verdict. It showed the racial
disagreements on the same issues that continue to
this very day. It represented how controversial the
judicial system is. For a long time, many black
people have been falsely convicted over crimes
and OJ Simpson was a black man who was not
convicted by a jury. Back then, most black
Americans viewed him as innocent and most
white Americans viewed him as guilty. According
to a 2016 poll, 83% of white Americans and 57%
of black Americans believe Simpson was guilty of
the murders. OJ Simpson was found liable for the
deaths of Nicole Brown Simpson and Ron
Goldman on February 5, 1997. So, he has to pay
restitution. The money is about $33.5 million in
damages. He has other legal troubles. The major
legal trouble was 2007 robbery. OJ Simpson and a
group of men stole some of his memorabilia
items. Later, he is convicted and he claims that
another person used a gun on another person. At
his parole hearing on July 20, 2017, the board
decided to grant Simpson parole. His release date
is October 1, 2017. He will have served nine years.
His life has been filled with chaos and bizarre
situations. Today, OJ Simpson is out of prison
and lives in Nevada. He plans to move to Florida.
Since we know the truth about his life, many
people have renewed interest about this story.
There is In FX's cable TV mini-series “The
People v. O.J. Simpson: American Crime Story”
(February 2016), based on Jeffrey Toobin's book
The Run of His Life: The People v. O. J. Simpson
(1997). In the mini-series, Simpson is portrayed by
Cuba Gooding Jr. The documentary mini-series,
O.J.: Made in America (released January 22, 2016
at Sundance), directed by Ezra Edelman and
produced by Laylow Films, is an American 5-part,
7.5-hour film that previewed at the Tribeca and
Sundance Film Festival. Also, it was aired as part
of the 30 for 30 series airing on the ABC and
ESPN sister networks. I like the 30 for 30 series
from ESPN myself.
The documentary O.J.: Made in America didn’t just talk about race, celebrity, and race relations in Los
Angeles. It exposed the brutal Drug War and the evils of police brutality including other injustices going
on in America (like the problems found in the incarceration state) back then and today. The film won a
2017 Academy Award for best Documentary Feature. Tons of people have said that it is a great
documentary. The tragedy of OJ Simpson is that he expressed an askance attitude for many
black people and ironically enough most people that truly cared for the man has been black
people (which includes his family). He tried to promote the myth that success and fame makes you
immune to the problems of the black collective. Later, he made serious mistakes that almost made
him serve life in prison. His story is a lesson and a warning that naiveté is never an option for anyone to
embrace, adultery is evil, the love of Blackness is sacrosanct, and it shows the importance of
commitment to justice is a legitimate path to follow.

The fantasy of post racialism has been fully exposed to the world with the OJ Simpson life story. OJ is a
reflection of America’s criminality since its inception, because many in America have used massive
criminality (especially against Native Americans, black people, etc.). In a way, OJ is a representation of
the sickness of how racism, racial-self-hatred, and oppression can manifest itself in unique ways. Some
even use OJ as an excuse to promote the racist myth that criminality is exclusive to black people, but
the truth is that one male's acts should never be blamed on all black people. It is truly sad that some
people so obsess with fame and fortune that they lose their sense of self. Yes, we aren’t OJ (who is a
black man who is in Nevada now. I wish no evil to come upon him. My only wish for OJ is for him to
wake up for real).

We are human beings who see the value in our black minds, our black bodies,
and our black souls. That is why those of our people with self-hatred need
therapy, healing, and real, honest talk so they can end their self-hatred. We love
our Blackness unconditionally. We love Africa greatly too.
 More Events of the 1990's
President George H. W. Bush chosen Clarence Thomas to be nominated to court after Thurgood
Marshall retired from the bench. Bush thought Thomas would be easily confirmed, but that wasn’t the
case. Marshall was a progressive and Thomas was a conservative. George H. W. Bush was a
conservative President, but he was much more liberal than his predecessor Ronald Reagan. Bush did
what he did since he wanted the advance the interests of black conservatives and black
neoconservatives when most African Americans were neither. Thomas worked many years in the
Reagan Administration with Anita Hill. Anita Hill later accused him of sexual harassment and gender
discrimination. Anita Hill brought her testimony to the Senate Judiciary Committee. Her testimony did
a positive thing in bringing more awareness to the evil of sexual harassment in the workplace and in life
in general. Many people supported Hill and others opposed her. Yet, she has been consistent in her
story and recently, more women have accused Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment. Thomas accused
liberals of using a “high tech lynching” because of his political philosophy, but sexual harassment is an
evil that must be addressed and eradicated without apology.

His nomination was challenged, but he was confirmed. Thomas would go on and be a conservative on
the court like Alito. Many conservatives always genuflect Clarence Thomas. The truth is that Clarence
Thomas not only opposed affirmative action. He supported a decision to gut parts of the Voting Rights
Act. The truth is that Clarence Thomas is a hypocrite by benefiting from affirmative action, but he
opposes it. He claims to be supportive of the interests of the people, but he was an attorney with the
Monsanto Chemical Company in St. Louis, Missouri. In cases regarding the Fourth Amendment, which
prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures, Thomas often favors police over defendants. I don't agree
with his judicial philosophy.

Thomas is an ally of many white conservatives who desire not black liberation or even economic justice,
but a return to the bad old days where environmental protections are gutted and the agenda of states'
rights (which white supremacists used to oppress black people) are promoted over human rights. He
represents a far right movement among some black people who desire the gutting of the Voting Rights
Act, the ignoring of the necessity to fight for social justice, and the right wing backlash against the
progressive victories that we won (these victories include Social Security, the Voting Rights Act, the
Civil Rights Act, the Clean Air Act, Medicaid, Medicare, etc.). Anita Hill continues to speak up for the
rights of women (many women came into Congress because of her testimony) and she continues to
inspire many people globally.

It has been over 25 years since the LA rebellions of 1992, but I remember it just like yesterday. I was 8
and a half years old when it occurred. The rebellion didn’t happened because one of one event. It
occurred by a combination of complex social and economic reasons. Los Angeles was born centuries
ago and by the 1980’s, Los Angeles was changing. That time saw the rise of economic inequality,
deindustrialization, the epidemic of police excessive usage of force against citizens, and new ethnic
dynamics. One aspect of this dynamic was the growth of Korean businesses in predominately African
American communities. Many Koreans back then were recent immigrants to America. Many black
people felt that Koreans exploited black people and refused to give black people jobs in their stores.
Many Koreans underestimated the vicious cycle of racial oppression that black people were
experiencing (for decades in LA). The Korean population was divided among liberal Koreans who
sincerely wanted racial reconciliation and human justice and more conservative Koreans who desired a
more law and order philosophy (many of them heavily supported the Republican Party). Police mistrust
is now new in Los Angeles. The Watts rebellion of 1965 came after decades of police terrorism and
housing plus job discrimination against human beings.

The “tough on crime” rhetoric and the further militarization of police agencies continued since the
1960’s. Many SWAT Team units massively grew since the 1960’s rebellions. Nixon promoted “law and
order” including Reagan. This was an overt attack not only on black activism for change, but on the
Warren court decisions that gave people constitutional protections from unlawful arrest and from the
violation of habeas corpus rights. The underground drug trade, the War on Drugs (which was used as a
pretext to dismantle many democratic rights especially under the Reagan administration), the prison
industrial complex, continued poverty in poor areas, and gangs who enacted unjust violence exacerbated
the tensions in Los Angeles. By the 1970’s, the post-World War II boom ended. Police state power in
America grew along with police brutality (against black people, Latino people, etc.). This was mixed
with massive union busting, unequal consumer services, lax educational services, layoffs, and cutbacks
in social programs. Desperation was in the air by the 1980’s and early 1990’s. This entire situation
caused an explosion of hurt, pain, and rebellion. The LA rebellion was done by black people, Latino
people, and others.
Also, many racial and police related incidents accelerated the cause of the 1992 Los Angeles rebellion.
One was Latisha Harlins (who was an innocent black girl) being killed by one Korean store owner. She
was only 15. First, Soon Ja Du owned the Empire Liquor store. Harlins had money and put a bottle of
orange juice in her backpack. Du falsely believed that Harlins wanted to steal when Harlins had money
in her hand. Du grabbed Harlins by the sweater and snatched her backpack. Harlins used self-defense
and struck Du 3 times with her fist. Harlins walked away. Later, the orange juice was dropped during
the event. Du snatched the bottle from her. Harlins starts to leave and Du got a handgun to murder her
in cold blood in the back of her head. She died instantly. This was in March 16, 1991. Later, the court
only found her guilty of voluntary manslaughter. She was only given 5 years’ probation and 400 hours
of community service plus a $500. This was a total injustice. Tupac dedicated a song to Latasha Harlins
in his song “Keep Ya Head up” and other songs. Ice Cube made a song about the incident in the song
“Black Korea” from his album Death Certificate.

District Attorney Ira Reiner denounced Judge Karlin and pledged to use an unusual California law to
bar her from trying criminal cases. "This was such a stunning miscarriage of justice that Judge Karlin
cannot continue to hear criminal cases with any public credibility," he asserted. Denise (or Harlins’ aunt)
tried her best to recall the Judge Karlin, but she was unsuccessful. The Harlins family held vigils outside
the Du residence every year on the anniversary of her sentencing.

RIP Sister Latasha Harlins

The unjust beating of Rodney King by police terrorists ignited the rebellion also. The evening started in
the evening of March 3, 1991. Rodney King had a high speed chase. He traveled through Lakeview
Terrace in LA. Later, he came into a stop.

After the two passengers were placed in the patrol car, five white Los Angeles Police Department
(LAPD) officers – Stacey Koon, Laurence Powell, Timothy Wind, Theodore Briseno, and Rolando
Solano – attempted to subdue King, who came out of the car last. Rodney King was tasered and
brutally beaten with batons. Rodney King was severely injured. The video footage was recorded by a
camcorder by a local resident named George Holliday from his apartment in the vicinity. It was 12
minutes long. Some clips were not released to the public. That footage was shown to the world. People
issued widespread condemnation of the brutal assault against Rodney King. Even the mayor and LAPD
chief of police Daryl Gates condemned the excessive use of force. Minority communities for years and
decades complained about excessive usage of violence against people of color in Los Angeles. Some
hoped that justice would be served and the officers involved in the beating of Rodney King would be in
prison for a long period of time.

Many wanted Gates to resign. Later, there was the independent commission of the incident. The
Independent Commission on the Los Angeles Police Department, informally known as the Christopher
Commission, was formed in April 1991, in the wake of the Rodney King beating, by then-mayor of Los
Angeles Tom Bradley. It was chaired by attorney Warren Christopher (who later became U.S. Secretary
of State under President Bill Clinton). "The commission was created to conduct 'a full and fair
examination of the structure and operation of the LAPD,' including its recruitment and training
practices, internal disciplinary system, and citizen complaint system." This commission was similar to
the Kerner report from the 1960’s. The Christopher Commission exposed how many significant LAPD
officers used excessive force ignoring written guidelines on conduct to citizens. It found that
management in the LAPD prevented accountability. It wanted new standard of accountability to make
sure that people (who are cops) are responsible.

The commission highlighted the problem of "repeat offenders" on the force, finding that of
approximately 1,800 officers against whom an allegation of excessive force or improper tactics was
made from 1986 to 1990, more than 1,400 had only one or two allegations. But 183 officers had four or
more allegations, forty-four had six or more, sixteen had eight or more, and one had sixteen such
allegations. Generally, the forty-four officers with six complaints or more had received positive
performance evaluations that failed to record "sustained" complaints or to discuss their significance.
This was a serious problem and black people have every right to be outraged at this pattern of
oppression against our community. Four officers were charged with assault. The police trial was
changed from Los Angeles County to Simi Valley in Ventura County. Simi Valley is a more conservative
place. The jury was made up of nine whites, one biracial man, one Latino person, and one Asian person.
The prosecutor was Terry White, who was an African American. The trial existed in 1992. On April 29,
1992, the jury acquitted all 4 officers of every charge (They couldn’t agree on a verdict for the fourth
officer charged with using excessive force). This caused shockwaves in the black community. The
justice system has opposed the interests of black people for a long time and this verdict was a turning
point. Director John Singleton, who was in the crowd at the courthouse, predicted, "By having this
verdict, what these people done, they lit the fuse to a bomb." The rebellion happened from April 29,
1992 to May 4, 1992.

The rebellion peaked in the next 2 days. April 29 was on a Wednesday. A dusk to dawn curfew and the
deployment of the California Army National Guard eventually caused the rebellion to end. 63 people
died during the event including 8 being killed by the police including 2 killed by guardsmen. As many as
2,383 people were reported injured. Estimates of the material losses vary between about $800 million
and $1 billion. Approximately 3,600 fires were set, destroying 1,100 buildings, with fire calls coming
once every minute at some points. Widespread looting also occurred. Stores owned by Koreans and
other Asian ethnicities were widely targeted. On April 29, 2/3 of the LAPD were in Ventura, CA or out
of town. The verdict came in 3:15 pm. By 3:45, more than 300 people appeared at the Los Angeles
County Courthouse to protest the verdict. Anger and some incident happened in the Florence Avenue
area. Mayor Bradley deplored the verdict, but wanted people to use calm without violence. At Florence
and Halldale, 2 officers wanted assistance to arrest a young suspect. They arrive and arrested the youth.
The young man was roughly handled and his name was 16 year old Seandel Daniels. The crowd berated
the police as Daniels was known in the community. Bart Bartholomew (who was later attacked and had
his driver side window broken), a freelance photographer for The New York Times, and Timothy
Goldman, who began to record events with a camcorder over the next two hours. Lieutenant Moulin
ordered the officers out of the area since he feared that the police would use deadly force. The officers
were outnumbered and left. They didn’t have riot equipment. The crowd celebrated and moved south
to Florence and Normandie. A liquor store named Tom’s Liquor was broken into by over 100
people. As Timothy Goldman continued to record the scene on a personal camcorder, the Los Angeles
News Service team of Marika Gerrard and Robert Tur arrived overhead in a news helicopter,
broadcasting from the air. Henry Watson and other men assaulted Larry Tarvin, who was a truck driver.
Many people beat up Asians and whites. An African American named Rodney helped Larry Tarvin to
escape. The attack on Reginald Denny was at 6:46 pm. He was another truck driver. A group of black
individuals almost beat him to death. Damian Williams threw a brick at Denny that struck him in the
skull, fracturing it in 91 places. One black man, Bobby Green Jr. of South Central LA saved Denny’s
life. Fidel Lopez, a self-employed construction worker and Guatemalan immigrant, was pulled from his
GMC pickup truck and robbed of nearly $2,000. Members of the rioters including Damian Williams
smashed his forehead open with a car stereo as another rioter attempted to slice his ear off. He was
spray painted black in his body.
 The 1992 Los Angeles Rebellion Changed America forever Another black man saved Lopez's
life. Many people protested and used
violence in Parker Center. Many
turned over vehicles and set objects
ablaze. Firefighters were shot at by
people. One firefighter was shot in
the stomach. The first of the
National Guard units, the 670th
Military Police Company, had
traveled almost 300 miles (480
kilometers) from its main armory and
arrived in the afternoon to assist local
police. They were initially deployed
to a police command center and they
began handing out bulletproof vests
to the firefighters after encountering
the unit whose member had been
shot. Later the same evening, after
These are some of the California National Guardsmen patrolling receiving ammunition from the LA
the city as a way for them to end the rebellion in 1992. Police Academy and a local gun
store, the MPs deployed to hold the
Date: From April 29 to May 4, 1992 Martin Luther King Shopping Mall in
Watts. People protested and threw
Location: rocks in Lake View Terrace, LA. The
Los Angeles County, California
curfew from Mayor Tom Bradley
Caused The two injustices of the murder of Sister Latasha came on Thursday. The rebellion
by: Harlins and the original unjust acquittal of four spread into Central Los Angeles
policemen who beat Rodney King.
from South Central. It came into
Hollywood too. Then, it went south
into Inglewood, Hawthorne, Compton, and Long Beach (which are cities in Southern California).
Korean Americans used groups of gun armed people to protect their stores too. There were open gun
battles between Koreans and others involved in the rebellion. Then President George H. W. Bush
opposed the rebellion and allowed the California Army National Guard to intervene.

On May 1, 1992, Rodney King at an impromptu news conference in front of his lawyer's Los Angeles
offices on Wilshire & Doheny, tearfully saying, "People, I just want to say, you know, can we all get
along?" Governor Pete Wilson wanted federal assistance. Bush invoked the Insurrection Act via
Executive Order 12804. This allowed federalized Army National Guard and federal military personnel
to come. The military came and many sports events were postponed. On May 2, 30,000 people attended
a peace rally in Koreatown to support local merchants and support racial healing, around 11 am. The
crisis calmed down by Sunday. During the aftermath, thousands of people in Los Angeles cleaned up
their communities. Few violent incidents continued days later. Schools, banks, and businesses reopened.
To Korean Americans, this event was Sa-I-Gu or four-two-nine” in Korean (which was the date of
April 29, 1992). Ironically enough, the rebellion increased political activism of Korean Americans and
other ethnic groups. Some wanted to unite with other minorities in LA to fight racial oppression and
scapegoating, which were liberal Koreans. Others wanted to promote economic and social policies of
the Republican Party. The Koreans wanted to advance their political causes just like African Americans
wanted to promote our political causes. Also, it is important to respect the black people’s legitimate
grievance of advancing more black owned enterprises in mostly black communities too. In other words,
many black people felt that many Korean store owners disregarded the cultural sensibilities and the
economic rights of black Americans in the black community. Latino people were involved in the
rebellion too.

Many black people and Latino people united during the time for the sake of opposing political
disenfranchisement and economic oppression. The rebellion was a multiethnic affair. Many Korean
American, African American, and Latino American stores were destroyed in the rebellion. The rebellion
existed by complex reasons of urban denial of legitimate services, police brutality, corporate
exploitation, ethnic tensions, and economic inequality. The African-American Congressional
representative of South Central Los Angeles, Democrat Maxine Waters, said that the events in
L.A. constituted a "rebellion" or "insurrection" caused by the underlying reality of poverty and
despair existing in the inner city. This state of affairs, she asserted, were brought about by a
government which had all but abandoned the poor through the loss of local jobs and by the
institutional discrimination encountered by people of racial minorities, especially at the hands of the
police and financial institutions. She is 100 percent right. The criminal officers, who beaten Rodney
King, were tried again on federal charges of this violation of civil rights. The decision came on April 17,
1993. Two officers—Officer Laurence Powell and Sergeant Stacey Koon—were found guilty, while
officers Theodore Briseno and Timothy Wind were acquitted.

Rodney King was awarded $3.8 million in damages from the City of Los Angeles for the attack. Many
organizations stepped forward to rebuild Los Angeles; South Central's Operation Hope and
Koreatown's Saigu and KCCD (Korean Churches for Community Development), all raised millions to
repair destruction and improve economic development. Many donations helped people to rebuild LA,
but most of the local stores in the poorest areas were never rebuilt. Rodney King would pass away by an
accidental drowning on June 17, 2012. 25 years later, racial tensions have improved in Los Angeles. Yet,
economic inequality has grown since that time. The reason is that the middle class has declined since
1992. More middle class people live in the suburbs. Also, there is an increase of tech and service jobs
(mostly gotten by the upper class and the rich) which many poor residents readily don’t have access to.
The report by the UCLA Luskin School of Public Affairs concluded that unemployment and poverty
have worsened in some areas, and per-capita retail sales have dropped, due partially to a lack of large
stores. Homelessness is still a problem in Los Angeles.

The black population has radically declined in LA. From 1992–2007, the black population dropped by
123,000, while the Latino population grew more than 450,000. According to the Los Angeles police
statistics, violent crime fell by 76% between 1992 and 2010 and tensions between racial groups have
lessened; 60% of residents (like Dee Young) reported racial tension has improved in the past 20 years
with decreasing gang activity. Likewise, police brutality is a problem in America. Groups like Black
Lives Matter made the world see this problem also. The 1992 rebellion in LA was a prelude to future
rebellions in Ferguson (in 2014) and Baltimore (in 2015). It was a reminder that we must fight for our
rights in order to have freedom.
 Part of this freedom is about advancing black liberation.

The Million Man March

The Million Man March took place on October 15, 1995. I was in the seventh grade when it took place.
I saw the coverage of it on TV in my middle school classroom. Before the march, there was the
movement for the establishment of such a march. By the early 1990’s, the crime rates in America
declined, yet more repressive bills existed which expanded the prison industrial complex, racial
profiling, and continued police brutality. Environmental hazards existed in many poor, black
neighborhoods and the poverty rate was high for many black Americans back then. It is important to
recognize the long legacy of black activism for liberation which involved the African Blood
Brotherhood, members of the OAAU, members of the UNIA, pan-African movements, Hubert
Harrison, Assata Shakur, Ella Baker, Robert F. Williams, the Deacons of Defense, etc. As early as the
1980’s, new civil rights leaders existed. Some people even wanted to blame black people for every
problem in the black community, which is ludicrous under the guise of “personal responsibility.” This
disgusting blame of black people collectively continues today by many claiming to be “conscious” but
they aren’t. They are faux conscious self-haters (who disgracefully either blame black women or black
men collectively for all evils in the black community instead of racism, capitalism, sexism, economic
injustice, and other systems of oppression) who exist in YouTube and in other arenas too. Debates
continued and a crisis leadership manifested in Black America by the early 1990’s. The 1994 Republican
takeover of Congress and the GOP’s Contract with America caused the growth of the conservative
movement in America.

The 1994 black leadership summit had discussions among the old school desegregationists and the
younger generation of progressive black leaders. Also, C. Delores Tucker, Joe Madison (a radio
commentator), and Dick Gregory criticized hip hop music that advanced misogyny and a glamorization
of violence. As hip hop grew, some in the older generation sometimes lacked a sophisticated
understanding of hip hop's diversity and many positive qualities of some hip hop artists (like Arrested
Development, Kurtis Blow, MC Lyte, Lauryn Hill, Ladybug Mecca, Bahamadia, etc.). Conversely, many
hip hop artists refused to realize that the N word, glamorizing unjust violence, and debasing black
women in lyrics are the antithesis of Blackness or black empowerment. In order words, artists like
NWA, Snoop Dogg, Ice Cube, and others are completely wrong in using every anti-black word and
anti-black woman word imaginable in their lyrics. We have to confront anyone who degrades black
people. More black men on a higher level have to confront black males who are ruining our
communities for real. One of the silliest arguments in the world is that some artists say that they use
degrading lyrics to reflect what they see in the world as a mirror. The truth is that a mirror is to show
what is real and a mirror can be used to correct what you see too. Therefore, we can easily describe the
harsh problems of society without misogynistic lyrics and without anti-black, colorist lyrics.

By the 1990’s, Louis Farrakhan (whose views are very similar to the views of the famous conservative
Booker T. Washington) gained much more acceptance in some segments of the black community. He is
the leader of the Nation of Islam and many of his views are blatantly patriarchal and conservative. As
early as December 1994, he called for a million black men to come into Washington, D.C. in order to
promote atonement among black men and calling black men to have more involvement in their families
and communities. The movement wanted black women to participate in it, but not have direct
leadership or a leading participation in the march. This caused controversy as many black women
criticized Farrakhan for refusing to allow black women to be leaders in this movement as black women
are the backbone of the black freedom struggle. In every era of black history, Black Women were in a
leading role in organizing for social change. Sexism, xenophobia, and any form of bigotry are
antithetical to being Pro-Black.

There is a long history of many black conservative fundamentalists not only embracing patriarchal
supremacism, but allying with white supremacists (one example is how Elijah Muhammad allowed Neo-
Nazi Lincoln Rockwell to be in Chicago in the NOI rally back in the 1960’s. Far right white
conservative and Texas oilman H. L. Hunt gave money to the Nation of Islam decades ago too. H.L.
Hunt’s full name was Haroldson Lafayette Hunt). Also, it is important to honor our black African
features. Our dark skin, kinky hair, and noses are blessings from the Creator God point blank period
exclamation point. Benjamin Chavis was another leader of the Million Man March too. Chavis left the
NAACP and a great civil rights legend Myrlie Evers-Williams was the new leader of the NAACP in
1995. She brought the NAACP into new growth and organizational strength. Myrlie Evers-Williams is a
heroic black woman. Farrakhan was unique in having already strong ties in the hip hop industry and his
action to organize gang truces.

So, he appealed to the youth with his message of black pride, but many people ignored his other
massively conservative ideologies. Later, many liberals and progressives from Jesse Jackson to Cornel
West joined in the march. Most African Americans supported the march. A minority of feminists,
progressives, and other leftists accused Farrakhan of being racist, sexist, anti-Semitic, separatist, and
homophobic (It is important to note that in American history, the most homophobic group of people
aren't black people, but white supremacists or white racists. Also, it is important to note that some black
people unfortunately have bigotry against many people and that bigotry must always be opposed and
condemned 100 percent. It is the responsibility of black men to fight against misogynoir, because we
have to be part of the solution). So, it is wrong to collectively slander black women and it is wrong to
collectively slander black men too. Black women and Black men deserve justice and black liberation 100
percent.
The Million Man March was large. The founder of the National African American Leadership Summit,
Dr. Benjamin Chavis, Jr. served as National Director of the Million Man March. One million black
people including children traveled on planes, cars, and buses to Washington D.C. on October 1995. It
was a day of massive solidarity. Women speakers were there from Maya Angelou, Rosa Parks, Faye
Williams (who was a D.C. attorney) and Dorothy I. Height. It was the largest African American rally in
Washington, D.C. in American history. It was a peaceful rally that stood up for responsibility, against
intraracial violence, and advanced a call to action. The Million Man March was a success. Bill Clinton,
Newt Gingrich, Bob Dole, and other conservatives and DLC Democrats supported the ideologies of
the march (not necessarily Louis Farrakhan) because the march played on many conservative themes of
nuclear family promotion and a sense of personal responsibility.

That is why it is no secret that the black Right and the white Right agree on advancing capitalist
economics, patriarchy, self-help, less government involvement, and a conservative interpretation of
morality. Many black people in the rally were sincere in fighting against the evils in the world and
advancing positive solutions to complicated problems in the black community. Many wanted to
legitimately oppose the slander that all black men were drug trafficking, violent, and extreme criminals
who wanted to harm people. The truth is that there are tons of black men and black women who are
scholars, teachers, athletes, engineers, doctors, lawyers, and other positive role models in the world.
One aspect of the result of the march was the growth of voter registration in the black community.

On the same day, there was a parallel event called the Day of Absence, organized by female leaders in
conjunction with the March leadership, which was intended to engage the large population of black
Americans who would not be able to attend the demonstration in Washington. On this date, all black
human beings were encouraged to stay home from their usual school, work, and social engagements, in
favor of attending teach-ins, and worship services, focusing on the struggle for a healthy and self-
sufficient black community. Furthermore, organizers of the Day of Absence hoped to use the occasion
to make great headway on their voter registration drive. The Million March included black people of
diverse views. Overall, the march wanted black men to have atonement to God and enrich his
communities. Louis Farrakhan is a great orator and he gave a very eloquent speech during the March.
The 20th Anniversary of the Million Man March was more inclusionary and it was called Justice or Else
on October 2015. Before that march, many women had marches of their own in Philadelphia and the
youth march came about in NYC. The legacy of the Million Man March was that it made more visible
the concerns of many black men and it represented the internal debates about where to go as it relates
to the black American community. It also exposed the truth that black women deserve to exist in
leadership too not just black men. One big mistake of the march was that it downplayed the leadership
history and leadership legacy of black women.
The Black Radical Congress existed to promote progressive activism in the black community during the
late 1990’s. For many who traveled into Washington, D.C. during the 1995 Million Man March, it
changed their lives forever. Many people became better people and further inspired to care for their
families and communities. Atonement is an interesting concept. There is nothing wrong with rectifying
our individual mistakes. Yet, we should never atone for the crimes commented by the oppressors
against black people, working people, and the poor. In other words, “personal responsibility” is not
responsible for police terror, unemployment, assaults on health care, etc. That is why I reject
respectability politics 100 percent.

These evils are caused by the capitalist system. The truth is that there must be a class analysis of the
problems in our community and any solution requires the unification of the poor and working class (in
the formation of a cohesive political agenda). There must be a political and economic program that
addresses poverty and other injustices in order for true black liberation to exist. Many sincere black
people were in the Million Man March in order to be inspired to be better men. That is true. Anyone
blaming black people collectively for their own oppression is a liar. While we believe in black liberation,
we don’t believe that black liberation is not related to the oppression of others. In order words, we
reject reactionary politics. We believe in progressive solutions.
 African American music and culture of the 1990's

Music and culture from black people during the 1990’s represented creativity and dynamic talent. It was
the decade of the growth of iconic groups. 1990’s was the time of my childhood and music from
the 1990’s certainly inspired me in many endeavors of my life. During that decade, hip hop grew
massively in cultural terms, economic terms, and in social terms. Hip hop reached the golden era in its
peak by the 1990’s. Also, African Americans were performing R&B, soul, rock, electronic, dance, pop,
funk, grunge, reggae, country music, techno, neo-soul, and other genres. By the early 1990’s, fusion
genres developed like new jack swing, hip hop soul, g-funk, and neo-soul was supported by people
worldwide. Dance and pop music dominated the decade along with hip hop music as well. By 1990,
many legends passed away like Sarah Vaughan, and Sammy Davis Jr. In 1990, A Tribe Called Quest and
Ice Cube issued their debut albums called People’s Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm and
AmeriKKKa’s Most Wanted. Both albums outlined the diversity and influence of rap music. Kim
Abbleby, who is from the UK, made records in the year of 1990 too. Many black people were in
Eurodance groups and pop groups in general like Technotronic (which had people from Africa and
Belgium) and Black Box, Crystal Waters, and C+C Music Factory. Bell Biv DeVoe debuted their album
as well. Lonnie Gordon is one unsung artist involved in creating creative music.
Women in hip hop have existed since the beginning of hip hop. It is important to cite the contributions
of many women artists of hip hop. There were early women artists like Sha Rock, Lady B, the real
Roxanne, Roxanne Shante, Sparky d, Salt and Pepa, Antionette, JJ Fad, She Rockers, MC Lyte, Queen
Latifah, Sweet Tee, Monie Love, Cookie Crew, Nikki D, Neneh Cherry, MC Luscious, Yo Yo, Dimples
D, and Sister Soujah. More artists who are women included Lisa “Left Eyes” Lopes, Suga T, Mia X,
Ladybug Mecca, Lauryn Hill, Boss, Da Brat, Bahamadia, Heather B, Lil Kim, Charli Baltimore, Foxy
Brown, Jean Grae, Nonchalant, Queen Pen, Missy Elliot, Eve, Lady of Rage, Rah Digga, Trina, and
many other artists. Therefore, hip hop music is always enriched with women performing it.

In the early 1990’s, Jody Whatley performance magnificently.

Another unsung artist was Karyn Layvonne White. During the early
1990’s, MC Hammer made many hits. Mariah Carey had her debut
album called Mariah Carey with her song Vision of Love. She would
go on to have a long lasting career filled with Grammy Awards and
other accomplishments. By 1991, Michael Jackson’s Dangerous
album sold a lot. It focused on many issues of racial tolerance, music,
black history, and other themes. OPP from Naughty by Nature came
Mint Condition is a very out in 1991. Whitney Houston and Prince released music in 1991 as
underated group. It made many well. Tupac would release his debut album of 2Pacalypse Now in
hits during the 1990’s and they 1991. The album from Tupac as ahead of it time by discussing about
continue to go on tours and the Black Panthers, the FBI, police brutality, the value of black life,
make songs to this very day. They and other issues relevant in our communities. Tupac Shakur was
innovated music involving R&B born in East Harlem, NYC in 1971. Her mother was a Black Panther
music. named Afeni Shakur. Afeni was falsely accused of trying to blow up
buildings in NYC. She was acquitted as part of the Panther 21. His
mother taught him about consciousness and reading. Many of Tupac's relatives and friends were tied to
the revolutionary struggle for black liberation. Tupac Shakur moved constantly during his youth. He
moved into Baltimore where he met with his lifelong friend Jada Pinkett Smith. Tupac would learn
about the arts, literature, dancing, and other aspects of living in the Baltimore Performing Arts school
called Baltimore School for the Arts. He moved into Marin City, California. From there, his career in
hip hop would grow into new heights.

The debut album of Boyz II Men existed in 1991. Boyz II Men represented their hometown of
Philadelphia and expressed great ballads dealing with love and romance. Women empowerment always
was shown by Salt-N-Pepa throughout the 1990’s. They desired human expression and they did it with
their songs and music videos. Salt-N-Pepa originally had Latoya Hanson, who was replaced in 1986 by
Deidra Roper ("DJ Spinderella") and this iconic hip hop group continues to love hip hop. In 1992,
Whitney Houston’s The Bodyguard film soundtrack would sell over 45 million copies worldwide. Her
leading single, “I Will Always Love You” became the bestselling single by a female artist of all time. It
sold over 15 million copies. R&B groups like Jade prospered in 1992. From 1992-1995, Atlanta’s Kris
Kross made songs like Warm It Up and Jump Jump. I heard of those songs as a child. In the 1990’s,
TLC made songs about women’s empowerment, love, advice on life, and love of music. Shanice’s “I
Love Your Smile” was a positive record and Shanice is a great Sister. She has a down to Earth
personality and she is very spiritual woman. After NWA broke up (because of disputes over money and
direction), Dr. Dre released his debut album called the Chronic. It sold millions and once again opened
up the debate on rap music. Some black people viewed rap music as an expression of freedom of
speech. Other black people wanted rap music to stop any of its lyrics that glamorized violence and
promoted misogyny. This debate was had by C. Delores Tucker, the NAACP, rap artists themselves,
etc., which continues to this very day near 2020.

This group is MoKenStef

In 1993, Snoop and Wu-Tang Clan released their albums. This caused the further development of hip
hop music. Mariah Carey sold 32 million copies in her Music Box album. Shaggy, Brian McKnight,
Sybil, and Will Smith had records in 1993 too. In 1993, Toni Braxton released her debut album called
Toni Braxton. It was an immediate success and Toni Braxton is one of the greatest signers of our
generation and she was born in Maryland. Toni Braxton loves to sing and her sisters can sing great too.
Xscape’s Just Kickin It came out in 1994. Xscape is based from Atlanta, Georgia. Coolio’s Fantastic
voyage, Michelle Gayle’s Sweetness, and Eternal’s Just a Step from Heaven were released in 1994 too.
In 1994, the Notorious B.I.G. released Ready to Die. It influenced NY-based hip hop. Notorious B.I.G.
was raised in Bedford Stuyvesant, NYC. Soon, the shooting of Tupac Shakur in late 1994 would cause a
dispute among Bad Boy records and Death Row records. This dispute would grow. Cowards murdered
both Tupac Shakur in 1996 and Notorious B.I.G. in 1997. In 1994 and 1995, Brandy started to make
mainstream records. 1995 was influenced by Montel Jordan too. Real McCoy showed pop and dance
music. Adina Howard made her album and songs in 1995 like “Freak Like.” One anthem of the 1990’s
was Des’ree’s 1995 song “You Gotta Be.” Another anthem from TLC would be “Waterfalls” in the
same year including Coolio ft. L.V.’s Gangstas Paradise. In 1995, Michael Jackson released his new
album called HIStory,: Past, Present, and Future, Book 1.”

It had the song “You Are not Alone,” which was the first single ever to enter the Billboard Hot 100 at
number one. One Sweet Day sold tons of records in 1995 having Boyz II Men and Mariah Carey on the
song. The Fugees grew with their album “The Score” back in 1996. Wyclef Jean was a person with
producing gifts. Lauryn Hill was a great lyricist in the group who inspired souls with her conscious
commentaries on issues. Pras was also a great artist too. In 1996, Gabrielle from the UK showed
inspirational music and Total made many soulful music too. Monica gained more popularity in 1995 and
in 1996. Throughout the 1990’s, gospel music grew and inspired even a younger generation with Ce Ce
Winans, BeBe Winans, Kurt Franklin, and other artists. Hootie and the Blowfish made an impact in
country music. In 1997, there was the start of the shiny suit era. R&B artists by 1997 made a great
comeback with New Edition, Mary J. Blige, Ginuwine, Rome, Tina Moore, Boyz II Men, etc. Missy
Elliot came in the late 1990’s to create some of the most creative records in music history. DMX gained
more popularity. Lauryn Hill released her great album “The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill” in 1998. It
talked about love, black people, romance, and other issues. It was her masterpiece in my view.

By 1999, the music evolved into new heights. Hip hop became a billion dollar business. R&B music
soared into new heights with artists like Monica, Brandy, Toni Braxton, Aaliyah, Donell Jones, Adina
Howard, Blackstreet, Dave Hollister, Destiny’s Child, TLC, and other Brothers and Sisters who love
music. Music became more diverse and creative by the 1990’s. There were groups from Outkast to
God’s Property. Time has changed, but the commitment to excellence remained.

Always advance Excellence, because we are born in Greatness

 An Ode to Gospel Music
Mahalia Jackson was one of the
greatest singers in history. She
was not only a gospel singer. She
was a dedicated civil rights
activist too. She was a friend of
the late Dr. Martin Luther King
Jr. In this picture, she is singing
at Concertgebouw Amsterdam (in
the Netherlands) on April 23, 1961.

He was the legendary Pops

Staples. He was the father
of the Staples Sisters.
Since the 17th century, Gospel music has inspired the world. Its religious spirit, its
international appeal, and its cultural power in the African American community
represent the strong influence of Gospel Music. If anyone wants to know fully about the
African American experience, he or she should study gospel music regardless of his or
her creed. Gospel music also stirs up the soul and has been used as motivation for us to She is a young gospel
keep on fighting for justice too. singer named Jamie
Grace.

SOME OF THE NEW GENERATION OF GOSPEL ARTISTS

Gospel music today has great popularity. In our time, we witness a new generation of Gospel
artists. They have songs that readily appeal to the older and younger generations. Mary Mary,
Kirk Franklin, The Clark Sisters, Hezekiah Walker, and other artists are diverse in their life
stories, experiences, and albums. They are certainly unified in their dedicated belief in the
power of the Lord.
Sister Yolanda Adams has a long, legendary career in Gospel music (with an excellent
voice). She was born in the great city of Houston, Texas. She graduated from Texas
Southern University. She was a schoolteacher and a model. Yolanda Adams started to
sing in the 1980's. Her first album was in 1987 entitled, "Just As I am." Yolanda Adams
represents the new generation of gospel artists after the old school era. One of her
most famous songs was "The Battle is the Lord's" from 1993. By the late 1990's, she
continued to collaborate with a diversity of artists. She has written books, been part of
radio morning shows, and work hard in her craft of expressing inspirational music. On
December 11, 2009, Billboard named her the No. 1 Gospel Artist of the last decade.
Adams served as a spokesperson for the FILA Corporation's Operation Rebound, a
program that addressed the concerns of inner-city schoolchildren.
 An Ode to 90’s R&B Whitney Houston was
the greatest vocalist of
our generation. She has
Toni Braxton is not only a
made numerous classic
great singer and songwriter,
records throughout the
but her down to Earth
1990’s. She has won
personality is also incredible.
Grammys, Soul Train
She has family that loves her
Awards, and she was a
and she is a great
Sister from Newark.
philanthropist. Her albums in
This was her on
1993 and 1996 were classics.
November 1, 1992.
There is no question that the 1990’s had some of the
greatest R&B music in history. Its flow, its iconic groups, and
its legendary soloist artists motivated us to show creativity,
to think about issues, and to dance period.

Rest in
Power
Aaliyah.

Brandy and Monica are

legendary singers
whose talent is
TLC promoted women’s empowerment differently eternal.
constantly. They were gorgeous black Brandy was born in Total is a group
women who wanted women to be Mississippi and Monica with amazing
respected as human beings. Chili, Lisa was born in Georgia. creativity.
Left Eye Lopes, and T-Boz made records
that taught us to think from Waterfalls to Terry Ellis, Dawn Robinson,
Pretty. They won many awards and Cindy Herron, and Maxine
inspired creativity and better relationships Jones of the 1990’s spoke
among people. about freeing our minds.
En Vogue is one of the
greatest and most
Tonya Kelly, Di
influential women vocal
Reed, & Joi
groups in history. Marshall made
up Jade.

Zhane
SWV are magnificent period.
had
Blackstreet was a legendary group of soul
the 1990’s too. and Brownstone
was a great
swag.
group of the
90’s too.
Black Culture was widespread throughout the 1990’s. The truth is that as black people, we don't have to
agree with each other on everything and that's fine. We can express ourselves in a diversity of ways. Our
diversity is our strength and that principle is representative of the beauty of black culture. There was an
explosion of black films that inspired us. During 1990, Def by Temptation and To Sleep with Anger
dealt with many subjects of suspense and drama. 1991 saw an explosion of action and drama films like
New Jack City, Daughter of the Dust, Jungle Fever, and the Five Heartbeats. Malcolm X was a film
that dominated 1992 with its monumental lessons on black history and the courage ascendance of a
black revolutionary leader. Denzel Washington and Angela Bassett were born in my opinion for the
roles of Malcolm X and Betty Shabazz. Juice in 1992 saw the growth of Tupac Shakur as an actor.
Boomerang in 1992 dealt with black people in the corporate world and it dealt with how complicated
romantic relationships can be. What Love Got to do with it was a biopic about Tina Turner's life.
Angela Bassett and Laurence Fishburne starred in the film. Menace II Society was released in 1993
which outlined life in Los Angeles, California in dealing with low income African Americans. Poetic
Justice was released in 1993. Posse also came about in 1993 too. The movie outlined the unsung history
of black Americans living in the frontier West. 1993's CB4 (which starred Chris Rock and Rachel True)
is even relevant today as it outlines the lesson in comedy that originality is better than falsity involving
musical expression. Drop Squad came out in 1994 too. It deals with self-hatred and blackness. Above
the Rim was released in 1994. Black Is...Black Ain't is a 1994 documentary from Marlon Riggs that
talked about the multifaceted aspects of African American culture. The documentary made the point
that black people are not monolithic and when we embrace our diversity, we can grow into the next
level. The film was ahead of its time to tackle colorism, sexism, bigotry, and racism back in 1994. The
horror film Tales from the Hood came about in 1995. 1995 was a powerful year of black films. That
year saw the existence of Higher Learning, Waiting to Exhale, Losing Isaiah, Dead Presidents, Cry the
Beloved Country, The Tuskegee Airmen, Bad Boys, Friday, and other films.

The movie Devil in A Blue Dress from 1995 was influenced by Walter Mosley’s book of the same title
from 1990. He wrote many mystery novels too. They showed the perspective of an African American
person on life from the 1940’s to the 1960’s. President Bill Clinton was a fan of his literature. One of
the greatest events in the 1990’s was when Nelson Mandela was released from prison in 1990. He
suffered mistreatment and injustice for decades in prison. Once he left, he toured the world. In June of
1990, he visited New York City. 750,000 people celebrated him in a parade and he toured many
American cities. Nelson Mandela promoted democracy and fought against apartheid until it ended
totally by 1994 when he was elected South Africa’s first black President of South Africa. Nelson
Mandela is our hero. He spoke to the United States Congress too. He gave a wreath on the grave of Dr.
Martin Luther King Jr. He traveled into Miami, Los Angeles, and Oakland.

In 1996, Ghosts of Mississippi (which is about the murderer of Medgar Evers being convicted), A Thin
Line Between Love and Hate, and Get on the Bus were released. In 1996, Will Smith and Vivica A. Fox
starred in Independence Day, which was a science fiction movie about humanity defeating an alien
enemy. Set it Off was released in 1996 with an ensemble cast about desperate women trying to get
money using illegal means. The Nutty Professor starred Eddie Murphy and Jada Pinkett Smith. In 1997,
Eve's Bayou, Rosewood, Hoodlum, Fakin Da Funk, BAPS, Soul Food (which deals with the black
family, overcoming obstacles, food, and togetherness), 4 Little Girls (which was a Spike Lee
documentary about the murder of the 4 girls from the Birmingham Baptist Church), and Men in Black
existed. In 1998, movies like Slam, How Stella Got Her Groove Back, He Got Game, Why Do Fools
Fall in Love, Belly, The Players Club, etc. By 1999, more films came about like In Too Deep, Black and
White, Life, The Best Man, Any Given Sunday, The Wood, and other movies.

Changing Faces, Janet Jackson, Michael Jackson, and Boyz II Men were iconic artists of
the 1990’s. Boyz II Men (who were from Philadelphia) defined 90’s music in many ways as
well.

The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air existed in 1990. Throughout the 1990’s was a Golden Age of Black
television. A Different World, Martin, Roc, Living Single, Hanging with Mr. Cooper, Sinbad, In Living
Color, NY Undercover, Sister Sister, South Central, Thea, Family Matters, In the House, Moesha, Smart
Guy, The Wayans Brothers, The Steve Harvey Show, Thea, The Parent ‘Hood, The Jamie Foxx show,
The Parkers, and other shows were born in the 1990’s. It showed the diversity, the beauty, and the
strength of black life. It showed how Blackness is diverse and very dynamic. Charles Johnson’s “The
Middle Passage” was highly praised in 1990. The groundbreaking film “The Boyz n the Hood” in 1991
was directed by John Singleton, who is from Los Angeles for real. The movie realistically showed the
risks that black inner city youth experience daily. It showed many lessons about family togetherness,
being conscious of the community, and expressing opposition to any injustice. Julie Dash’s Daughter of
the Dust was very critically acclaimed in 1991 too.
 The Demographics of African Americans in 2010
Percentage of population
self-reported as African-
American by state in 2010:
less than 2 %

2–5 %

5–10 %

10–15 %

15–20 %

20–25 %

25–30 %

30–35 %

35–40 %

African American Population Growth over the Decades

Year 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2016
(estimated)
The total African 22,539,362 26,495,025 29,986,060 34,658,190 38,929,319 40,893,369
American
population in the
USA
% of African 11.1% 11.7% 12.1% 12.3% 12.6% 12.6%
American population
in America
The Total 203,210,158 226,545,805 248,709,873 281,421,906 308,745,538 323,127,515
population in the
United States of
America

I will always love my African American culture.

 Both of them were
once great friends
until 1994. They used
to hang out in
concerts, Howard
University in D.C., and
Tupac & Biggie
in places throughout
New York City.

Tupac Shakur and the Notorious B.I.G. were the most famous and influential
hip hop artists in history. They lived during the 1990’s during massive changes
and had a massive amount of talent. Once, they were friends and later, they
were involved in the most heated hip hop rivalry of all time. Each had
differences and similarities. Each loved their mothers, each loved the art of hip
hop music, each did good things in their lives, each had imperfections (and
made mistakes), and the mysteries surrounding their passing would be debated
To understand Tupac is to
to this very day. The families of both men deserve justice. RIP to both Tupac understand that he was a
and Biggie. very intellectual black
man. His mother (Afeni
Shakur) was a Black
Panther including his
relatives. It is no secret
that the FBI monitored
Tupac and his family for
decades. The FBI used
COINTELPRO and other
programs to try to strife
or stop progressive
movements for social
Death Row records (based in change. He read books,
California) was the most powerful wrote poetry, created
record label involving hip hop during records, and had a strong
Biggie was always a person who respected work ethic. Tupac rapped
the 1990’s. Suge Knight bailed Tupac
Brooklyn. Junior Mafia was the people he out of jail and he was part of Death with emotion, lyricism
allied with in music and in other and he covered political
Row until his passing in September
topics too.
endeavors. He was part of Bad Boy 1996. Death Row has been involved in
Records (based in NYC). Biggie rapped controversies since its inception.
with an exceptional amount of natural Tupac continued to work constantly
flow and lyricism. in making music until his passing.

Jada Pinkett
Smith (who is
also a musician
and an actress)
was a close
friend of Tupac
Shakur.
 It is also important to
acknowledge the determined
Sister Adina Howard’s
contributions in music and
culinary arts. To this day, Adina
Howard loves to cook and
prepare food. During the
1990’s, her music was
unapologetic.

During the 1990’s, Savion Glover and others used tap dance in “Bring in da’ Noise/Bring in da funk”
performances. This celebration of dance and music was done in Broadway and nationwide. In January
of 1994, the Tom Joyner Morning show was in syndication. This show was very popular and outlined
African American issues for years. Tom Joyner would participate in charities, speak his mind, and
research the issues of the day. During the 1990’s, African Americans used quilts, family gatherings, and
used diverse fashion. Many people wore jerseys and some wore suits. Some wore
their hair conservatively and some didn’t. A Maryland student Aaron McGruder
created the Boondocks comic strip in 1996. His comic strip talked about black
life in unapologetic terms. The comic strip exposes the issues of race, capitalism,
discrimination, television, and politics. He would use satire to critique BET too.
Later, he would develop his own show on Comedy Network called Boondocks.

Chris Rock’s show on HBO in February of 1997 was honest, provocative, and
showed the world of the thinking of the black comedian Chris Rock (who was
born in NYC). He used his experiences to question the world as he saw it in a
humorous, satirical fashion. Soul Food in 1997 made it known that generations
of black survival must be respected, and the black family is powerful. How Stella
Got Her Groove back is about one successful African American woman (played People know about
by Angela Bassett) trying to have fun in her mundane life. She finds happiness in her many
falling in love with a very young man. The movie also describes real life contributions. She is
situations that do go in the black experience. By the late 1990’s, more black the gorgeous black
woman Nia Long. She
women have leading acting roles in movies like Vivica A. Fox, Jada Pinkett-
has been in movies, TV
Smith, Queen Latifah, Angela Bassett, Vanessa Williams, Nia Long, Lonette
shows, commercials,
McKee, Lynn Whitfield, Loretta Devine, Janet Jackson, Alfre Woodard, Robin
and other arenas. She
Givens, Lela Rochon, Whitney Houston, Sanaa Lathan, Halle Berry, and other has shown the world
black women. By 1999, black culture is more international. Black culture isn’t the gifts of Sisters in
just one separate entity. It is global and it is part of the American culture. general.
 Legends of Dance/House Music of the 1990’s and Beyond

Sister Crystal Waters have shown
dance and house music for years
and decades. She was born in
Camden, New Jersey and was
raised heavily in Washington, D.C.
She graduated from Howard
University. She is a songwriter
and a producer too. She tours
worldwide. She is famous for her
song 100% Pure Love and Gypsy
Woman.
Sister Robin Stone is an excellent
house music singer and
songwriter. Her hit record of
“Show Me Love” spread
worldwide. She continues to
make music and tours
internationally.
Sister Ce Ce Peniston has shown
excellent, pure 1990’s soul and
pop music. Any mention of the
1990’s has to mention her. Her
songs of Finally, We’ve Got a Love
Thing, and Movin’ On shows her
talent involving dance music. Her
voice is truly amazing. She
performs to this very day.

Iconic 1990’s Musical Groups

Dru Hill is from Baltimore.
Sisqo, Noko, Tao, and Jazz
made very popular music with
songs like Never Make a
Promise, How Deep is Your
Love, etc. They inspire other
artists too.
Missy Elliot, Timbaland,
Magoo, Ginuwine, and Aaliyah
represented new sounds and
made great music together.
These people were part of the
Da Bassment crew.
The group of 702 is based The group of Blaque is
in Las Vegas. Kameelah filled with charismatic,
Williams, LeMisha very talented black
Grinstead, and Irish women. Shamari Fears,
Grinstead have made Brandi Williams, and
anthems about romance Natina Reed shined their
and love. lights. RIP Sister Natina
Reed.
 More Unsung, Magnificent Singers of the 1990’s and Beyond

Sister Chante Moore is a spiritual woman whose
music is excellent and transcendent. She is
blessed and has given back in so many ways. Her
records relate to the principle that love is truly a
beautiful aspect of human living. She was born
in San Francisco, California. I wish more
blessings for her.
Sister Deborah Cox is a woman who has been a
leader in music and in promoting tolerance for
fellow human beings. I heard of her music and
her dynamic voice has cultivated creativity,
honesty, and wisdom. She was born in Canada
and she is an Afro-Canadian woman with
Caribbean heritage. Her relatives are from
Antigua. She grew up in the Scarborough area of
Toronto.

Black Love Matters and Black Love is Beautiful

 Locations with Cultural Significance among African Americans
The Charles H. Wright Museum of
African American History is
located in the Cultural Center of
the U.S. city
of Detroit, Michigan. It was
revitalized by 1997.
More Sisters with Voices being R&B Legends from the 1990’s and Beyond
Gina Thompson from Vineland,
New Jersey is a legendary R&B
singer. One of her classic songs
was the 1996 song called, “The
Things that you Do.” She
worked with MC Lyte, Missy
Elliot, P. Diddy, and other
artists. She continues to make
music during the 21st century.
The National Civil Rights
Museum is a complex of museums
and historic buildings
in Memphis, Tennessee; its
exhibits trace the history of
the Civil Rights Movement in the
United States from the 17th
century to the present. The
museum is built around the
former Lorraine Motel, where
Rev. Martin Luther King,
Jr. was assassinated on April 4,
1968. It opened as a museum in
1991.
Nicole Wray was born in Salinas, Nona Gaye is a great signer and she
California and was raised in
Portsmouth, Virginia. She has
many records during the 1990’s. just great music in general. She is a
Her style is R&B and hip hop.
She was in a duo R&B group
called Lady (with Sister Terri
Walker). Her recent 2016 album
is called Queen Alone (filled
with soul) and she made a recent
single called Do It Again. She is
also known as Lady Wray. I’m
from Virginia, so VA is always
in the house.
Atlanta, Georgia is one of the
major black meccas of America.
Atlanta is the home to a large
consortium of historically black
institutions in the nation.
The Atlanta University
Center consists of Clark Atlanta
University, Spelman
College, Morehouse College and
the Morehouse School of
Medicine.
is the daughter of the Marvin Gaye.
Her songs deal with soul, R&B, and
very beautiful black woman who
has been involved in many films
like Ali, The Matrix Reloaded,
Crash, Blood and Bone, and the
Gospel.
 More Great African American Artists of the 1990’s

Babyface or Kenneth Edmonds Shanice is a great singer and a Groove Theory is

is one of the greatest musicians
of our generation. He has
written and produced over 26
number one R&B hits in his
career. He has won 11 Grammy
Awards. He has great writing
ability.
woman with a down to Earth
personality. She is also a
songwriter, and a dancer. She is
also an actress. “I Love Your
Smile” and “Silent Prayer” in
1991 are some of her signature
songs.
an American duo (which started
in the 1990’s) with singer-
songwriter Amel Larrieux and
songwriter/producer/actor, Bryce
Wilson. The group is best known
for their 1995 hit "Tell Me." I
love that song too.

More Brothers who are 1990’s R&B Legends

The group Silk is based on in
Atlanta and they have shown a
lot of songs on many issues. One
member of Silk is from
Tennessee. His name is Garry
Jenkins.
Jodeci is from North Carolina.
Many of their music have been
soundtracks of everyday life for
African Americans in dealing
with romance, work, love, and
having adventures.
Next definitely was extremely
popular during the late 1990’s.
Each member of the group has
their own sense of creativity that
shined through in their records.

The multiplatinum group of Tony! Toni! Toné! have

shown soul/R&B music since the late 1980’s and
throughout the 1990’s plus beyond. There is no way you
can understand R&B music 100% without listening their
music. It originally had Dwayne Wiggins on
lead vocals and guitar, his brother Raphael Saadiq (born
Charles Ray Wiggins) on lead vocals and bass, and their
cousin Timothy Christian Riley on drums and keyboards.
 These beautiful black women are part of Salt-N-Pepa. They are from New York City and
they broke down barriers involving race and gender. Salt, Pepa, and DJ Spinderella have
toured the world in showing music about love, human expression, and other important issues
that human beings go through every day. Latoya Hanson was part of Salt-N-Pepa from 1986
to 1987. They were one of the first all women rap groups winning awards in a high level.
They won a 1995 Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a duo or Group. They
continue to perform worldwide.
 Police Brutality Issues (and legal issues)

Police misconduct was definitely an epidemic during the 1990’s. During that decade, there was constant
discussion about the racial discrimination in the judicial system and the elimination of voting rights for
some criminals (even after criminals paid their debts to society). Crime rates declined during the 1990’s
while the prison population in America increased. The 1999 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights found
that black people represent 14 percent of total illegal drug use, but represent a higher number of those
convicted of such drug usage. More police forces were militarized and promoted excessive actions in
getting suspects or even harassing innocent people in stop and frisk in NYC and other urban
communities nationwide. On August 9, 1997, a thirty year old Haitian immigrant Abner Louima
experienced police brutality. He was in NYC. Louima was arrested and taken to a Brooklyn police
precinct station. He was beaten by the police. Also, he was forced into a toilet and placed a wooden
stick up under him in a violation of his human rights. He suffered internal injuries. Many Haitian
Americans and black people in general protested this abuse. 5,000 people demonstrated at Manhattan’s
City Hall. The NYC Police Commissioner Howard Safir said that race was not a factor in the Louima
situation, which is a boldfaced lie. Many officers were convicted of abusing Louima and some were not
convicted. To this very day, Abner Louima is an activist against police brutality.
One of the most horrendous events in the 1990's was the murder of James Byrd Jr. by white
supremacists on June 7, 1998. James Byrd Jr. was a father and he loved his family. He was only 49 years
old when he died. The event started when James Byrd Jr. accepted a ride from Shawn Berry (age 24),
Lawrence Russell Brewer (age 31) and John King (age 23). Berry, who was driving, was acquainted with
Byrd from around town. The 3 murderers then beat him, and chained him on the murderers' pick-up
truck. They dragged up for three miles behind a pick-up truck along an asphalt road. Byrd, who
remained conscious throughout most of the ordeal, was killed when his body hit the edge of a culvert,
severing his right arm and head. The murderers drove on for another mile before dumping his torso in
front of an African-American cemetery in Jasper. Byrd's lynching-by-dragging gave impetus to passage
of a Texas hate crimes law. It later led to the federal Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes
Prevention Act, commonly known as the Matthew Shepard Act, which passed on October 22, 2009,
and which President Barack Obama signed into law on October 28, 2009. James Byrd Jr.'s son
continues to promote social activism. The murderers of James Byrd Jr. were convicted. On December
28, 1998, a black woman named Tyisha Shenee Miller was killed by the police in Riverside, California. A
play called Dreamscape has been made based on the incident and it was written by Rickerby Hinds
(who is a faculty member in the Department of Theater at the University of California Riverside or the
UCR). The play has been performed nationwide and worldwide in Poland, Hungary, and Turkey.

On February 4, 1999, a young Guinean immigrant named Amadou Diallo was confronted by the
entrance to his Bronx apartment building by 4 plainclothes police officers. They were from the NY
Police Department’s Street Crimes Unit. Diallo reached for his pocket to show the officers his ID, but
the officers murdered him by shooting him 41 times. He was struck 19 times and he died. Immediately,
rallies and protests existed all over NYC and throughout the nation. These protests included African
Americans, Latinos, Asians, and progressive whites. Over 1,000 people in New York City were arrested
for civil disobedience at police headquarters.

Many people arrested were Charles Rangel of Harlem, former Mayor David Dinkins, NAACP
Executive Director Kweisi Mfume, Al Sharpton, and Carolyn Goodman (the mother of the murdered
son Andrew Goodman from 1964 in Mississippi. Andrew Goodman was part of Freedom Summer).
The Diallo case existed for a year. Also, Police Commissioner Howard Safir and then NYC mayor
Rudolph Giuliani (who promoted “law and order) testified before the Civil Rights Commission on May
26, 1999. The Congressional Black Caucus had hearing on police brutality too. 4 officers were acquitted
in 2000 on February 25. This caused outraged. This injustice caused many to lose faith in a system that
doesn’t respect black human lives. To this very day, police misconduct is talked about nationwide and
worldwide. Amadou Diallo’s mother continues to speak out against police brutality and fight for racial
healing to this very day. The 1990’s saw African Americans experience many jobs in government (like
Lee Patrick Brown becoming the first African American mayor of Houston back in December 1997),
the private sector, and other arenas. It also shown that many of the problems of the past continued
after decades from the 1960’s from discrimination to housing issues. The 20th century closes and a new
chapter would exist involving Black America.

By Timothy
Peace Y’all.