235

10.6.2 Cross-sections
Constructing or sketching cross-sections while mapping an area

Maps
is an important step in understanding the geology, and may
provide critical insights into the developing map. Sections are
generally drawn along a line perpendicular to the dominant
strike of strata and structures (e.g. faults, fold axes), so that
they show the subsurface structure most clearly. Accurate
10
sections typically have a horizontal scale equal to that of the
map on which they are based, but the vertical scale may be
exaggerated to emphasize the structures (in which case, strata
dip more on the section than in reality). The process of
drawing a cross-section is illustrated by Figure 10.19 (pp. 236
237), and broken down into stages in the following section.

10.6.3 Fair copy maps

Geologists make a final fair copy of their field maps to present
their interpretation of the geology, commonly as part of a report.
The map itself is generally only one element of a complete map
sheet, which includes scale, explanatory material and commonly
cross-sections too; a typical layout is shown in Figure 10.20
(p. 238). Geological maps are increasingly drafted electronically,
but there are several ways to transfer geological information
gathered in the field to a fair copy map. A brief review of the
main steps in that process is provided here.

Aim either to draw your fair copy map onto a fresh copy of
the base map (in paper or digital format) or start with a blank Table 10.8 Methods for
page and redraw sufficient topographical elements to find transferring lines to a fair
the geological features (e.g. Figure 10.20, p. 238). Make sure copy map.
that at least some elements of the topography are represented
on the final map; for instance, if contours are dense, trace a Line transfer methods
few at selected intervals. If no contours are available, try and
Digitize (trace over) electronically
include at least drainages (rivers, streams) and major peaks.
scanned field maps on a computer
Electronic base maps can be rendered in greyscale so as to
distinguish them from the coloured geological data. Copy by inspection onto a fresh
paper or digital base map (if
Transfer geological boundaries and faults onto the fair copy detailed enough)
base map. This can be done in a variety of ways (Table
10.8). Lines should be solid, except where boundaries were Copy onto a fresh base map, using
inferred; in this case dashed lines are used. Draw faults as the same grid on both maps for
thicker lines than stratigraphic boundaries, and apply reference
ornaments (e.g. downthrow ticks for normal faults,
Overlay the field map with the fair
triangular teeth for thrusts).
copy map on a light table and
Distortion of field sheets by initial photocopying and later trace by hand
weathering typically means that they do not exactly match
Draw the map digitally using GIS
the fair copy base map, which may need to be shifted
or graphics software while in the
repeatedly by small amounts to maintain as good a fit as
field
possible between the two.
236

A B
400 400
200 200
0 0
Maps

(a) (vertical scale = horizontal scale)

Decide on an appropriate vertical scale for the the same length, to represent mean sea level (the
cross-section. Mark the line of section on the map with usual reference datum). Add vertical axes at each end,
a faint line, or mark the end points. On a separate labelling them with an appropriate scale for the height
10 sheet of graph paper, draw a straight horizontal line of relative to sea level.

DCg LSh BRL

c HL
CDL

BRL PoB
BO 48 LSh BO

61 CO
26
A 60 50 51 CdL B
MMG
6 7 7677
150

150
150
200
250

350
310
310
300

250
250

250

200
150

100
100
110
piece of paper DCg

(b)
Lay the straight edge of a second sheet of paper along topographic contours cross the section line mark ticks,
the section line on the map. Mark the end points of the labelled with the contour height, on the second sheet of
section line on the edge of the paper, and wherever paper. (It may help to mark rivers and ridge crests too.)

N S
A B
400 400
200 200
0 0

6 7 7677
150

150
150
200
250

350
310
310
300

250
250

250

200
150

100
100
110

(c)

Transfer the contour heights to the graph paper by curve interpolated between them to produce a
laying the edge of the paper along the horizontal axis, topographic profile as a base for your cross-section.
and marking dots projected up to the correct height all Label the end points with a grid or GPS reference, or a
along the cross-section. Join these dots with a smooth compass bearing.

DCg LSh BRL

c HL
CDL

BRL PoB
BO 48 LSh BO

61 26 CO

A60 50 51 CdL B
MMG

c BO BRL PoB BRL BO CdL CO c HL

HL CDL LSh LSh
CDL DCg
69 73 65 80 77 56
Angles between strike of beds and line of section (for calculating apparent dips)
(d)
Using a third sheet of paper, transfer geological map to the cross-section in the same way as you did
information such as stratigraphic boundaries, faults for the contour heights (stage (b)).
and igneous contacts along the line of section from the

Figure 10.19
 237

N A S
60 61 49 48 51 Apparent dips25 B
400 400
200 200
0 0

Maps
60 50 48 51 26
61

c BO BRL PoB BRL BO CdL CO c HL

HL CDL LSh
(e)
Transfer the position of these features directly onto the
topographic profile on the graph paper. Dip measure-
ments can also be transferred onto the section. If there
are none on the line of section, data lying short
distances away from the section line can be projected
at right angles onto the line. However, only where
strata strike at exactly 90 to the section line can their
dip angles be drawn directly onto the cross-section.
Dips of strata striking at more oblique angles to the
LSh
CDL
line of section must be corrected to lower values, 10
because in effect the cross-section cuts these strata
obliquely, and their dips will hence be apparent dips on
the cross-section. The more oblique the strike to the
section line, the lower the apparent dip will be.
(Appendix 10, Figure A10.1 shows a graph you can
use to determine apparent dips.) Draw short lines for
the dip data at the correct angle just above the profile
initially, as a guide.

Burrington Axial Black Cheddar

Coombe plane Down Gorge
N A B
S
Height 400 400
above 200 BO BRL LSh
PoB LSh BRL BO c HL
200
OD 0 0

KEY (no vertical exaggeration)

HL Hotwells Limestone Fm
c chinastones (calcite-mudstone)
CDL Clifton Down Limestone Fm
CO Cheddar Oolite Mbr (Lst)
(f)
Choose an important marker horizon or stratigraphic
boundary, and draw this across the section, matching
its dip to the dip measurements where possible, and
interpolating between the different points on intersec-
tion with the topography. With this guide to the overall
structure, add other unit boundaries in the same way;
unless you have evidence for varying strata thickness,
CdL Cheddar Limestone Mbr
BO Burrington Oolite Subgp (Lst)
BRL Black Rock Limestone Subgp
LSh Lower Limestone Shale (Lst, mst)
PoB Portishead Fm (Sst)
draw these parallel to the first horizon. In some cases,
you may know or be able to determine the throw on
faults, and their attitude; you may also be able to
define fold structures. Generally, you will be able to
extend your section further below the surface in folded
areas; indicate uncertainty with question marks.
Finally, add a key to unit colours and other symbols.

Figure 10.19 Stages in drawing a geological cross-section. (Map for b and d: Ordnance Survey 1:25,000
Scale Raster Crown Copyright 2009. An Ordnance Survey/EDINA supplied service. Geological Map Data
NERC 2009.)

Colour the outcrops of geological units as continuous blocks,

even where inferred. Use colours thoughtfully: for example,
choose pale colours for widespread units and stronger colours
for those with limited outcrop (e.g. dykes, thin strata). Colour
on a computer has the advantage of being standardized (e.g.
using CMYK values). For hardcopy maps, various media
can be employed (e.g. watercolours, coloured pencils).
Every unit should be identified by a code, in many cases an
abbreviation of the unit name (e.g. MMG for Mercia
238
Maps

10

Figure 10.20 An example layout for a fair copy map. (Map of Angela L. Coe, The Open University, UK.)

Mudstone Group), or a code of letters and numbers based

on the age of the unit (e.g. K6 is a code for the Cretaceous
White Chalk Subgroup in the UK; Obe stands for the
Ordovician Bald Eagle Formation in Pennsylvania, USA).
These may conform to formal lithostratigraphic schemes, or
you may need to devise your own. Place several labels
within a large outcrop; link labels to small outcrops with a
leader line. Lettering can be done using transfers (costly) or
stencils, printed neatly by hand or typed directly onto
digital maps.
Add sufficient structural symbols (bedding, foliation,
lineation and folds) to allow the stratigraphy and structure
to be determined. Mark only the dip or plunge angle by the
symbol, not the strike bearing (because the line itself
defines the strike azimuth). Make sure that symbol types
and sizes are consistent (Appendix A10, Figure A10.3),
both across the map and in the explanatory key.
Clarity is essential, so make sure that symbols are neat and
not congested. Omit locality and sample numbers, and
 239

Table 10.9 Additional elements of a final fair copy map.

Element Comments

Maps
Title Include the name of the area mapped, and indicate any special theme (e.g. ore
mineralization)

Scale As a ratio (e.g. 1:10,000) and in graphical form (e.g. a graduated bar)

N arrow Indicate true north, and also show relative deviations of grid and magnetic north 10

Author, date Include both the date of mapping and of map publication

Sources Cite the sources of topographic base maps and any additional data used (e.g. previous
maps)

Explanation A detailed legend showing colours, ornaments and letters for units, all symbols, lines,
etc., similar to that in Figure 10.6

Stratigraphic column A vertical section, showing the stratigraphic order and relative thickness of strata

Cross-section(s) Include one or more horizontal cross-sections, generally along the base, to illustrate the
structure of the area

information not bearing directly on the geology (e.g. soil

annotations just use these for interpretation of the Make sure that the symbols
geology); fossil and ore mineral locations may be retained if and ornaments in the
appropriate. explanation of a fair copy
geological map are all at the
same scale as on the main
Alongside the actual map, several other elements are either
map.
essential or highly desirable, generally as marginal additions.
Table 10.9 summarizes these components.

10.6.4 Digital maps and GIS

Many final geological maps are drafted electronically, using
Geographic Information System (GIS) technology to plot the
geological data in a geospatial framework. However, in some
cases the actual mapping is also conducted using portable
computers (laptops or tablet PCs), which allow data to be
directly entered into databases, and maps to be drafted on-
screen on an electronic base map. Professional surveys and
other companies increasingly use this technology, but it has
limitations as well as advantages (Section 2.9). Such methods
are beyond the scope of this introduction, as each system is
likely to require specific training in the software and mapping
styles adopted by the organization. However, the general
principles of mapping outlined in this chapter should still be
followed while mapping in this way; it is only the tools that
have changed.