Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies: B. Ramos, F.A. Miller, T.R.S. Brandão, P. Teixeira, C.L.M. Silva

INNFOO-01035; No of Pages 15
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies xxx (2013) xxxxxx
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Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ifset
Fresh fruits and vegetablesAn overview on applied methodologies to improve its

quality and safety
B. Ramos, F.A. Miller, T.R.S. Brando, P. Teixeira, C.L.M. Silva
CBQFCentro de Biotecnologia e Qumica Fina-Laboratrio Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Catlica Portuguesa/Porto, Rua Dr. Antnio Bernardino Almeida,
4200-072 Porto, Portugal
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The consumers' demand for fresh fruits and vegetables has increased in recent years. These foods may be
Received 6 December 2012 consumed raw or minimally processed, and therefore can be a vehicle of several pathogens. The microorganisms
Accepted 8 July 2013 most frequently linked to produce-related outbreaks include bacteria (Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes,
Available online xxxx
Escherichia coli, and Shigella spp.), viruses and parasites.
There are many traditional technologies to reduce/eliminate the microorganisms present in food products.
Editor Proof Receive Date 05 August 2013
However, further research on this topic is still required, since none of the methods reported can control all
Keywords: the parameters necessary to achieve produce with an extending shelf-life, without compromising its quality.
Minimally processed fruits and vegetables In this paper, an analysis of the alternative and traditional methodologies is made, pointing out the signicant
Sanitizing methods advantage and limitations of each technique.
Quality and safety Industrial relevance: The signicant increase in the incidence of foodborne outbreaks caused by contaminated
minimally processed produce in recent years has become of extreme importance. The extensive knowledge
of gentle (non-thermal) processes to enhance safety, preservation and shelf-life of these products is crucial
for the food industry.
This manuscript presents non-thermal processes that have shown efcient microbial reductions on fresh
produce and highlights some of their challenges and limitations.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
2. Produce microbiota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
3. Fruit and vegetable contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
4. Minimally processed fruits and vegetables (MPFVs) shelf-life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5. Intervention methods to extend shelf-life and enhance safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1. Chemical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.1. Chlorine (hypochlorite) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.2. Chlorine dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.3. Acidied sodium chlorite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.4. Bromine and iodine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.5. Trisodium phosphate (TSP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.6. Quaternary ammonium compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.7. Organic acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.8. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.9. Peroxyacetic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.10. Calcium-based solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.11. Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.1.12. Electrolyzed water (EW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
Corresponding author. Tel.: +351 22 5580058; fax: +351 22 5090351.

E-mail address: clsilva@porto.ucp.pt (C.L.M. Silva).
1466-8564/$ see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2013.07.002
Please cite this article as: Ramos, B., et al., Fresh fruits and vegetablesAn overview on applied methodologies to improve its quality and safety,
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2013.07.002
2 B. Ramos et al. / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies xxx (2013) xxxxxx
5.2. Physical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

5.2.1. Modied packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.2.2. Irradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.2.3. Ultraviolet light (UV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.2.4. Pulsed light (PL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.2.5. High pressure processing (HPP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.2.6. Ultrasound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.2.7. Cold plasma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.3. Biological methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
5.4. Combined methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
6. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0
1. Introduction the combination food/contaminant/process and important fresh

characteristics to maintain.
Fruits and vegetables are essential components of the human This paper gathered information about these novel technologies and
diet and there is considerable evidence of the health and nutritional the ones commonly used, pointing out their most relevant advantages
benets associated with their consumption (Abadias, Usall, Anguera, and limitations. An overview of produce microbiota patterns and
Solson, & Vinas, 2008; Warriner, Ibrahim, Dickinson, Wright, & Waites, outbreaks related to fruits and vegetables is presented, showing
2005). Due to the presence of high levels of micronutrients and bers, the importance of choosing an effective method for microbial inactiva-
their consumption is recommended by many organizations (World tion on these products.
Health OrganizationWHO, Food and Agriculture Organization
FAO, United States Department of AgricultureUSDA and European 2. Produce microbiota
Food Safety AuthorityEFSA) to reduce the risk of cardiovascular
diseases and cancer (Allende, McEvoy, Luo, Artes, & Wang, 2006a; Fresh fruits and vegetables, including plant components as
Ragaert, Verbeke, Devlieghere, & Debevere, 2004; Su & Arab, 2006; leaves, roots, bulbs and tubers, have different morphology and met-
Warriner, 2005). abolic functions and consequently provide diverse ecological niches
As a response to consumers' demand for healthy, fresh-like and easy to microorganisms (Brackett, 1999; Burnett & Beuchat, 2000; Ponce,
to prepare products, conjoint with consumer lifestyle changes, a wide Roura, del Valle, & Fritz, 2002). The presence and number of micro-
variety of minimally processed fruits and vegetables (MPFVs) has been organisms differ depending on the type of produce, agronomic prac-
developed (Allende et al., 2006a; Froder et al., 2007; Scolari & Vescovo, tices, geographical area of production, and weather conditions before
2004; Tournas, 2005). harvest. Harvest, transportation and further processing and handling
Minimal food processing techniques constitute non-thermal tech- of produce can greatly inuence the microbiota pattern (Ahvenainen,
nologies with guarantee of food preservation and safe standards as 1996; Olaimat & Holley, 2012).
well as maintaining, as much as possible, the fresh-like characteristics The number and type of microorganisms found on fresh produce are
of fruits and vegetables (Allende, Tomas-Barberan, & Gil, 2006b; Allende highly variable. Mesophilic bacteria are around 103109 CFU/g in raw
et al., 2006a). Minimally processed products aim to extend the product vegetables after harvest, depending on the produce and the growing
shelf-life of 57 days at 4 C, while ensuring food safety and maintaining conditions (Oliveira et al., 2010; Zagory, 1999). Gram-negative bacteria
nutritional and sensory quality (Cliffe-Byrnes & O'Beirne, 2002). dominate the microora associated with most vegetables, whereas
The marketing of these types of foods continues to rise mainly due yeasts and moulds are often the majority microora of raw fruits
to their freshness, economic handling and attractive presentation (Burnett & Beuchat, 2000; Tournas, 2005). The microora of vegetables
(Little & Gillespie, 2008). They constitute a suitable meal for today's and fruits is made up largely of Pseudomonas spp., Erwinia herbicola,
lifestyles, because they do not need preparation and provide a great Flavobacterium, Xanthomonas, and Enterobacter agglomerans as well as
variety of vitamins, minerals and other phytochemicals, which are various moulds, Alternaria, Penicillium, Fusarium and Aspergillus. Lactic
important in human health (Froder et al., 2007). acid bacteria, such as Leuconostoc mesenteroides and Lactobacillus
Fruits and vegetables require proper handling, preparation and spp., are also commonly found. Finally, yeasts such as Torulopsis,
storage in order to take full advantage of their nutrients. When these Saccharomyces and Candida are part of dominant microorganisms,
products are minimally processed, they are submitted to unit opera- mostly on fruits because of their high sugar content (Caponigro et al.,
tions that include selection, cleaning, washing, trimming, peeling, cutting 2010; de Azeredo et al., 2011; Pianetti et al., 2008). Pseudomonas spp. nor-
and shredding, sanitizing and packing. As these operations do not assure mally dominates and may make up 5090% of the microbial popula-
the absence of microorganisms, minimally processed fruits and vegeta- tion on many vegetables (Arvanitoyannis & Stratakos, 2010;
bles, require refrigeration as a primary means of preservation (Froder Nguyenthe & Carlin, 1994; Zagory, 1999).
et al., 2007; Tournas, 2005).
Consumers are becoming more aware about the limitations of 3. Fruit and vegetable contamination
commonly sanitizing techniques and are looking for safe food products
that suffer minimal processing, with high quality retention. To satisfy The natural microora of raw fruits and vegetables is usually non-
these requirements, food industry is currently studying non-thermal pathogenic for humans and may be present at the time of consumption
techniques such as ozone based treatments, ultraviolet radiation, (Ahvenainen, 1996; Food & Drug Administration, H. H. S., 2008).
pulsed light, cold plasma, ultrasounds and novel packaging practices. However, during growth, harvest, transportation and further processing
All these technologies have a great potential in the eld of minimally and handling, the produce can be contaminated with pathogens from
processed foods. However, there is a lack of available information human, animal, or environmental sources (Ahvenainen, 1996; Brandl,
about advantages and limitations of these technologies, when applied 2006; Froder et al., 2007; Snchez, Elizaquvel, & Aznar, 2012). During
to food processing. The efciency of the processes depends directly on peeling, cutting and shredding, the surface of the produce is exposed
B. Ramos et al. / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies xxx (2013) xxxxxx 3
to air and to possible contamination with bacteria, yeasts and moulds. A

The protective epidermal barrier is breached, which will increase 300
nutrient availability and provide large surface areas that may facilitate
250
Number of outbreaks
microbial growth and consequently decrease the product shelf-life
(Conte, Scrocco, Brescia, & Del Nobile, 2009; Del Nobile, Licciardello,
200
Scrocco, Muratore, & Zappa, 2007; Guerzoni, Gianotti, Corbo, &
Sinigaglia, 1996; Muriel-Galet et al., 2013). Additionally, the mechanical 150
damage caused to cells during processing may increase the rate of tissue
senescence, reducing their resistance to microbial spoilage (Badosa, 100
Trias, Pares, Pla, & Montesinos, 2008; Barry-Ryan & O'Beirne, 1998;
Garg, Churey, & Splittstoesser, 1990). 50
Another concern is the possible formation of foodborne pathogen
biolms on plant tissues enabling these to survive in harsh environment 0
Salad Lettuce Leafy Other sprouts Fresh herbs
and may decrease the efcacy of commonly used sanitizers (Critzer & vegetables vegetables
Doyle, 2010). Norovirus Salmonella E. coli Shigella Parasites Other
As a result, these products can be a vehicle of transmission of
bacterial, parasitic and viral pathogens, capable of causing human B
illness. 80
The incidence of foodborne outbreaks caused by contaminated fresh 70
fruits and vegetables has increased in recent years. The pathogens most
Number of outbreaks
frequently linked to these product contamination and human illness are 60
included in Table 1. 50
Fig. 1 includes collected information of produce outbreaks, which
is based on approximately 110 scientic papers and reports by CDC 40
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention), FDA (Food and Drug 30
Administration) and WHO (World Health Organization).
From about 1100 produce reported outbreaks, in which an etiological 20
agent was identied, 53.0% were caused by bacteria, 42.5% by viruses 10
and 4.5% by parasites.
The produce most associated with outbreaks is the salad, since 0
Berries Fruit juice Fruit Salad Melon Tomato Fruit-nuts Other
it has all kinds of mixed vegetables. Included in the other vegetables fruits
group are corn, beans, pepper, soy, radish and onion. In addition, WHO Norovirus Salmonella E. coli Hepatitis A Parasites Other
categorized lettuce and salads (all varieties), leafy vegetables (spinach,
cabbage, raw watercress) and fresh herbs highest priority in terms Fig. 1. Reported foodborne outbreaks in vegetables (A) and fruits (B).
of fresh produce safety from a global perspective (FAO/WHO, 2008;
Goodburn & Wallace, 2013).
problem (Carrasco, Morales-Rueda, & Garca-Gimeno, 2012; Zweifel
Cantaloupe, cucumber, mamey and pawpaw are fruits included in
& Stephan, 2012). Safe production methods and proper disinfection/
the other fruits group. As it can be observed in Fig. 1, the microorgan-
decontamination procedures are therefore critical steps in ensuring
isms of main concern in produce outbreaks are the Norovirus and
the safety of ready-to-eat fresh fruits and vegetables (Arts, Gmez,
Salmonella spp. For this reason, several studies had been conducted
Aguayo, Escalona, & Arts-Hernndez, 2009; Bharathi, Ramesh, &
to investigate the prevalence and contamination level of these microor-
Varadaraj, 2001; Selma, Ibez, Allende, Cantwell, & Suslow, 2008b).
ganisms on fresh produce (Baert et al., 2011; Elviss et al., 2009; Patel,
Hall, Vinj, & Parashar, 2009; Stals, Baert, Van Coillie, & Uyttendaele,
2012). 4. Minimally processed fruits and vegetables (MPFVs) shelf-life
Contamination of fresh fruits and vegetables is of special concern,
because such produce is likely to be consumed raw, without any type Fruits and vegetables are among the most perishable foods in the
of microbiologically lethal processing, thus posing a potential safety market. They are rich in carbohydrates and poor in proteins, with pH
Table 1
Major fruit and vegetable pathogens associated with outbreaks (Abadias, Alegre, Oliveira, Altisent, & Vias, 2012; FAO/WHO, 2008; Olaimat & Holley, 2012; Senorans, Ibanez,
& Cifuentes, 2003; Seow, goston, Phua, & Yuk, 2012; Van Boxstael et al., 2013; Warriner, 2005; Zhao, 2005).
Pathogen Product
Bacteria Clostridium botulinum Cabbage, pepper, garlic, potato and carrots

E. coli O157:H7 Alfalfa sprouts, cabbage, celery, coriander, watercress, lettuce, cabbage, berries, melons, and apple juice
L. monocytogenes Bean sprouts, cabbage, chicory, cantaloupe, eggplant, lettuce, potatoes, radish and lettuce
Salmonella spp. Alfalfa sprouts, artichokes, beet leaves, celery, cabbage, cantaloupe, cauliower, eggplant, endive, fennel, green onions, lettuce,
mung bean sprouts, mustard cress, pepper, salad greens, spinach, unpasteurized fruit juice, tomatoes, watermelon, mamey and mango
Shigella spp. Celery, lettuce, green onions, salad vegetables and parsley
Staphylococcus spp. Lettuce, parsley, radish, salad vegetables and seed sprouts
Vibrio cholerae Cabbage and coconut milk
Yersinia enterocolitica Carrots, cucumbers, lettuce and tomatoes
Viruses Norovirus Lettuce, green onions, watercress, sliced melon, salads, diced tomatoes and fresh cut fruit
Hepatitis A Lettuce, green onions, watercress, raspberries, frozen strawberries and berries
Protozoa Cryptosporidium spp. Lettuce, onions and green onions
Cyclospora spp. Lettuce, onions, green onions, raspberries and blackberries
4
Table 2
Chemical methods used for the preservation of minimally processed vegetables and fruits.
B. Ramos et al. / Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies xxx (2013) xxxxxx
Method Advantages Limitations Effectiveness References
Chlorine - Low cost - Liberation of chlorine vapors during production - Very high concentrations Baert et al. (2011),
(hypochlorite) - Easily available and formation of chlorinated by-products (DBPs) may not eliminate Brackett (1999),
- Long history of use with potential adverse health effects all the pathogens on produce Burnett and Beuchat (2000),
- Efcacy is affected by the presence of organic matter - Chlorine dosages (50200 ppm) Butot, Putallaz,
- Corrosive and contact times (12 min) used and Sanchez
- Activity pH dependant result in 1 to 2 log10 bacterial inactivation (2007), De
- Sensitive to temperature, light and air - Some resistance by bacterial spores Roever (1998),
- Banned in some European countries and protozoan oocysts and Harris
et al. (2003)
Chlorine dioxide Aqueous Aqueous Aqueous Baur et al. (2005),
- Higher antimicrobial efcacy - Not efcient at permitted levels for fresh produce - Studies revealed that much higher Beltrn et al. (2005b),
at neutral pH than chlorine - Requires on-site generation concentrations Casteel et al. (2008),
- Effectiveness less pH dependant - Explosive are needed to have a signicant reduction in Sanz et al. (2002),
compared to chlorine - Not permitted for cut produce in USA and not regulated in EU the microbial load of fruits and vegetables Ukuku (2006),
- Fewer potentially hazardous DBP - Final water rinsing is required after treatment - Reduction of a few logs reported when used Vandekinderen et al. (2008),
formation than chlorine - More iodinated DBP formation than chlorine if iodide exists at permitted concentrations and Wei, Zhou, Zhou,
- Less corrosive than chlorine and ozone in water ClO2 gas and Gong (2007)
- Can delay ripening of produce due to - Formation of specic by-products, chlorite and chlorate - Inactivates E. coli O157:H7 and L. monocytogenes
ethylene elimination and inhibiting its production - Requires monitoring in indoor applications
- Aqueous ClO2 treatments (4, 6 and 8 mg/l) ClO2 gas
exhibited anti-browning effects in apple juices - Decomposes into chlorine and oxygen
ClO2 gas - Must be produced in situ
- Effective in a wide pH range - Activity affected by gas concentration, time of exposure,
- Great penetration ability humidity and temperature
Acidied sodium - Greater efcacy than hypochlorite due to low pH - Little information on production of chlorinated by-products - Inhibited enzymatic browning on fresh-cut Allende, McEvoy, Tao, and
chlorite - Limited amount of research conducted produce Luo (2009), He, Luo,
- Usefulness for produce needs further research and Chen (2008),
and Luo, Lu, Zhou,
and Feng (2011)
Bromine - Possible synergy with chlorine compounds - Information lacking on production of brominated - Not widely used as a sanitizer Beuchat (1998)
by-products and their potential health effects and Parish et al. (2003)
Iodine - Less corrosive than chlorine at low temperature - Stains commodities and equipment - More active against vegetative Ayala-Zavala and Gustavo
- Broad spectrum - Corrosive above 50 C cells than bacterial spore (2010)
- Iodophor less volatile than iodine - No direct contact use on produce and Parish et al. (2003)
Trisodium - Less corrosive than most other compounds - Not efcient against Listeria - Concentrations between 1 and 15% yielded Beuchat (1998),
phosphate - Has very high pH (1112) reductions in pathogen populations from 0 to 6 Weissinger et al. (2000),
logs and Zhuang and Beuchat (1996)
- Listeria relatively resistant
Quaternary - Colorless, odorless - Limited usefulness at low pH (b6) - Most effective against fungi and gram-positive Parish et al. (2003),
ammonium - Stable at high temperature - Not compatible with soaps or anionic detergents bacteria than gram-negative bacteria, Reynolds (1991),
compounds - Noncorrosive - Costly except Salmonella and E. coli and Rossmoore (2001)
- Good penetrating ability
- Relatively stable to organic compounds
Method
Advantages Limitations Effectiveness References
Organic acids - Easy to use - Interferes with the sensory quality - The exposure times needed for a signicant Benarde, Israel, Olivieri,
(lactic, citric, - Economical, depending on type of acid and use - Relatively lower antimicrobial efcacy reduction & Granstro (1965),
acetic, tartaric - No toxicity - Low pH use only in microbial load are very long (515 min) Francis and O'Beirne (2002),
or ascorbic - Allowed for organic products - Antimicrobial effect dependent upon type of acid Fu et al. (2007),
acid) and strain of microorganism Singh et al. (2002),
- Disinfection with organic acids in fresh-cut industry and Zhong, Wu,
has an impact on the wastewater quality Wang, Wu, & Wei (2006)
Hydrogen - No harmful DBP formation - Phytotoxicity against some products like - At low concentrations (12%), Akbas and Olmez (2007),
peroxide - No residue production lettuce and berries H2O2 is not efcient in Alexandre et al. (2012a),
(H2O2) - Not corrosive at permitted levels - Negative impact on overall quality reducing the pathogenic bacterial Hwang et al. (2001),
- Low antimicrobial efcacy at permitted levels for counts on the fresh produce and lmez &
vegetables - At high concentrations (45%) it Kretzschmar (2009)
- Less effective against yeasts, fungi and viruses interferes with the overall
- Not allowed for organic products quality of the produce
- Requires the removal of residual H2O2 after processing
Peroxyacetic acid - No harmful DBP formation - Low antimicrobial efcacy at permitted levels for - At the highest concentration permitted Sapers (2009),
- Efcacy is not affected by water organic load vegetables (80 ppm), Sapers & Jones (2006),
- Efcacy unaffected by temperature changes peroxyacetic acid in wash water is not sufcient to and Vandekinderen,
- Good antimicrobial properties at low obtain a substantial reduction in the microbial load Devlieghere,
temperatures in the pH range (58) of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables De Meulenaer, Ragaert,
- Not corrosive at permitted levels (b80 ppm) & Van Camp (2009)
- More efcient than chlorine or chlorine dioxide
Calcium-based - Can signicantly increase the calcium's - Bitterness and off-avors associated with calcium chloride - Limited efcacy as antimicrobial agent Kitis (2004) and lmez
solutions content of the nal product - Calcium lactate, as fresh-cut lettuce and Kretzschmar (2009)
- Delays aging or ripening of fruits and vegetables and carrots sanitizer,
- Reduces post-harvest decay showed similar effectiveness to chlorine in
reducing
and keeping the microbial load
Ozone Aqueous Aqueous Aqueous Alexandre et al. (2011a),
- High antimicrobial activity - Possible deterioration of produce avor and color - Effective against a variety of Alexandre et al. (2011b),
- Extends storage life of fresh non-cut products - Can cause produce physiological injury and loss of postharvest pathogens reported Anino, Salvatori, and
- Effective at low concentrations and short contact time antioxidant constituents on fruits and vegetables Alzamora (2006), Conway,
- Broad spectrum - Unstable, very highly reactive Gaseous Sams, McGuire,
- Good penetration ability - Possible human toxic effects in processing facilities - More effective than the solution form and Kelman (1992),
- Effectiveness against protozoa reported - Corrosive to equipment Martin-Diana et al. (2005b),
- Generally recognized as safe (GRAS) - Requires on-site generation and Picchioni, Watada,
- No hazardous DBP formation - Requires monitoring in indoor applications Whitaker, and Reyes (1996)
- Decomposes to nontoxic products - Higher initial investment cost
- Does not leave hazardous residues on food Gaseous
- Lower running cost - Ozone gas is hazardous so must be contained
Gaseous and destroyed
- Higher antimicrobial activity than in solution - Toxic and reactive
- Acceptable food quality - Can damage plant tissues
- Effective against spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms - Product quality changes may occur
- Control of O3 leakage required
Electrolyzed water - Inactivates several pathogenic and spoilage - Reduces quality on fresh-cut vegetables - Has strong bactericidal effect on pathogenic and Guzel-Seydim, Greene,
(EW) microorganisms spoilage microorganisms of minimally and Seydim (2004),
- Neutralizes harmful substances such as processed vegetables Habibi and Haddad (2009),
cyanides and ammonium and Karaca and
Velioglu (2007)
5
values ranging from 7.0 to slightly acidic, and exhibit a characteristic by values ranging from b1 log CFU/g to 3.15 log CFU/g, depending
high water activity. These conditions make the produce adequate habi- on inoculation method, chlorine concentration, contact time, and the
tats for several bacteria, yeasts and moulds (Del Nobile, Conte, Cannarsi, target bacteria (Baur, Klaiber, Wei, Hammes, & Carle, 2005; Beltrn,
& Sinigaglia, 2008; Gmez-Lpez, Devileghere, Bonduelle, & Debevere, Selma, Tudela, & Gil, 2005b; Casteel, Schmidt, & Sobsey, 2008; Hua &
2005; Selma, Allende, Lopez-Galvez, Conesa, & Gil, 2008a). The resulting Reckhow, 2007).
spoilage of fruits and vegetables is characterized by a brown dis-
coloration, necrosis, loss of texture, exudation and/or production 5.1.2. Chlorine dioxide
of off-odors or off-avors (Ponce et al., 2002). As an alternative to chlorine, raw fruits and vegetables can be sani-
Minimally processed produce, due to processing operations that tized with chlorine dioxide (ClO2) (up to 3 ppm), which has an oxidant
alter the physical integrity of these products, are more perishable than capacity 2.5 times greater. In addition, ClO2 does not participate in chlo-
the original raw materials (Sanz, Gimenez, Olarte, Lomas, & Portu, rination reactions that result in harmful by-products (Keskinen, Burke,
2002). The raw produce are expected to have a shelf-life of several & Annous, 2009). Although chlorine dioxide reacts directly with cells
weeks or months, while MPFVs have only a very short storage life of amino acids and RNA, it is not clear whether it attacks the cell structure
4 to 7 days. Their shelf-life depends on various factors such as fruit or the acids inside the cell. As drinking water disinfectant, it is
and vegetable initial quality, production technology and the number highly effective against pathogenic organisms such as Legionella, Giardia
and interactions among microbial groups (Watada & Qi, 1999). cysts, Escherichia coli, Cryptosporidium and viruses by preventing protein
Although MPFVs should have storage lives up to 21 days, ethylene pro- formation (Francis & O'Beirne, 2002; Fu, Zhang, Wang, & Du, 2007;
duction, respiratory activity, enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning Gmez-Lpez, Devlieghere, Ragaert, & Debevere, 2007a; Rico et al.,
and nutrient release from cells that are stimulated by produce injuries, 2007). For raw produce, this method is not so efcient at permitted
make this goal difcult. concentration levels.
The understanding of the processes that result in quality degradation ClO2 gas has received attention due to its greater penetration
is essential to develop technologies to extend MPFVs shelf-life ability than liquid. Several studies showed the efcacy of this gas
and to maintain quality during processing and distribution (Pianetti on produce surface decontamination, particularly against pathogens
et al., 2008). like E. coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes (Du, Han, & Linton,
2003; Gmez-Lpez, Ragaert, Jeyachchandran, Debevere, & Devlieghere,
5. Intervention methods to extend shelf-life and enhance safety 2008; Han, Linton, Nielsen, & Nelson, 2000; Mahmoud, Bhagat, & Linton,
2007; Singh, Singh, Bhunia, & Stroshine, 2002). Different factors can inu-
There are a variety of methods used to reduce microorganism's ence the lethality of the ClO2 gas treatment, such as ClO2 gas concentra-
population on whole and fresh-cut produce. The best method is to tion, time of exposure, relative humidity, and temperature.
prevent contamination in the rst place. However, this is not always ClO2 is a promising non-thermal technology for reducing pathogenic
possible and the use of techniques that reduce/eliminate pathogens and spoilage bacteria on fresh produce. However, research efforts in this
is of extreme importance to prevent foodborne outbreaks (Corbo, Del area are still required (Mahmoud et al., 2007).
Nobile, & Sinigaglia, 2006).
There are a number of chemical (Table 2) and physical (Table 3) 5.1.3. Acidied sodium chlorite
methods that were proved to be moderately efcient in reducing the This compound can be used on raw fruits and vegetables as a
indigenous microora and also the contaminating pathogens (Parish spray or dip in the range of 500 to 1200 ppm. Applications of acidied
et al., 2003). sodium chlorite showed a substantial antimicrobial effect against
Chemical methods of cleaning and sanitizing produce surfaces E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella inoculated onto cantaloupes, honey-
usually involve the application of mechanical washing in the presence dew melons and asparagus spears. However, the number of studies
of sanitizers, followed by rinsing with potable water (Wei, Wolf, & is still limited, and there is a need for more information on the general
Hammes, 2006). Physical methods are effective at removing bacteria usefulness of using acidied sodium chlorite in produce sanitizing
from plant surfaces by the use of shear forces (Allende et al., 2007; (Arts et al., 2009; Beuchat, 1998; Parish et al., 2003).
Gil, Selma, Lpez-Glvez, & Allende, 2009).
5.1.4. Bromine and iodine
5.1. Chemical methods These chemicals showed antimicrobial activity although some health
related issues limit their use on produce.
Several sanitizing agents may be used for fruit and vegetable wash- Bromine has synergistic antimicrobial relationship when added to
ing with the intention of reducing the risk of microbial contamination, chlorine solutions, but there are safety concerns about the production
helping in the prevention of postharvest diseases and foodborne illness. of brominated organic compounds and their impact on human and
This section will describe, in more detail, the chemical methods environmental safety (Beuchat, 1998; Parish et al., 2003).
industrially available for produce decontamination. An overview of Elemental iodine and non-ionic surfactant or carrier combinations
the major advantages, limitations and effectiveness for each method iodophors, have a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity and are
is presented in Table 2. less corrosive than chlorine at low temperatures. However, iodine-
containing solutions used as direct contact produce sanitizers are limited
5.1.1. Chlorine (hypochlorite) due to a reaction between iodine and starch that result in a blue-purple
In fruits, vegetables and fresh-cut produce, chlorine rinses are colour (Ayala-Zavala & Gustavo, 2010; Parish et al., 2003).
frequently used with concentrations varying from 50 to 200 ppm
and with typical contact times of less than 5 min (Arts & Allende, 5.1.5. Trisodium phosphate (TSP)
2005; Rico, Martin-Diana, Barat, & Barry-Ryan, 2007). Although Solutions with 15% TSP are effective in Salmonella inactivation on
chlorine is the most commonly used sanitizer, it is inactivated by tomato surface. However, even at 15%, only about a 2 log10 reduction
organic material and during production can also lead to the liberation was achieved (Beuchat, 1998; Zhuang & Beuchat, 1996). It was con-
of chlorine vapours and formation of chlorinated by-products (DBPs), cluded that the use of TSP as a disinfectant for removal of Salmonella
with potential adverse health effects (Parish et al., 2003; Rico et al., from the surface of mature green tomatoes has good potential. The use of
2007). However, the benets of chlorine use for the produce industry TSP to remove L. monocytogenes from shredded lettuce was demonstrated
outweigh the concerns of potential formation of harmful by-products. to be less promising (Parish et al., 2003; Weissinger, Chantarapanont,
Studies have shown that chlorine rinses can decrease the bacterial load & Beuchat, 2000). Solutions containing more than 10% TSP damaged the
sensory quality of lettuce. It should be noted that the pH of TSP solutions demonstrated the same effectiveness as chlorine in reducing microbial
is around 1112, limiting their commercial application as a disinfectant of load (Martin-Diana et al., 2005a; Rico et al., 2007).
fruits and vegetables (Parish et al., 2003).
5.1.11. Ozone
5.1.6. Quaternary ammonium compounds Ozone is a strong antimicrobial agent with high reactivity and
Quaternary ammonium compounds commonly called QAC are penetrability. When used in water, ozone concentrations range from
cationic surfactants that are able to penetrate food contact surfaces 0.03 to 20.0 ppm. When used in the gas form, the concentration
more readily than other sanitizers. Their antimicrobial activity is greater reaches higher doses such as 20,000 ppm (Manganaris, Vasilakakis,
against the fungi and gram-positive bacteria than gram-negative bacteria Diamantidis, & Mignani, 2006; Martin-Diana et al., 2005b; Rico et al.,
(Aase, Sundheim, Langsrud, & Rrvik, 2000; To, Favrin, Romanova, & 2007; Saftner, Bai, Abbott, & Lee, 2003).
Grifths, 2002). Although they are not approved for direct food contact, Ozonated water has been commonly applied for sanitation pur-
QAC may have some limited usefulness on whole produce, since the poses of fresh-cut vegetables achieving some microbial reductions
product must be peeled prior to consumption (Parish et al., 2003). and extending the produce shelf-life (Alexandre, Brando, & Silva,
As mentioned for iodine compounds, QAC direct food contact would 2011a, 2012b; Alexandre, Santos-Pedro, Brando, & Silva, 2011b;
require regulatory approval and a demonstration that the produce are Miller, Silva, & Brando, 2013).
safe for consumption (Dunn, 1949; Rossmoore, 2001). Several studies showed that gaseous ozone is generally more
effective than in aqueous solutions (Klockow & Keener, 2010).
This treatment was effective against pathogenic and spoilage micro-
5.1.7. Organic acids
organisms, while assuring an acceptable product quality (Al-Haddad,
Organic acids (e.g. lactic, citric, acetic or tartaric acid) have been
Al-Qassemi, & Robinson, 2005; Baur et al., 2005; Beltrn, Selma,
described as strong antimicrobial agents due to environment pH reduc-
Marin, & Gil, 2005a; Hua & Reckhow, 2007; lmez & Akbas, 2009;
tion, disturbance of membrane transport and/or permeability, anion ac-
Parish et al., 2003; Pascual, Llorca, & Canut, 2007).
cumulation, or a reduction in internal cellular pH (Parish et al., 2003).
Other studies are dealing with in-package gaseous ozone action.
Less direct antibacterial activities include interference with nutrient
Results indicated that this treatment is very effective against E. coli
transport, cytoplasm membrane damage resulting in leakage, disrup-
O157:H7, also extending produce shelf life. However, in some products,
tion of outer membrane permeability, and inuence on macromolecular
like spinach, notable colour degradation can occur (Al-Haddad et al.,
synthesis (Beuchat, 1998; Inatsu, Bari, Kawasaki, Isshiki, & Kawamoto,
2005; Klockow & Keener, 2010; Oner, Walker, & Demirci, 2011).
2005; Miller et al., 2009). Citric and ascorbic acids are commonly used
in fruit and vegetable washing and added in fruit juices (Velazquez,
5.1.12. Electrolyzed water (EW)
Barbini, Escudero, Estrada, & de Guzman, 2009).
There are two types of electrolyzed water with sanitizing properties:
acidic electrolyzed water or electrolyzed oxidizing water (AEW) and
5.1.8. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
neutral electrolyzed water (NEW). These solutions are conventionally
This compound possesses bacteriostatic and bactericidal activity due
generated by electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride (0.51.0% NaCl),
to its strong oxidizing power and also due to the generation of cytotoxic
and an electrolyzed acidic solution (AEW) or an electrolyzed basic
agents (hydroxyl radical). It is used as antimicrobial or bleaching agent
solution (NEW) is produced at the anode and cathode, respectively.
in the range of 0.041.25% up to 80 ppm in produce wash water (Akbas
The AEW has a strong bactericidal effect on pathogenic and spoil-
& Olmez, 2007; Alexandre, Brando, & Silva, 2012a; Hwang, Cash, &
age microorganisms (Selma et al., 2008a). This effect is attributed to
Zabik, 2001).
its low pH (2.14.5), high oxidationreduction potential (higher
For a better effectiveness of this compound, H2O2 concentrations
than 1000 mV), and the presence of active oxidizers such as
of 24% should be used. Lower concentrations (12%) are not efcient
hypochlorous acid (Keskinen et al., 2009; Rico et al., 2007).
in reducing the bacterial load and higher concentrations (45%) inter-
Electrolyzed basic solution has also a strong bactericidal effect,
fere with the overall quality of the produce (Beltrn et al., 2005b;
with pH values ranging from 5.0 to 8.5 and oxidationreduction po-
lmez & Kretzschmar, 2009; Rico et al., 2007). Although the antimi-
tential values ranging from 500 to 700 mV (Graa, Abadias, Salazar,
crobial efcacy of this H2O2 can be comparable to 100200 ppm of
& Nunes, 2011).
chlorine treatment at room temperature, higher microbial reductions
were achieved with H2O2 and a higher overall quality was maintained
5.2. Physical methods
when higher temperatures (5060 C) were applied (Parish et al.,
2003).
Some physical methods are also available for reducing the micro-
biological load of produce. An overview of the major advantages, lim-
5.1.9. Peroxyacetic acid itations and effectiveness for each physical method is present in
It is a combination of peracetic acid (CH3CO3H) and hydrogen per- Table 3.
oxide (H2O2), usually commercialized as a liquid. It is a strong oxidant
agent and is used to wash fruits and vegetables in concentrations up 5.2.1. Modied packaging
to 80 ppm. Peroxyacetic acid is effective on the inactivation of pathogenic The simple form is vacuum packaging (VP), in this the products
microorganisms in suspension at lower concentrations than the ones are packed in a low O2 permeable lm, the air is evacuated and the
required when using chlorine. However, studies revealed that 80 ppm package is sealed (Arvanitoyannis, 2012).
of peroxyacetic acid in wash water is not sufcient to obtain a substantial
reduction in the microbial load of fresh-cut fruits and vegetables (Arts 5.2.1.1. Modied atmosphere packaging (MAP). Modied atmosphere
et al., 2009; Rico et al., 2007; Sapers, 2006). packaging (MAP) involves the modication of the internal atmo-
sphere composition of a package by reducing the amount of oxygen
5.1.10. Calcium-based solutions (O2) and replacing it by carbon dioxide (CO2) and/or nitrogen (N2).
These solutions are widely used for delicate fruits and products This process intends to extend the post-harvest life of whole and
with high senescence index, as it maintains produce rmness. One pre-cut commodities by reducing their respiration rate and the
of the compounds most utilized is calcium lactate, because it has anti- production of ethylene, minimizing metabolic activity, delaying
bacterial properties due to its ability to uncouple microbial transport enzymatic browning, and retaining visual appearance (Cui, Shang,
processes. In a study with fresh-cut lettuce and carrots this compound Shi, Xin, & Cao, 2009). The gas re-balancing can be achieved either
8
Table 3
Physical methods used for the preservation of minimally processed vegetables and fruits.
Method Advantages Limitations Effectiveness References
Modied atmosphere - Extends storage life of the fresh produce by 50400% - Often produces high levels of CO2 with a consequent - Effective on preserving the quality of Arvanitoyannis (2012),
packaging (MAP) - In general, fresh-cut products are more tolerant to development of off-avors and potential stimulation fresh and processed vegetables and in Cliffe-Byrnes and O'Beirne (2002),
higher CO2 concentrations than the intact product of pathogens growth reducing the postharvest disease incidence Cui et al. (2009),
- Reduced economic losses - Temperature control necessary for several fruits and vegetables Graa et al. (2011),
- Provides a high-quality product - Different gas formulations per product type Kim, Hung, and Brackett (2000),
- Odorless and convenient packages and target microorganism Rico et al. (2008),
- Sealed packages can act as barriers to further - Packaging material, and temperature per product and Saltveit (2003)
product recontamination and/or the target microorganism(s)
- Delay of ripening - CO2 dissolving to food could lead to package collapse
- Improved presentation, clear view of product and increased drip
and all-around visibility - Plastic lms may be environmentally undesirable
Active and - Food quality and sensorial improvements - Difcult to evaluate its safety when compared to - Efcient on product Dainelli et al. (2008),
Intelligent - Food safety improvement the traditional packaging shelf life improvement Kerry et al. (2006),
packaging (A&I) - Delays oxidation - Can occur migration of substances from the package - Monitors the integrity and safety and Yam, Takhistov,
- Monitorization of the temperature along transport to the food of the packed product and Miltz (2005)
- Control of respiration rate, microbial growth, - Incorrect use of the packaging
and moisture migration due to the insufcient labeling
- Can be used to check the effectiveness and integrity - Non-efcacious operation of the A&I packaging
of active packaging systems - Regulation does not cover the use of this type of packaging
- Non-uniformity of international legislation
- Labeling requirements
Nanocomposite - Environment friendly - Increased viscosity (limits process ability) - Development of new food-packaging de Azeredo (2009, 2013)
packaging - Improvement of mechanical properties e.g. strength, - May reduce impact performance materials with improved characteristics
modulus and dimensional stability - Optical issues
- Low permeability to gases, water and hydrocarbons - Scarce information on formulation/structure/
- Thermal stability property relationships
- Chemical resistance
- Electrical conductivity
- Optical clarity in comparison to conventionally lled polymers
Irradiation - Can be performed at room temperature - Acceptance of irradiation by consumers - Variable effectiveness against postharvest Allende and Artes (2003),
- Can be conducted after packaging - Produce quality may be affected specially at high doses pathogens reported in literature Barakat (2010), Bidawid,
- Delays ripening and senescence of climacteric fruits - Product texture alterations - High efciency for eliminating pathogenic Farber, and Sattar (2000),
- Extends shelf-life of produce bacteria and parasites from the surface of Foley, Dufour, Rodriguez,
- Low energy costs fruits and vegetables Caporaso, and Prakash (2002),
- Effective in reducing bacterial Goularte et al. (2004),
and molds of climacteric fruits Hagenmaier and Baker (1997),
- Gamma rays and X-rays have higher Hussain, Meena, Dar,
penetration ability than electron beams and Wani (2008), and Molins,
Motarjemi, and Kferstein (2001)
Method
Advantages Limitations Effectiveness References
Ultraviolet light (UV) - Absence of residual toxicity - Pre-treatment normally necessary - Effective in reducing microbiota growth Alexandre, Brando,
- Equipment relatively inexpensive and easy to use - Difculties in accurately measure the UV dose in fruits and vegetables and Silva (2012c),
- Can reduce deterioration of the produce - Increase produce stress and respiration rate, - Germicidal at UV-C interval Neves, Vieira, and Silva (2012),
- Exposure to UV also induces the synthesis and induce a lignication-like process and Ohlsson and Bengtsson (2002)
of health-promoting compounds such as - Low penetration depth
anthocyanins and stilbenoids - Limited application on solid food and opaque surfaces
- Can cause off-avors and color changes
Pulsed Light (PL) - Rapid and effective on microbial inactivation - Food composition affects the efcacy - Inactivates spoilage Choi, Cheigh, Jeong, Shin,
in solid and liquid foods - Efcacy decreases at high contamination levels and pathogenic microorganisms and Chung (2010), Gmez-Lpez,
- Few residual compounds - Possible resistance in some microorganisms Ragaert, Debevere,
- Medium cost - Possible adverse chemical effects and Devlieghere (2007b),
- Low energy input Guerrero-Beltrn et al. (2005),
and Oms-Oliu, Martin-Belloso,
and Soliva-Fortuny (2010)
High Pressure - Microbial and enzymatic inactivation - Affects porous integrity - Effective in inactivating most vegetative Chawla, Patil, and Singh (2011),
Processing (HPP) - No degradation in avor and nutrients - Expensive equipment pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms Considine, Kelly, Fitzgerald, Hill,
- No evidence of toxicity - Foods should have approx. 40% free water at pressures above 200 MPa and Sleator (2008),
- Positive consumer appeal for antimicrobial effect and Guerrero-Beltrn et al. (2005)
- Uniformity of treatment throughout food
Ultrasound (US) - Enhance the penetration of solutions to inaccessible sites - Needs to be combined with other process to be effective - Effective against common Alexandre et al. (2012b),
- Heat transfer rate increased - Complex due to difculty to scale-up food bacteria pathogens Cao et al. (2010),
- Reduction of process times and temperature - Changes on food structure and texture - Also effective against vegetative cells, Chemat, Zill e, and Khan (2011),
- Penetration affected by solids and air in product spores and enzymes Mukhopadhyay and
Ramaswamy (2012),
and Sagong et al. (2011)
Cold Plasma - High efciency - Scarce information about the mechanism of inactivation - Inactivation of E. coli O157:H7, Bermdez-Aguirre et al. (2013),
- Low impact on the internal product matrix - Physicochemical changes in the product may occur Salmonella, S. aureus and L. monocytogenes Critzer and Doyle (2010),
- No residues - Inactivation is affected by type of microorganisms, by 1.53.7 log CFU/cm2 Fernndez et al. (2013),
- Resource-efcient inactivation medium, number of cells, operating Fernndez and Thompson (2012),
- Can be used on vegetables tissues surfaces gas mixture, gas ow, and physiological Knorr et al. (2011), Perni, Liu,
- No shadow effects (all product is treated) state of cells Shama, and Kong (2008), and
- Could be included as part of the packaging process - Scarce information about interactions with the food Surowsky et al. (2013)
or packaging materials
- Scarce information about the stability of the plasma
for large-scale operation
9
using active or passive techniques inside a package made of various effects on foods and microorganisms. The principal target of ionizing
types and/or combinations of lms (Saxena, Bawa, & Raju, 2008). A radiation is water that produces free radicals, which react, destroy
drawback of this method is related with the levels of CO2 generated or deactivate bacterial components (Allende et al., 2006b; Rico et al.,
inside the packages that can not only inhibit the aerobic spoilage 2007; Soliva-Fortuny & Martin-Belloso, 2003). Low-dose irradiation
microorganisms, but can also allow or even stimulated pathogen is applied to fresh fruits and vegetables to delay produce maturation,
growth (Rodriguez-Aguilera, Oliveira, Montanez, & Mahajan, 2009; and is very effective in reducing bacterial, parasitic, and protozoan
Rosa, Sapata, & Guerra, 2007). pathogens (Lu, Yu, Gao, Lu, & Zhang, 2005; Prakash, Inthajak,
Huibregtse, Caporaso, & Foley, 2000).
5.2.1.2. Active and intelligent packaging. In the last decades, one of the This treatment has been approved by the FDA for use on fruits
most innovative developments in the area of food packaging is the and vegetables at a maximum level of 1.0 kGy (Parish et al., 2003).
active and intelligent (A&I) packaging, based on deliberate interactions However, FDA evaluated a petition, led by the Food Irradiation Coalition,
with the food or food environment (Restuccia et al., 2010). asking for the use of irradiation to enhance safety of fresh-cut produce at
Active packaging refers to the incorporation of certain agents into doses up to 4.5 kGy. In response, they ruled that only for iceberg lettuce
packaging systems (whether loose within the pack, attached to the and spinach shelf-life extension up to a maximum dose of 4.0 kGy can
inside of packaging materials or incorporated within the packaging ma- be used. The use of ionizing radiation on the remaining foods included
terials themselves) to improve food quality and safety and therefore ex- in the petition remains under review (Food & Drug Administration, H.
tend their shelf life (Dainelli, Gontard, Spyropoulos, Zondervan-van den H. S., 2008).
Beuken, & Tobback, 2008; Kerry, O'Grady, & Hogan, 2006). The nature
of the active agents that can be added is very diverse (organic acids, 5.2.3. Ultraviolet light (UV)
enzymes, bacteriocins, fungicides, natural extracts, ions, ethanol, etc.) Ultraviolet radiation is classied according to wavelength: UV-A,
as well as the nature of the materials into which they are included also known as near-ultraviolet radiation, ranges from 315 to 400 nm;
(papers, plastics, metals or combinations of these materials; Dainelli UV-B, mid-range UV, from 280 to 315 nm; and UV-C, far-UV, from
et al., 2008; Restuccia et al., 2010). 100 to 280 nm (Prakash et al., 2000).
The wide diversity of active packaging devices has specic applica- UV-C is the most common applied to fresh fruits and vegetables,
tions to individual food products for which the shelf-life can be extended since it acts directly or indirectly as an antimicrobial agent. UV-C
substantially, so long as the food's unique spoilage mechanisms are un- can cause direct bacterial DNA damage or may induce resistance mech-
derstood and controlled. Many studies can be found, regarding applica- anisms against pathogens in different fruits and vegetables. Low doses
tions of active packaging to food industry (Bolumar, Andersen, & Orlien, of UV-C radiation (254 nm) also reduce decay of a wide range of fruits
2011; Cruz-Romero, Murphy, Morris, Cummins, & Kerry, 2013). and vegetables when applied after harvest (Ben-Yehoshua & Mercier,
The purpose of intelligent packaging is to give indication on, and 2005).
to monitor, the freshness of the food. Substances responsible for the
active or intelligent function can be contained in a separate container, 5.2.4. Pulsed light (PL)
for instance in a small paper sachet or as substances directly incorpo- An alternative technology to UV light is pulsed light (PL) also
rated in the packaging material (Arvanitoyannis, 2012; Dainelli et al., known as high intensity light pulse (HILP) (Palgan et al., 2011).
2008). This treatment is rapid and effective on microbial inactivation in
Intelligent packaging gives information to the manufacturer, solid and liquid foods and involves a wide broad-spectrum light in the
retailer and consumer based on its ability to sense, detect, or record wavelength range of 1001100 nm. Pulsed light kills microorganisms
external or internal changes in the product's environment. It can be using short time high frequency pulses of an intense broad spectrum,
used to check the effectiveness and integrity of active packaging systems rich UV-C light. Explanations for its mechanism of action have been
(Arvanitoyannis, 2012; Kerry et al., 2006). given in terms of structural changes of microbial DNA, comparable
to the effect caused by continuous ultraviolet sources, but additional
5.2.1.3. Nanocomposite packaging. Currently the food industry uses mechanisms seem to be involved (Pataro et al., 2011; Vicente et al.,
packages that are non-degradable, generating environmental problems. 2005).
Several biopolymers have been exploited to develop materials for eco- Since the PL decontamination effect seems to be dependent on
friendly food packaging, however their poor mechanical and barrier microbial light absorption, certain food components could also absorb
properties have limited their use (de Azeredo, 2009; Duncan, 2011; the effective wavelengths and decrease the efciency of this treatment
Roy, Saha, Kitano, & Saha, 2012). (Ramos-Villarroel, Aron-Maftei, Martin-Belloso, & Soliva-Fortuny, 2012).
The use of llers with at least one nanoscale dimension Current literature on vegetable and fruit decontamination with
(nanoparticles) produces nanocomposites. These have larger surface PL is scarce (Palgan et al., 2011), therefore more data is necessary to
area, which favors the llermatrix interactions and the performance evaluate the suitability of this technology.
of the resulting material. Recently, using nanocomposite materials
improved fundamental characteristics of food-packaging materials such 5.2.5. High pressure processing (HPP)
as strength, barrier properties, antimicrobial properties, and stability to High pressure processing is a method where food is subjected to
heat and cold (Rhim, Park, & Ha, in press). elevated pressures (in the range of 1001000 MPa) to achieve micro-
Some of the applications associated with nanotechnology include bial and enzymatic inactivation, without the degradation in avour
the development of new food-packaging materials with improved and nutrients associated with traditional thermal processing.
mechanical, barrier and antimicrobial properties (de Azeredo, 2009; HHP processing can increase chemical or microbial stability and
Duncan, 2011; Roy et al., 2012). make desirable textural changes in food products. These achievements
Nanoscale technologies can be a promising technique to improve will depend on pressure, treatment time, and types of enzymes and/
produce packaging. However, more studies are required before their or microorganisms (Guerrero-Beltrn, Barbosa-Cnovas, & Swanson,
application in food industry. 2005).
As the process can be operated at ambient or even chill tempera-
5.2.2. Irradiation tures, there is little heat damage to nutrients or natural avours and
Gamma-ray, X-ray, and electron beams are called ionizing radia- colours, which results in high quality products.
tions, because they are capable of producing ions, electronically charged As shown in several studies, HPP can be suitable for fruit and
atoms or molecules. They have the same mechanisms in terms of their vegetable products processing. This treatment provides high quality
food with higher safety and extended shelf-life, while maintaining in food products and studies suggested that when LAB are applied
similar characteristics to fresh products (Guerrero-Beltrn et al., 2005; to produce surfaces they are strong competitors for physical space and
Laboissire et al., 2007; Schlter, Foerster, Geyer, Knorr, & Herppich, nutrients, and/or may produce a wide range of antimicrobial metabo-
2009). lites such as organic acids, hydrogen peroxide, diacetyl and bacteriocins
that negatively affect pathogens (Sagong et al., 2011). Bacteriocins
5.2.6. Ultrasound are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and have been commonly
The use of ultrasound within the food industry has been a subject employed in combination with other food additives as protective agents
of research and development for many years. Power ultrasound (US) in fresh-cut produce (Rodgers, 2001, 2008).
has emerged as an alternative processing technology to food con- Therefore, biopreservation is a promising innovative way of
ventional thermal approaches (Oey, Lille, Van Loey, & Hendrickx, 2008; extending the shelf-life of fresh fruits and vegetables, and reducing
Rico et al., 2007). Ultrasound is used at frequencies in the range of microbial hazards (Settanni & Corsetti, 2008). Thus, further research
20100 kHz and requires the presence of a liquid medium for power on microbial interactions as a pathogens control mitigation strategy in
transmission. On its own, US is not signicantly effective on decreasing produce is needed.
high load microbial contamination (Alexandre et al., 2012b; Sagong
et al., 2011). Due to this reason, this treatment has been used in combi-
nation with aqueous sanitizers (e.g. organic acids, chlorine, and chlorine 5.4. Combined methods
dioxide), showing better results (Cao et al., 2010). The US potential is
to improve the aqueous sanitizer's effectiveness by enhancing the pene- Hurdle technology refers to a combination of the different above
tration of these solutions to inaccessible sites (hydrophobic pockets and mentioned preservation techniques that supplement and enhance
folds in leaf surfaces on fruits and vegetables) (Seymour, Burfoot, Smith, each other. The most important hurdles commonly used are based
Cox, & Lockwood, 2002). on storage temperatures, water activity, pH, redox potential, modied
atmosphere, and addition of preservatives (Rahman, Jin, & Oh, 2011;
5.2.7. Cold plasma Randazzo, Pitino, Scifo, & Caggia, 2009; Trias, Badosa, Montesinos,
An emerging antimicrobial technology for decontaminating infected & Baeras, 2008a; Trias, Baeras, Badosa, & Montesinos, 2008b). The
surfaces is the use of non-thermal ionized gases (cold gas plasmas). hurdle technology consists on the use of a sequence of mild treatments
Briey, plasma is composed of gas molecules, which have been dissoci- (low intensity) to inhibit or inactivate the factors responsible for food
ated by an energy input. It is constituted by photons, electrons, positive spoilage, avoiding the use of single treatments at more severe condi-
and negative ions, atoms, free radicals and excited or non-excited mole- tions. Efcacy of the combined preservation methods is usually depen-
cules that, in combination, have the ability to inactivate microorganisms dent upon the types of treatment, type and physiology of the target
(Fernndez, Shearer, Wilson, & Thompson, 2012). microorganisms, characteristics of produce surfaces, exposure time
This exible sanitizing method uses electricity and a carrier gas, and concentration of cleaner/sanitizer, pH, and temperature (Singla,
such as air, oxygen, nitrogen, or helium. The primary modes of action Ganguli, & Ghosh, 2011). The main goal is to use preservation tech-
are due to UV light and reactive chemical products of the cold plasma niques that prolong storage stability and do not have detrimental effects
ionization process (Niemira, 2012). on the quality attributes of the produce (Parish et al., 2003).
In food processing, the direct application of cold plasma as well as
semi-direct or indirect treatment with thermal plasma is of interest
as these can be used to treat the food at low temperatures (b70 C). 6. Conclusions
For applications in the food sector, preference should be given to
processes carried out at atmospheric pressure (e.g. plasma jet, di- Most of the techniques reviewed in this paper have not yet been
electric barrier discharges) because they allow continuous process adopted by the fresh-cut and minimally processed fruit and vegetable
control and do not accelerate undesirable phase transitions, compared industry. Chlorine continues to be the most commonly used sanitizer
to applications at reduced pressure (p b 1013 mbar) or low pressure due to its efcacy, cost-effectiveness ratio and simple use. The effective-
(p b 10 mbar) (Schlter et al., 2013). ness of all of these technologies depends on the microbial sensitivity
Studies on produce had shown that cold plasma is highly effective to the sanitizer agent used and, consequently, variable results are
on the removal of surface human pathogens, such as E. coli O157:H7 commonly reported by researchers. In part, the lack of efciency can
and Salmonella spp. (Fernndez, Noriega, & Thompson, 2013; Misra, be attributed to the disinfectant inaccessibility to structures and tissues
Tiwari, Raghavarao, & Cullen, 2011; Niemira, 2012; Schlter et al., that support the growth of microbial ora. Further investigation on
2013; Wang et al., 2012). specic pathogens/produce combinations is needed.
The degree of inactivation can be affected by the type of microorgan- It can be concluded that there are many different technologies to
isms, the inactivation medium, number of cells, operating gas mixture, gas reduce/eliminate the microorganisms present in fresh-cut fruits and
ow, and physiological state of cells, among others (Bermdez-Aguirre, vegetables. The proper use of these techniques will allow an increase
Wemlinger, Pedrow, Barbosa-Cnovas, & Garcia-Perez, 2013). safety of the minimally processed products. However, none of the
There is scarce information about physicochemical changes that sanitizing methods can control all the parameters that maintain the
might occur in the product due to the interaction of charged species quality and shelf-life of MPFVs. Therefore, additional studies using com-
from plasma with the food components (Bermdez-Aguirre et al., 2013; bined methods or using competitive microora to extend and enhance
Knorr et al., 2011; Surowsky, Fischer, Schlueter, & Knorr, 2013). the safety of this kind of products are crucial.
5.3. Biological methods

Acknowledgments
In an attempt to prevent growth of pathogens and spoilage microor-
ganisms on produce, research on the application of biocontrol agents has This work was supported by National Funds from FCTFundao
been made. This method is known as biopreservation and consists on ex- para a Cincia e a Tecnologia through project PEst-OE/EQB/LA0016/2011.
tension of the shelf-life and improvement of food safety using microor- Financial support for authors Ramos B., Miller F.A. and Brando T.R.S.
ganisms and/or their metabolites. Some particular microorganisms that was provided by FCT and Fundo Social Europeu (FSE) through fellowships
have been studied as possessing an antagonistic effect on pathogens SFRH/BD/42169/2007, SFRH/BPD/65041/2009 and SFRH/BPD/41419/
are the lactic acid bacteria (LAB). This bacterial group is naturally present 2007, respectively.
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Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies

Fresh fruits and vegetablesAn overview on applied methodologies to improve its

Corresponding author. Tel.: +351 22 5580058; fax: +351 22 5090351.

5.2. Physical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

1. Introduction the combination food/contaminant/process and important fresh

to air and to possible contamination with bacteria, yeasts and moulds. A

Bacteria Clostridium botulinum Cabbage, pepper, garlic, potato and carrots

Advantages Limitations Effectiveness References

Method Advantages Limitations Effectiveness References

Advantages Limitations Effectiveness References

5.3. Biological methods

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