White, D. J. & Lehane, B. M. (2004). Geotechnique 54, No.
10, 645658
Friction fatigue on displacement piles in sand
D. J. W H I T E * a n d B. M . L E H A N E
Experiments with instrumented displacement piles have
shown that the ultimate shaft friction that can develop in
a given sand horizon decreases as the pile tip penetrates
to deeper levels. This phenomenon, which is now com-
monly referred to as friction fatigue, is investigated here
using centrifuge model piles equipped with lateral stress
sensors, and by drawing on other experimental data from
the laboratory and the field. It is shown that the primary
mechanism controlling friction fatigue is the cyclic his-
tory imparted during pile installation to soil elements at
the pilesand interface. For a given installation method
the stationary lateral stress acting at any given level on a
displacement pile can be described as a relatively unique
function of the cone penetration test end resistance and
the number of cycles imposed during installation. The
strong influence of cycling, which is also seen in cyclic
constant normal stiffness interface shear tests, is attribu-
ted to contraction of a narrow shear zone at the shaft
soil interface that is surrounded by soil with a relatively
high lateral stiffness.
KEYWORDS: piles; sands
INTRODUCTION
There are significant uncertainties associated with the pre-
diction of the axial capacity of displacement piles in sand.
Recent experiments involving field-scale instrumented piles
(e.g. Lehane, 1992; Chow, 1997) have successfully reduced
the level of this uncertainty, leading to the development of
improved approaches such as those proposed by Lehane &
Jardine (1994), Randolph et al. (1994) and Jardine & Chow
(1996). These methods have a greater prediction reliability
primarily because of the improved understanding of shaft
friction characteristics obtained through measurement of
horizontal stresses acting on the pile shaft (Poulos et al.,
2001). However, a number of significant facets require
further investigation to enable formulation of more generally
accepted design approaches with reduced reliance on empiri-
cal correlations.
A second motivation for research into shaft friction on
displacement piles lies in the development of new pile
installation techniques that involve jacking rather than con-
ventional dynamic techniques, which are becoming less
acceptable in urban areas because of noise, vibration and
emission restrictions. White et al. (2002) and Lehane et al.
(2003) describe two novel pile-jacking systems with capaci-
ties greater than 4 MN for the installation of large pre-
formed displacement piles. These machines offer an alter-
native to bored piling for the construction of deep founda-
tions in urban areas. However, if these new jacking
Manuscript received 17 February 2004; revised manuscript accepted
20 September 2004.
Discussion on this paper closes on 1 June 2005, for further details
see p. ii.
* Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, UK.
School of Civil and Resource Engineering, University of Western
Australia, Crawley, Western Australia.
645
Les essais avec des piles de deplacement instrumentees
ont montre que la friction darbre ultime qui peut
apparatre dans un horizon sableux donne diminue a
mesure que la pointe de la pile penetre a des niveaux
plus bas. Nous etudions ici ce phenomene qui est au-
jourdhui appele communement fatigue de friction, en
utilisant des piles en modeles centrifuges equipees de
detecteurs de contrainte lateraux et en puisant dans
dautres resultats experimentaux en laboratoire et sur le
terrain. Nous montrons que le mecanisme primaire con-
trolant la fatigue de friction est lhistoire cyclique impar-
tie pendant linstallation des piles sur les elements de sol
a linterface pile-sable. Pour une methode dinstallation
donnee, la contrainte laterale stationnaire agissant a un
niveau donne sur une pile de deplacement peut etre
decrite comme une fonction relativement unique de la
resistance finale CPT et du nombre de cycles imposes
pendant linstallation. La forte influence du cyclage qui
est egalement notee dans les essais de cisaillement sur
une interface a rigidite normale a constante cyclique est
attribuee a la contraction dans une zone de cisaillement
etroite a linterface arbre-sol qui est entouree par un sol
ayant une rigidite laterale relativement elevee.
techniques are to become more widely accepted, research is
needed to investigate the influence of the installation method
on pile behaviour. Since conventional design methods have
been developed based on historic experience with dynami-
cally installed piles, caution is required when these methods
are applied to jacked piles.
BACKGROUND
Field measurements of the distribution of horizontal and
shear stress acting on a pile shaft have highlighted the
deficiencies of conventional earth pressure design ap-
proaches in which the in situ vertical effective stress profile
is multiplied by assumed earth pressure and interface friction
coefficients to estimate a distribution of the available ulti-
mate shaft shear stress (f ) with depth; f values derived in
this way are often restricted to limiting maximum values
(e.g. API, 2000). The earth pressure approach for displace-
ment piles in sand has been largely replaced in the onshore
environment by methods that relate f to an in situ test
parameter such as the cone penetration test (CPT) end
resistance (qc : e.g. Bustamante & Gianeselli, 1982). The
design method of Jardine & Chow (1996) also assumes a
direct relationship between f and qc but is shown to have
greater reliability primarily because it incorporates the trend,
seen in field experiments, for the available shaft friction at a
given soil horizon to decrease with increasing penetration of
the pile tip (e.g. Lehane et al., 1993). Heerema (1980)
referred to this phenomenon as friction fatigue and demon-
strated its influence on pile driveability.
The Randolph et al. (1994) and Jardine & Chow (1996)
design methods account for friction fatigue using relation-
ships that can be divided into (a) the calculation of a
maximum available shaft friction (f ) from a sand horizon
just above the pile tip and (b) the calculation of a degrada-
646 WHITE AND LEHANE
tion, or fatigue, of f as the pile tip penetrates further.
Randolph et al. (1994) propose a reduction in lateral stress
(and hence shaft friction) towards active earth pressure
conditions in proportion to e
h=D , where h is the distance
above the pile tip, D is the pile diameter, and is an
empirical degradation factor. They note that is likely to be
influenced by a number of factors, including soil compressi-
bility, pile roughness and incremental driving energy. Jardine
& Chow (1996) refer to friction fatigue as the h/R effect
(R being pile radius), and propose that the horizontal stress
acting on the pile shaft reduces in proportion to (h/R)
r ,
where an r value of 0.38 was found to provide a best fit to a
large database of high-quality load tests.
The mechanisms governing friction fatigue are unclear,
and there is no particular behavioural model that provides a
basis for the derivation of factors such as and r. Further-
more, while both of these friction fatigue approaches choose
to normalise the distance h by pile diameter (or radius), this
normalisation remains to be justified by a governing me-
chanism. Few field records include measurements of local
shaft friction distribution, and these are often unreliable
owing to residual loads, instrument damage during driving,
and the difficulty of separating internal and external shaft
friction on open-ended piles.
To illustrate friction fatigue, profiles of ultimate shaft
friction from three different types of pile or penetrometer
are shown in Fig. 1. These have been selected to demon-
strate the extreme cases of low and high friction degradation
during installation, and show that the rate of degradation is
strongly influenced by the method of installation.
The results from four soundings using a CPT instrument
equipped with four friction sleeves located above the penet-
rometer tip are shown in Fig. 1(a) (DeJong, 2001; DeJong &
Frost, 2002). Three configurations of the CPT allow meas-
urements of sleeve friction at distances of between 167 mm
and 1517 mm behind the shoulder of the cone tip. During
the soundings, each of which involved jacking strokes with a
length of 1 m (or 23D), the second and third sleeve indicate
frictions that are 8% below and above those registered by
the first and last sleeves respectively. Post-test measurements
of the sleeve diameters revealed the second and third sleeves
to be 0.05 mm smaller and larger than the first and last,
explaining the observed consistent minor difference in re-
corded friction. Aside from these minor discrepancies, the
three soundings indicate no reduction in shaft friction be-
tween h/D 4 and 35 (or between 167 and 1517 mm behind
the penetrometer shoulder).
Measurements of stationary horizontal effective stress, h9c ,
acting on the shaft of the 101 mm diameter, Imperial College
instrumented model pile (ICP) at three stages during installa-
tion in dense sand are shown in Fig. 1(b) (Chow, 1997; test
DK2). The term stationary is employed as these values were
recorded between jacking strokes when the pile was under
zero head load. Four horizontal stress transducers located
along the pile shaft provide a series of observations at a given
soil horizon as each instrument passes that depth, z. A clear
trend for h9c measured at a given z to reduce with increasing
penetration is evident. For example, close to z 3 m, h9c is
recorded as 169 kPa when the first instrument, located
406 mm (4D) behind the pile tip, passes that level. A 36%
reduction occurs prior to the arrival of the second instrument
after a further 965 mm (9.5D) of penetration. On arrival of
the fourth instrument, located 3760 mm (37D) behind the pile
tip, the registered h9c value had fallen to 98 kPa, which is
less than 60% of the value measured at h 4D.
Measured f values showed a virtually identical rate of
degradation with h to that of the h9c values (see Chow,
1997). This degradation is in marked contrast to that shown
in the multiple friction sleeve CPT experiments, which sug-
gests a possible influence of differences between the respec-
tive jacking procedures. For example, the ICP was installed
in jacking strokes with a typical length of 0.23 m (2.3D),
and therefore the number of cycles encountered at z 3 m
prior to arrival of the three instruments was about 2, 6 and
17 respectively. A 40% reduction in h9c (or f ) occurs
between h/D of 4 and 37 for this case, whereas no friction
fatigue is measured between h/D of 4 and 35 for the CPT,
for which the number of cycles experienced at a soil horizon
less than 1 m behind the cone tip is either zero or one, and
between 1 m and 2 m is either one or two.
The final example of friction fatigue is from a full-scale
instrumented tubular pile installed in dense sand for the
EURIPIDES project, described by Fugro (1996). A heavily
instrumented 762 mm diameter open-ended tubular pile was
load-tested at three penetrations between 30 and 47 m below
ground level. The test site comprised dense sand below 22 m
depth, with CPT qc values in the range 4570 MPa. The
pile was driven using a 90 kJ hammer reaching a blowcount
of 400 blows/m at the final embedded depth.
Figure 1(c) shows the distribution of external f values at
a pile head settlement of D/10 calculated from the axial
force distribution in the pile and ignoring internal shaft
friction (which Randolph et al., 1991, and others, show to
be negligible at more than about 4D above the tip). Some
scatter is evident, as would be expected considering the
demands placed on the instrumentation during such hard
driving. It is also noted that the external shaft frictions
inferred over the lower two diameters are influenced by high
internal shaft friction mobilised on the plug (shown dotted),
as evidenced from internal horizontal stress measurements.
However, there is a clear trend for significant friction
fatigue. For example, over the depth range 3035 m, the
mean f value was 330 kPa during the load test when the
pile tip was at 38.7 m. After a further 8.2 m (11D) of
driving, a subsequent re-test indicated that this value of f
reduced to 130 kPa, which is only 40% of the original value.
During the period of driving between load tests, approxi-
mately 3000 hammer blows were applied to the pile head.
The three examples described above suggest that friction
fatigue does not occur in the absence of loading cycles, and
that a greater number of cycles imposed during installation
leads to a larger reduction in shaft friction at a given soil
horizon. This observation suggests that the distribution of
available shaft friction after pile installation might be better
predicted by linking friction fatigue to the loading cycles
induced by the installation method rather than employing an
empirical relationship with h/D.
Prompted by trends such as those inferred from the data
in Fig. 1, this paper describes a systematic investigation into
the effects of the installation method on friction fatigue and
shaft capacity of displacement piles in sand. The investiga-
tion was conducted at reduced scale using instrumented
model piles in a geotechnical drum centrifuge so that a large
number of pile installations could be performed in a uniform
soil sample at a cost that was approximately two orders of
magnitude lower than that of an equivalent series of field-
scale tests. The paper focuses on the distribution of lateral
stresses acting on the centrifuge piles during installation and
subsequent cyclic load tests to assist understanding of the
friction fatigue mechanism.
DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTS
Drum centrifuge
This investigation comprised 18 pile installations con-
ducted in the drum centrifuge at the University of Western
Australia (UWA). The ring channel of this machine has an
outer diameter of 1.2 m, an inner diameter of 0.8 m, and a
 FRICTION FATIGUE ON DISPLACEMENT PILES IN SAND 647
Stationary horizontal stress, hc

0 50 100 150 200

40 0 0

Normalised instrument distance behind cone shoulder, h/D

S1 1600
35
S2

Instrument distance behind cone shoulder: mm

1 10
S3 1400
30
S4
1200

Normalised instrument depth, z/D

25 2 20

Instrument depth, z: m
1000

20
800 3 30

15
600
4 40
10
400

5 Conventional
f riction 200 5 50
sleeve z tip
326 m = 32 D
measurements
z tip
436 m = 43 D
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 z tip
577 m = 57 D
Mean shear stress, f: kPa 6 60

(a) (b)

Ultimate shaft friction, f: kPa

0 200 400 600 800 1000

20

z tip
3045 m
30
z tip
3870 m
25 z tip
4690 m
35

30
40
Normalised depth, z/D
Depth, z: m

45
35

50
40

55

45
60

50 65

(c)

Fig. 1. Observed distributions of shaft friction on: (a) a multi-sleeve CPT instrument (D 43.7 mm)
(DeJong, 2001); (b) a jacked instrumented model pile (D 101.6 mm) (Chow, 1997); (c) a long
offshore pile (D 762 mm) (Fugro, 1996)

channel height of 0.3 m. The key advantage of a drum A key feature of the centrifuge is its independently
centrifuge over a beam centrifuge is the increased plan area rotating central shaft and tool table, which can be driven
of the soil sample, which permits a large number of tests to relative to the ring channel by a hollow stepper motor, and
be conducted in a uniform soil model. Compared with the brought to a halt independently of the channel. An actuator
1.8 m radius beam centrifuge at UWA, a sample in the drum is mounted on the tool table, onto which instrumented tools
centrifuge has three times more plan area, and so is ideally can be attached and controlled. Twin stepper motors allow
suited to parametric studies of the kind reported in this precise vertical and radial movement of the tool, while a
paper. further stepper motor controls a counterbalance. Two per-
648 WHITE AND LEHANE
sonal computers (PCs) are mounted on the tool table: one
controls the actuator stepper motors, and the other is for
data acquisition. The actuator control PC receives commands
from a PC in the control room via a serial link across the
slip rings. Feedback between the onboard data acquisition
PC and the control room PC allows the actuator to be
operated in a load-controlled mode. A full technical descrip-
tion of the facility is provided by Stewart et al. (1998).
Model pile
To measure the horizontal stress acting on the shaft, a
model pile was fabricated with miniature total pressure cells
(Kyowa PS-5KA) embedded on the surface (Fig. 2). A
square section (9 mm 3 9 mm) pile was used so that these
flat circular cells could be mounted flush with the pile
surface. The pile was fabricated from stainless steel and
machined to a mean centreline surface roughness, RCLA , of
0.55 m.
Six pressure cells were mounted at four locations between
9 and 108 mm behind the pile tip (i.e. h/B 1, 3, 6 and 12,
where h is the height above the pile tip and B is the pile
width). By instrumenting both sides of the pile close to the
tip, a degree of redundancy was incorporated and the repeat-
ability of the measurements could be checked. The pressure
cells were glued into slots machined into the face of the
pile, after which the slots were backfilled with clear epoxy
(Fig. 2). The head of the pile was attached to a cap that was
connected via a 10 kN axial load cell to the tool table. The
wiring for the pressure cells passed up the body of the pile
in a 6 mm diameter hole, giving the pile a net cross-
sectional area of 52.7 mm2 . Noting that the ratio of the
Youngs modulus of steel to that of concrete is 7, the axial
stiffness of the model pile is about 4.5 times higher than
that of a solid concrete pile.
After construction of the pile, the pressure cells were
exercised under air in a pressurised chamber. No hysteresis
was evident in the range 0500 kPa, and linear calibration
factors, including those to correct for a small cross-sensitiv-
ity to axial load in the range 1020 kPa/kN, were estab-
lished for each sensor. The possibility of cell action effects
influencing the operative calibration factor in soil was con-
sidered, although it will be shown later that cell action
effects were, at worst, consistent between instruments, per-
mitting comparison of horizontal stress measurements at
different locations.
Soil properties
The centrifuge tests employed uniform rounded fine silica
sand, with properties summarised in Table 1. A series of 30
constant normal load direct interface shear box tests were
performed at a range of relative densities in excess of 50%
and vertical stresses between 50 and 250 kPa. Although the
interface would normally be considered smooth, having a
relative roughness, Rn  2RCLA /D50 of 0.006, all samples
dilated by between 0.01 and 0.02 mm and registered a peak
strength. The average peak and constant-volume friction
angles were 168 and 128 respectively, showing no significant
variation with initial density or confining stress over the
range investigated.

Soil model preparation

A single bed of sand was used for the entire testing
programme. This bed was prepared in three stages. First, the
channel was filled to the maximum depth of 200 mm with
dry sand using an automatic pourer while the ring channel
Cell was spinning at 20g. The sand was then saturated with water
B4 and left to drain overnight through the base, leaving the
material slightly damp and with sufficient suction to hold
108 mm the sample in position when the ring channel was halted.
(12B) Finally, the channel was brought to a halt and the surface
185 mm was screeded flat to a nominal sample depth of 180 mm
using a rotating cutter attached to the tool table. The actual
variation in sample depth around the channel, as shown
by the touchdown position of each pile test, was less than
 1 mm. The channel was then accelerated to 50g, and
Cell remained spinning for 9 days while the test programme was
B3 conducted. The bottom channel drain remained open
throughout testing, and no outflow of water was evident after
54 mm the first 24 h of spinning. However, during emptying of the
6B channel after testing, the lower 50 mm of the sand bed
Cell remained slightly damp, indicating that completely dry con-
Cell
F2 B2 ditions had not been achieved.

27 mm
Cell Cell (3B) Table 1. Soil properties
F1 B1 Property Value
9 mm (B) D10 particle size: mm 0.100
D50 particle size: mm 0.180
Maximum voids ratio, emax 0.762
9 mm (B) 9 mm (B)
Minimum voids ratio, emin 0.493
Specific gravity, Gs 2.65
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of instrumented model pile
 FRICTION FATIGUE ON DISPLACEMENT PILES IN SAND
SOIL PROFILE CHARACTERISATION
A total of 12 CPT soundings were conducted to character-
ise the sand bed, using a 6 mm diameter CPT probe inserted
into the soil at a rate of 1 mm/s. These tests were conducted
at different positions around the sand bed to assess the
homogeneity of the sample, and after each change in g-level.
The CPT soundings conducted during the initial phase of
testing at 50g are shown in Fig. 3. Good agreement is found
between all tests in the upper 80 mm of the sample, with
deviation of up to 15% from the average evident between
80 and 120 mm. The average of soundings 1A, 1B, 2A and
2B has been used as the design profile throughout the
back-analysis described in the paper.
Using the Lunne & Christofferson (1983) correlation be-
tween qc , vertical effective stress, v9 , and relative density,
Dr, it is estimated that the samples relative density (Dr )
increases with depth from 20% at the sample surface to
80% at a depth of 60 mm and 90% at 120 mm. This
Cone resistance, qc: MPa
0 10 20 30
0
Average
20
CPT 1A
CPT 1B
CPT 2A
40 CPT 2B
60
Depth: mm
649
distribution of Dr may be attributed to the reducing fall
height of the sand during deposition.
TEST PROGRAMME
The full test programme included tests at acceleration
levels of 50g and 150g. This paper will consider only the
initial series of tests conducted at 50g (tests T1T13, Table
2). The tests were located at 108 intervals around the drum
perimeter, and staggered between the upper and lower parts
of the channel. This arrangement was selected to maximise
the separation of the test locations and the channel walls.
Adjacent tests were located 108 mm (12B) apart at the sand
surface, increasing to 123 mm (13.7B) apart at the final
installation depth of 120 mm owing to the radial direction of
installation.
Installation methods
The pile was installed to a final depth, L, of 120 mm in
all 18 pile installations performed. Installation was generally
40
paused after 60 mm, L/2, of penetration so that a static
compression test could be performed before installation
continued to the full depth (Table 2). After reaching full
depth, the pile was unloaded before undergoing a sequence
of static and/or cyclic load tests. Three techniques were used
to install the test pile in order to investigate the influence of
cycling during penetration:
(a) monotonic installation, comprising a monotonic push at
0.2 mm/s to half of the final pile depth followed by
another monotonic push to the final pile length
(b) jacked installation, comprising cycles of fixed down-
ward displacement (2 mm at 0.2 mm/s, i.e. one jack-

stroke) followed by unloading to zero head load at

0.005 mm/s
80 (c) pseudo-dynamic installation, comprising two-way
cycles of fixed downward (2 mm at 0.2 mm/s) and
upward (1.5 mm at 0.2 mm/s) displacement.
100

Load tests
120 Each test included a sequence of load tests as shown in
Table 2. The procedure for each type of load test presented
in this paper is as follows:

140 (a) compression load test, where the pile was jacked
downwards at 0.005 mm/s for a distance of at least
Fig. 3. Cone resistance against depth 1.5 mm

Table 2. Summary of test programme

Test number T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 T13*
Installation method
Monotonic installation
Jacked installation
Pseudo-dynamic
Load testing
Compression load test at L/2
Compression load test at L
Tension test on extraction L
1-way cyclic compression test
2-way cyclic compression/tension test
1-way cyclic tension test
* Test halted after compression load test at 60 mm penetration.
650 WHITE AND LEHANE
(b) cyclic compression load test, where the pile head load
was cycled between a nominally zero pile head load of
50 N and a maximum of 750 N at a velocity of
0.01 mm/s
(c) cyclic compression-tension load test, where the pile
head load was cycled between 50 N and 750 N at a
velocity of 0.01 mm/s.
PILE HEAD LOAD MEASUREMENTS
Although the primary aim of this paper is to examine
mechanisms controlling friction fatigue for displacement
piles in sand, it is instructive to first examine trends indi-
cated by the pile head load measurements obtained during
pile installation and subsequent load testing.
Installation
The pile head loads recorded during each installation
mode are plotted in Fig. 4. The monotonic installation data
are collated in Fig. 4(a) and show excellent repeatability,
with a maximum deviation between the four tests of 10%.
Although the pile was not equipped with a base load cell,
some estimate of the base resistance can be made by
subtracting the pullout load, which was typically 200 N, or
10% of the final installation resistance. Since the head load
is dominated by base resistance, any difference between
compressive and tensile shaft capacity can be overlooked in
an approximate estimate of base resistance. The mean final
installation force of 2100 N therefore indicates a mean unit
base resistance, qb , of about 23.5 MPa, which is slightly
below the mean CPT resistance at the same depth (Fig. 3).
The pile head loads recorded during jacked installation at
the end of each 2 mm jacking stroke are shown in Fig. 4(b).
Between strokes, the pile was extracted until the head load
reduced to a nominal zero value (of 50 N) to mimic the one-
way cycling at the pile head imposed by pile jacking. The
pseudo-dynamic installation data are shown in Fig. 4(c) and,
although showing greater scatter than the other two installa-
tion methods, exhibit a deviation of less than 15% between
piles. It is clear that the 1.5 mm of extraction during each
cycle mobilises significant negative shaft friction, particu-
larly as the final embedment is approached. This two-way
cycling of shaft friction mimics the conditions during dy-
namic pile installation in an approximate manner.
The maximum pile head loads for each installation mode
are very similar and, since the head load is dominated by
base resistance, this close agreement indicates that the
installation procedure has minimal influence on the ultimate
base resistance.
Monotonic compression load tests
The pile head loaddisplacement data recorded for each
monotonic compression test conducted after installation to
120 mm are shown in Fig. 5 for the three installation meth-
ods employed. Although plunging failure is not reached
during these tests, all curves approach similar maximum
loads of 2100  300 N after 2.53 mm pile head displace-
ment. However, the initial stiffness of the loaddisplacement
response varies with the installation method. Both the mono-
tonic and jacked piles show an initial constant pile head
stiffness of about 2000 N/mm, whereas the pseudo-dynamic
piles, which are load tested after ending installation with a
1.5 mm extraction stage, show a lower initial stiffness of
1500 N/mm. The difference in stiffness of the monotonic
and jacked piles compared with the pseudo-dynamic piles
must arise primarily from the influence of the final stage of
installation on the density, stress history, and hence stiffness
of the soil beneath the pile tip.
It should be noted that the relative stiffness of the shaft
and the base response of model piles does not mimic field
piles. Base response scales primarily with diameter, since it
is a continuum failure mechanism, whereas shaft response
does not scale, since it is governed partly by the shear
stressdisplacement response of the interface and partly by
continuum downdrag of the soil surrounding the pile, as
required to generate this shear stress in the far field. As a
result, the settlement required to mobilise ultimate base
resistance during model tests scales correctly as a fraction of
pile diameter, typically D/5 or D/10. In contrast, the settle-
ment to mobilise shaft resistance does not scale, and remains
similar to the absolute field values of a few millimetres,
rather than reducing in proportion to the model scale to a
fraction of a millimetre. Therefore, although the extraction
strokes (1.5 mm) represent a realistic rebound and reversal
of shaft resistance for modelling dynamic installation, the
base rebound is very high, at D/6. This is an unrealistic
model to examine the effect of installation method on base
response, and therefore the resulting differences in base
stiffness (and hence head stiffness) should not be considered
representative of the field case.
HORIZONTAL STRESS DURING MONOTONIC
INSTALLATION
The six total stress cells provide measurements of hori-
zontal stress acting on the pile shaft at four different
locations behind the pile tip (h/B 1, 3, 6 and 9). The
measurements recorded during monotonic installation (test
T10) are shown in Fig. 6. These are seen to mirror the CPT
qc profile, apart from interruptions corresponding to a tip
depth of 60 mm (when the pile head was unloaded prior to a
static compression load test) and the final tip depth of
120 mm (when the pile was unloaded prior to further load
testing).
Stresses recorded when the pile is moving are referred to
as h9m . All h9m data recorded during the four monotonic
installations are normalised by the corresponding qc values
and plotted against instrument depth in Fig. 7; the error bars
shown in this figure indicate one standard deviation above
and below the average value. It is evident that:
(a) The normalised horizontal stress, h9m /qc , remains
approximately constant throughout installation at
0.016, with possibly a very slight decrease with
increasing depth (or stress level). This value corre-
sponds to a friction ratio, f /qc , of 0.34%, using the
constant-volume friction angle of 128 recorded during
interface testing. This ratio is at the lower end of the
range typically measured during CPTs in dense uniform
sands (Lunne et al., 1997), reflecting the higher
roughness and therefore interface friction angle of a
CPT (e.g. Rcla 0.186.85 m; DeJong et al., 2001)
compared with the model pile. It may therefore be
assumed that no gross error exists in the horizontal
stress measurements.
(b) h9m /qc ratios are independent of the distance behind the
pile tip: that is, at a given soil horizon, approximately
equal horizontal stress is recorded by each instrument
as it passes that point.
The independence of h9m /qc during monotonic installation
from the distance h is emphasised in Fig. 8, which plots the
ratio of the normalised horizontal stress recorded at h/B 1
(i.e. the instrument level closest to the pile tip) to that for
each of the other three instrument levels. No systematic
friction fatigue is evident between h/B 1 and 9. This
 FRICTION FATIGUE ON DISPLACEMENT PILES IN SAND 651
Pile-head load: N
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0 Pile-head load at end of jacking stroke: N

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

0
20
T1
20
T4
40 T2
T5
T6
T10 40
T7
Pile-tip depth: mm

60 T1 1

Pile-tip depth: mm
60

80
80

100 100

120 120

140
140

(a) (b)

Pile-head load at each end of blow: N

500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0

T3
20
T8

T9

T12
40
Pile-tip depth: mm

60

80

100

120

140
(c)

Fig. 4. Pile-head load against tip depth during installation: (a) monotonic installations; (b) jacked installations; (c) pseudo-dynamic
installations

result confirms the observation shown in Fig. 1(a) through incompatible with these observations. The observations con-
direct measurement of the horizontal stress acting on a pile. trast with those of Klotz & Coop (2001) and Vesic (1970),
The proposition that friction fatigue is associated with relief who show maximum h9m values at between 5 and 10
from the highly stressed region close to the pile tip is diameters behind the pile tip. Fellenius & Altaee (1995)
652 WHITE AND LEHANE
Pile-head load: N Horizontal stress,hm: kPa
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0 100 200 300 400 500
0
0
05
Pile-head settlement: mm

T5
10
T1
T4 20
15 h/B
1

h/B
3
20
T10 h/B
6
25
40 h/B
9

30

Instrument depth: mm
(a)

60
Pile-head load: N
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0

05
Pile-head settlement: mm

T2 80
10
T6
15 T7
T1 1
20 100

25

30
(b) 120

Fig. 6. Horizontal stress measurement during monotonic instal-

Pile-head load: N lation (test T10)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
00

05
Pile-head settlement: mm

Normalised horizontal stress, hm/qc

10 0 001 002 003 004

T3 0
T8
15
T12
20 T9
20
25

30
(c)
40
Instrument depth: mm

Fig. 5. Pile-head loadsettlement during compression load tests:

(a) monotonic installations; (b) jacked installations; (c) pseudo-
dynamic installations
60

suggest that residual loads, ignored during the interpretation,

may have led Vesic to falsely conclude that the maximum
value of unit shaft resistance occurs some distance above the
80
pile base, although Klotz & Coops observations cannot be
explained in this way.
h/B
1

HORIZONTAL STRESS DURING CYCLIC 100 h/B
3

INSTALLATION h/B
6
The jack stroke length was insufficient to mobilise full
friction during the pseudo-dynamic and jacked cyclic instal-
lation methods. This became evident from the results of 120
static compression tests, which showed that lateral stresses
and pile head loads continued to increase until the pile head Fig. 7. Normalised horizontal stress during monotonic installa-
displacement reached between 5 and 8 mm. The h9m data tion (mean of all four tests, error bars 1 std dev.)
 FRICTION FATIGUE ON DISPLACEMENT PILES IN SAND 653
Horizontal stress reduction: hm, h
nB /hm, h
B stress, h9c , recorded during each installation cycle. For
0 05 10 15 20 jacked installation, this corresponds to the value acting when
0 the pile is unloaded to nominally zero head load (actually
50 N). For pseudo-dynamic installation, this is the minimum
value recorded during each cycle, and occurs close to the
10
moment of zero pile head load. The two unloading stages at
pile tip penetrations of 60 and 120 mm provide two meas-
20
urements of h9c for the monotonic installation method.
The profiles of h9c with depth for each installation
method are shown in Fig. 9, grouped by instrument position
30 and averaged over four tests for each method. Friction
fatigue is clearly evident in these data: that is, at a given
depth, h9c decreases as each instrument passes. The reduc-
40 tion in h9c due to two-way cycling during installation is
demonstrated by the very low values recorded on the
Depth: mm

pseudo-dynamic piles compared with the monotonic installa-

50 tions. The upper half of the pseudo-dynamically installed
piles has typically only 10% of the stationary horizontal
stress of the monotonic case. The one-way cycling induced
60 by jacking leads to h9c values that lie between those devel-
oped during pseudodynamic and monotonic installation.
n
3 The reduction in h9c at a given depth with increasing
70
distance from the pile tip (h) is quantified in Fig. 10. The
n
6 measured values of h9c have been normalised by qc and
80 averaged over the entire installation (the error bars show 1
n
9 standard deviation). Two methods of presenting these nor-
malised data have been used. In Fig. 10(a), the decay in
90 h9c /qc behind the pile tip is plotted against the distance h.
The high lateral stress close to the pile tip matches the
trends observed in the field (Lehane, 1992; Chow, 1997) but,
100 evidently, the data from the two installation methods do not
overlie each other. As seen in Fig. 10(b), by plotting h9c /qc
Fig. 8. Reduction in horizontal stress between instruments against number of cycles at that soil horizon, a better
during monotonic installation (mean of all four tests, error agreement between the two sets of data is found. In a given
bars 1 std dev.)
soil horizon, the number of cycles (N) experienced at each
lateral stress sensor position is simply 2h for the pseudo-
dynamic installation since the net penetration is 0.5 mm per
recorded during these installation methods cannot, therefore, cycle. For jacked installation, the value of N required to
be compared directly with the h9m measurements recorded bring a given sensor to a specific soil horizon increases
during monotonic installation (i.e. those in Figs 6 and 7). slightly with depth since the rebound during unloading in-
Instead, the influence of installation method on shaft friction creases as the pile head load increases. The mean set per
can be examined by considering the stationary horizontal jacking cycle is approximately 1.5 mm, and error bars show-

Stationary horizontal stress, hc: kPa Stationary horizontal stress, hc: kPa Stationary horizontal stress, hc: kPa

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 2 4 6 8 10

0 0 0

Jacked Jacked Jacked

Pseudo- Pseudo- Pseudo-
20 dynamic 20 dynamic 20 dynamic
Monotonic Monotonic Monotonic

40 40 40
Instrument depth: mm

Instrument depth: mm
Instrument depth: mm

60 60 60

80 80 80

100 100 100

120 120
120
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 9. Variation of stationary horizontal stress with installation method: (a) h/B 1; (b) h/B 3; (c) h/B 6
654
70
60
N
108
Nmean
35
50
Distance above pile tip, h: mm
40
30 N
54
Nmean
20
20
10 N
18
N: Number of cycles during installation
Mean value shown for jacked installation
0 0
0 0002 0004
Normalised stationary horizontal stress, hc/qc
(a)
Fig. 10. Influence of loading cycles during installation on stationary horizontal stress: (a) normalised
horizontal stress against distance above pile tip; (b) normalised horizontal stress against number of cycles
ing the variation throughout installation are shown in Fig.
10(b).
A comparison of Fig. 10(a) with Fig. 10(b) indicates that
the variation of h9c along the pile shaft is better related to N
than to h (or h/B). A direct comparison is possible between
the instrument located at h/B 3 during jacked installation
and h/B 1 during pseudo-dynamic installation (Fig. 10(b)).
These instruments encounter 18 and 20 cycles respectively,
and register approximately equal normalised stationary hor-
izontal stresses. In this case, although jacked installation
involves one-way cycling of the pile head load and pseudo-
dynamic installation involves two-way cycling, the degrada-
tion after around 20 cycles is comparable. It is shown later,
from cyclic load tests, that over a greater number of cycles,
two-way head loading leads to greater degradation. It is also
observed that one-way loading of the pile head leads to a
degree of two-way loading along the pile shaft due to
rebound.
HORIZONTAL STRESS DURING CYCLIC LOAD
TESTING
The effects on shaft friction of cyclic loading during
installation and a cyclic working load may be compared by
examining the horizontal stress measurements during the
cyclic load tests. Four tests will be highlighted (see Table
2):
(a) the cyclic compression test following jacked installation
of pile T2
(b) the cyclic compressiontension test following pseudo-
dynamic installation of pile T8
(c) the cyclic compression test following monotonic
installation of pile T1
(d) the cyclic compressiontension test following mono-
tonic installation of pile T4.
The cyclic tests on piles T2 and T8 represent an extension
WHITE AND LEHANE
140
Jacked Jacked
120
Pseudo-dynamic Pseudo-dynamic
h/B
6
100
Number of cycles, N
80
60
h/B
3
h/B
6
40
Nmean
6 h/B
3
20
h/B
1
h/B
1
0006 0008 0 0002 0004 0006 0008
Normalised stationary horizontal stress, hc/qc
(b)
of the loading type imposed during installation. All four
piles were first subjected to one cycle of loading in the form
of a static compression test to a pile settlement of 1.5 mm
before initiation of the scheduled component of the cyclic
tests.
The variation of horizontal stresses at h/B 1 during
selected cycles throughout tests T2 and T8 is presented in
Figs 11 and 12. The increase in stress during loading
followed by a sharp reduction after changing direction is a
characteristic of interface shear under conditions of constant
normal stiffness or constrained dilation. Comparable patterns
of normal stressshear displacement are widely observed in
interface shear box testing under constant normal stiffness
(CNS) conditions (e.g. Airey et al., 1992; Fakharian &
Evgin, 1997; DeJong et al., 2003).
Under one-way pile head loading there is some evidence
of two-way shear stress cycling at h/B 1 since the mini-
mum horizontal stress does not coincide with the minimum
pile head load. For interpretation of these cyclic load test
data, h9c is defined as the minimum value within each cycle.
This definition differs slightly from that used by Lehane
(1992) and Chow (1997), who measure h9c under zero head
load, and is arguably more fundamental since it is the
minimum value of h9c within a particular loading cycle,
rather than the value under an arbitrary amount of residual
shear stress. The reduction in h9c due to cycling is clearly
evident in both Fig. 11 and Fig. 12. In the case of one-way
cycling (of the pile head load), a limiting value of h9c is
reached after 30 cycles whereas, under more arduous two-
way cycling, a progressive reduction towards zero is re-
corded.
The progressive reductions of h9c observed at h/B 1
throughout the cyclic load tests are plotted in Fig. 13. It
should be noted that if h9c was defined during the cyclic
load tests as the value under zero head load, a lower
degradation would be evident. Figs 11 and 12 show a small
but increasing discrepancy between h9c at Phead 0 and the
 FRICTION FATIGUE ON DISPLACEMENT PILES IN SAND 655
160
Phead
750 N
End of cycle
140 Cycle 1 Phead
50 N
Start of cycle
Phead
50 N
120
hc
Cycle 5
Horizontal stress, h: kPa

100 Cycle 30 Cycle 55

Cycle 100

80

60

40

20

0
1196 1197 1198 1199 1200 1201 1202 1203 1204 1205 1206
Pile tip depth: mm

Fig. 11. Horizontal stress degradation during one-way cyclic compression load test (test T2,
jacked installation, h/B 1)

160
Phead
50 N Phead
750 N

Start of cycle
140 Phead
0 N

120

hc End of cycle
Horizontal stress, h: kPa

100 Cycle 1 Phead
0 N

Cycle 5
Cycle 30
80
Cycle 100

60

40

20

0
1220 1222 1224 1226 1228 1230 1232 1234
Pile tip depth: mm

Fig. 12. Horizontal stress degradation during two-way cyclic compression-tension load test (Test
T8, pseudo-dynamic installation, h/B 1)

minimum value. Regardless of the chosen definition there is Hence the starting offsets of 11 and 18 cycles adopted for
a reducing trend in h9c with number of cycles. the jacked and pseudo-dynamically installed piles (T2 and
The one-way cyclic load tests on the monotonic and T8) enable direct comparisons with the monotonic base
jacked installations (T1 and T2) are compared in Fig. 13(a), cases (T1 and T4). This representation leads to closely
and the two-way cyclic load tests on the monotonic and comparable h9c variations with N for tests T1 and T2 (in
pseudo-dynamic installations (T4 and T8) are compared in Fig. 13(a)) and for tests T4 and T8 (in Fig. 13(b)), suggest-
Fig. 13(b). The number of cycles includes those experienced ing that the cycling is the only mechanism leading to
during installation (and the extra cycle due to the subsequent degradation of h9c .
static compression tests) in addition to the load test cycles. It is apparent in Fig. 13(a) that the relatively high values
656
Normalised stationary horizontal stress, hc/qc
0 0002 0004 0006
140
T1 (monotonic) one-way load test (hc)
T1 (jacked) one-way load test (hc) (Fig. 11)
120 Jacked installation (hc/qc, Fig. 10)
100
Number of cycles, N
80
60
40
20
0 0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Stationary horizontal stress, hc: kPa
(a)
Fig. 13. Degradation of stationary horizontal stress with cycling at h/B
two-way compression-tension load test
of h9c that exist at h/B 1 after a low number of cycles
reduce to a constant value of about 50 kPa after 30 one-way
cycles. A similar degradation of h9c with number of cycles
is apparent in Fig. 13(b) for two-way cycling, and h9c
continues to reduce beyond 30 cycles to a value close to
zero. This reduction in h9c does not, however, mean that the
available shaft friction is negligible. For example, it may be
inferred from Fig. 12 that dilation at the interface can lead
to an increase in normal stress at ultimate conditions to well
in excess of 100 kPa. This surprising recovery of normal
stress is also observed in CNS interface shear testing (e.g.
Airey et al., 1992; Shahrour et al., 1999).
The agreement seen in Fig. 13 between the degradation of
h9c during each cyclic load test, when modified to account
for the cycles induced during installation, supports the link
between friction distribution and cyclic history. To examine
this link more closely, in addition to the two cyclic load test
curves shown in each of Figs 13(a) and 13(b), the normal-
ised stationary horizontal stresses, h9c /qc , recorded at
h/B 1, 3 and 6 during jacked and pseudo-dynamic instal-
lation (i.e. as shown in Fig. 10) are also plotted in Figs
13(a) and 13(b). There is reasonable agreement between the
installation data and the cyclic load test data, supporting the
link between cycling and friction fatigue, which is indepen-
dent of the distance h. For the pseudo-dynamic installation,
in which the cyclic load test amplitude (Fig. 12) is compar-
able to the amplitude of the installation cycles, the agree-
ment is better than that seen for jacked installation, possibly
because the jacked installation procedure involves larger
cycles of displacement than that induced in the one-way
cyclic tests. This discrepancy highlights the influence of both
WHITE AND LEHANE
Normalised stationary horizontal stress, hc/qc
0008 0 0002 0004 0006 0008
140
T4 (monotonic) two-way load test (hc)
T8 (Pseudo-dynamic) two-way load test (hc) (Fig. 12)
120 Pseudo-dynamic installation (hc/qc, Fig. 10)
100
Number of cycles, N
80
60
40
20
200 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Stationary horizontal stress, hc: kPa
(b)
1 during load tests: (a) one-way compression load test; (b)
the number of cycles and their amplitude on friction fatigue.
Such sensitivity was also observed by Kelly (2001), who
showed in CNS interface shear tests that larger-amplitude
cycles lead to a higher rate of degradation.
DISCUSSION
Implications for design
The key observation from this investigation is that friction
fatigue arises from cycles of loading. During continuous
penetration there is no reduction in horizontal stress at a
given soil horizon as the pile penetrates deeper: that is,
lateral stresses are independent of distance, h. Friction
fatigue cannot therefore be attributed to the departure of a
zone of high stress around the pile tip as the pile penetrates
deeper. Instead, it has been found that the reduction in
stationary horizontal stress at a given soil horizon is better
linked to the cyclic history. On-pile measurements of hor-
izontal stress have shown trends of behaviour that agree with
observations during constant normal stiffness (CNS) cyclic
interface shear testing (e.g. Tabucanon, 1997; Kelly, 2001;
DeJong et al., 2003). A mechanism of net contraction with
cycling of a thin interface layer that is confined by the far
field soil explains the behaviour observed in both cases.
These results suggest that, for design, an appropriate non-
dimensional quantity to govern the reduction in horizontal
effective stress from an initial unfatigued value behind the
pile tip with continued pile penetration is number of cycles,
N, rather than h/D. This observation is supported by the
similar relationship between h9c /qc and N during both
installation and load testing. However, the centrifuge tests
 FRICTION FATIGUE ON DISPLACEMENT PILES IN SAND
support inferences made from interface shear tests by de-
monstrating that the rate of degradation depends not only on
N, but also on the mode and amplitude of cycling. Two-way
cycling leads to a greater degradation than one-way cycling
during both installation and load testing.
Although this investigation has demonstrated that friction
fatigue is not linked per se to h or to the normalised
distance, h/D, some dependence on diameter may remain,
since the confining stiffness, which governs the reduction in
h9c for a given contraction of the interface layer, depends on
4G/D (G being the operational shear stiffness of the soil
surrounding the installed pile).
The relative success of the Jardine & Chow (1996) design
method, which relates friction fatigue to h/D, is likely to be
primarily because the chosen power law for the h/R effect
reflects the degradation in friction caused by contraction of
the interface during the number of installation cycles of
typical driven piles (forming the database used to validate
Jardine & Chows design method), under the corresponding
confining stiffness. The examples highlighted in Fig. 1 warn
against extrapolation beyond this range. The sharp reduc-
tions in h9c with cycling seen during this investigation may
be attenuated by the lower confining stiffness (/ 1/D)
around field piles; for a given interface contraction a lower
drop in h9 would result. However, the mechanism of behav-
iour is scale-independent, and cycling would still lead to
friction fatigue.
Finally, it is noted that this paper does not address the
influence of cycling, and of h9c reduction, on the subsequent
increase in horizontal effective stress observed during static
loading to failure. Any increase in h9 during loading
contributes an additional component of normal stress at
failure and hence increases f . Therefore any reduction in
h9c may not cause a proportional reduction in f . However,
CNS interface shear box tests, which can be considered
analogous to elements of a pilesoil interface, show that any
cyclic contraction and loss of normal stress is not fully
recovered during subsequent shearing to failure (Ghionna et
al., 2004), so any drop in h9c will have an influence on f .
Implications for construction
This investigation has demonstrated that the stationary
horizontal stress acting on a pile shaft is strongly influenced
by the number of installation cycles. Although some recov-
ery in lateral stress is possible during subsequent loading
(e.g. Figs 11 and 12), significant load cycles reduce the
available pile shaft friction. This behaviour is illustrated in
Fig. 14, which plots the jacking record of a 350 mm square
precast concrete pile installed using a jacking machine of
the type described by Lehane et al. (2003). The site con-
sisted of medium dense sand with a CPT qc value of
20 MPa between depths of 3 and 9 m. For experimental
purposes, the contractor jacked the pile in 1.5 m increments
to a depth of 6.3 m and then completed the installation to a
final pile tip depth of 8 m using 22 no. 75 mm jacking
increments. It can be assumed that the base resistance
(following the qc profile) was unchanged between 6.3 m and
8 m, and therefore that the mobilisation of a constant jacking
resistance over this depth interval, as seen in Fig. 14, was
due to friction fatigue induced by cyclic loading. Clearly, in
this example the additional time spent during installation
from 6.3 m to 8 m and the additional cost of pile length was
entirely negated by the additional loading cycles.
This link between the cycles during installation and the
shaft friction during first loading suggests that opportunities
may exist for improving pile capacity, and increasing design
efficiency, if the loading cycles during installation are mini-
mised. Pile-jacking machines offer the possibility of com-
657
qc: MPa Jacking force: kN
0 20 40 0 2500 5000
0
Predrilled
1 for CPT
Sand
2
Fine to
medium
3
4
Depth: m
5
6
7
8
9
Fig. 14. Jacking record for precast concrete pile in sand
pleting installation with far fewer cycles than dynamic
methods. Furthermore, optimisation of dynamic methods can
reduce the total blowcount during installation. It should be
noted, however, that any additional friction on a jacked pile
may degrade more quickly under a cyclic working load than
on a pre-degraded dynamically installed pile.
Considerable further research is needed in order to capture
this behaviour in a prediction method. However, since site-
specific pile load testing is usually required for major
projects, the value of these findings lies equally in the
suggestion that optimisation of the pile installation process
can yield higher shaft friction.
CONCLUSIONS
Drum centrifuge tests have been conducted to examine
more closely the distribution of horizontal stress acting on
the pile shaft during installation and subsequent cyclic
loading. During monotonic installation no friction fatigue
was recorded, which is in agreement with field data from
multi-sleeve CPT installation. The variation of available
shaft friction with depth followed the CPT profile, indicating
that the normalisation of lateral stresses by qc provides a
useful basis for design.
Cyclic installation methods have been seen to cause sig-
nificant degradation of shaft friction. One-way and two-way
installation methods lead to differing profiles of stationary
lateral effective stress ( h9c ), when plotted against the relative
position of the pile tip, h. The centrifuge cyclic load tests
also showed that, for a given installation method, the degra-
dation of h9c during cyclic loading followed the same decay
pattern as that during installation. These measurements agree
with trends indicated in CNS interface shear tests. A
mechanism of net contraction with cycling of a thin inter-
658 WHITE AND LEHANE
face layer that is confined by the far field soil explains the
behaviour observed in both cases, and provides a rational
basis for improved design.
Based on these centrifuge test data, and corroboratory
evidence from field-scale test results, it is concluded that the
degradation of available shaft friction at a given soil horizon
during installation and subsequent cyclic loading is better
characterised by the number of cycles experienced at that
point, than by the non-dimensional distance from the pile
tip, h/D. This conclusion has implications for construction,
as well as for design. Modern installation techniques of pile
jacking involve reduced cycling, and may therefore yield
higher shaft friction than conventional dynamic installation
methods.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The support provided by the Australian Research Council
(ARC) for this research project is gratefully acknowledged.
The ARC Centre for Offshore Foundation Systems at UWA
also provided support. The authors also acknowledge the
excellent technical assistance provided by Mr Bart Thomp-
son and the staff of the UWA civil engineering workshop.
We also thank Dr Peter Mitchell (formerly of PPK Interna-
tional) for his permission to present the data shown in Fig.
14.
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