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THESIS
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
at
FALL
2009
CFD DRAG REDUCTION OF A GENERIC SPORT UTILITY VEHICLE
A Thesis
by
Approved by:
____________________________
Date
ii
Student: Pramod Nari Krishnani
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
iii
Abstract
of
by
In the history of aerodynamic research around the bluff bodies like SUV, trucks and
trailers, it has always been observed that their shapes with square base have served as an
obstacle improving vehicle fuel economy. When the air passes over the vehicle surface, it
makes the air over the surface change its behavior, resulting in a low pressure region
and a high pressure region. This pressure difference along with the vortex shedding
Researchers around the world have tried to reduce the drag of trailers or truck by
using external devices like spoilers, vortex strake device (VCD) and under-carriage flow
device (UFD). The purpose of this thesis is to check the feasibility of using such external
devices for reducing drag on the large size SUV. The generic SUV model created by
previous research experiments along with the Ahmed's reference model is considered as
Simple external devices like boat tail plate and the foot step are simulated and
optimized using commercial software packages like FLUENT, GAMBIT, T-grid and
Solidworks. Fifteen different angular combinations of upper and lower boat tail plates
are simulated and optimized to get the best angle suitable for drag reduction of Generic
iv
SUV model. The second external device commonly known as the foot step is simulated
with five configurations by varying the width of the foot step. The foot step bypasses the
air around the rear wheel and thereby reduces drag coefficient of the complete SUV
model compared to the original SUV model. The optimal sizes of the width favorable for
_______________________
Date
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to Dr. Dongmei Zhou for her guidance and
support in the completion of my thesis. My thesis would have never been completed
without her. I would like to thank Mr. Bahram Khalighi (Aerodynamic Manager, GM)
for sharing the results of the experiments. Also, I will like to thank Dr. C.P. CASE Van
Dam for his valuable advice at hard times of my Thesis. Lastly, I will like to thank the
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgments................................................................................................................ vi
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ x
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... xi
Chapter
1. AUTOMOBILE AERODYNAMICS... ............................................................................... 1
1.1 What is Aerodynamics? ...................................................................................1
1.2 Scope of Automobile Aerodynamics .................................................................... 2
1.3 External flow phenomena of Automobile ............................................................ 4
1.4 Factors contributing to flow field around vehicle................................................. 6
1.5 Forces and moment on vehicle ................................................................................ 8
vii
4. VALIDATION OR BENCHMARK OF CFD MODEL.................................................... 23
4.1 Introduction to Benchmarking procedure ................................................................. 23
4.2 Wind tunnel Experiment ............................................................................................ 24
4.2.1 Wind tunnel facility ........................................................................................... 24
4.2.2 SUV Generic Model .......................................................................................... 26
4.2.3 Experiment results ............................................................................................ 28
4.3 Numerical Simulation ................................................................................................ 31
4.3.1 CAD SUV Generic Model ................................................................................. 31
4.3.2 Virtual Wind Tunnel and Vehicle Orientation................................................... 32
4.3.3 Discretisation (or Meshing) setup ...................................................................... 34
4.3.4 Solver Setting ..................................................................................................... 38
4.3.5 Simulation results .............................................................................................. 40
4.4 Benchmark Conclusion .............................................................................................. 47
References ............................................................................................................................... 75
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Page
1. Table 3.1 Typical increase in drag for the various accessories [1] ...22
6. Table 5.2 Drag and Lift results of all the simulations [26]59
7. Table 6.1 Dimensional details of all the simulation on SUV foot step..63
8. Table 6.2 Details drag value of each surfaces of SUV for all simulations69
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
2. Figure 1.2 Typical Fuel Energy usage at urban and highway driving [24].....3
8. Figure 3.4 Loaded off-road SUV with all the accessories [1].......21
12. Figure 4.4 Mean pressure coefficient plot on the symmetry plane of
SUV[2]...28
13. Figure 4.5 Downstream mean velocity profiles in the horizontal center
plane[2]..30
xi
18. Figure 4.10 Hex core refinement regions of first benchmark
simulation[26]....36
19. Figure 4.11 Unstructured mesh refinement region view of second benchmark
simulation...38
20. Figure 4.12 Cab Cp plot comparison with experiment for first
benchmark[26]...40
21. Figure 4.13 Underbody Cp plot comparison with experiment for first
benchmark[26]...41
22. Figure 4.14 Cab Cp plot comparison with experiment for second
benchmark..42
23. Figure 4.15 Underbody Cp plot comparison with experiment for second
benchmark..42
24. Figure 4.16 Mean downstream velocity profiles of the flow at Z = 0.830184m
and X = 5.484m.44
25. Figure 4.17 Mean downstream velocity profiles of the flow at Z = 0.830184m
and X = 5.784m.45
26. Figure 4.18 Mean downstream velocity profiles of the flow at Z = 0.830184m
and X = 6.384m.45
27. Figure 4.19 Mean downstream velocity profiles of the flow at Z = 0.830184m
and X = 6.984m.46
28. Figure 4.20 Mean downstream velocity profiles of the flow at Z = 0.830184m
and X = 7.584m.....................46
29. Figure 4.21 Mean downstream velocity profiles of the flow at Z = 0.830184m
and X = 8.184m.47
31. Figure 5.2 Side view of Boat tail plate along with dimensions.50
xii
33. Figure 5.4 Hybrid Mesh near the upper boat tail plate..53
34. Figure 5.5 Total Pressure Contour of the Benchmark Simulation at symmetry
plane..54
35. Figure 5.6 Total Pressure Contour of the A10B10 Simulation at symmetry
plane..55
36. Figure 5.7 Total Pressure Contour of the A20B20 Simulation at symmetry
plane...55
37. Figure 5.8 Magnitude velocity path lines for simulation 1 to 10[26]... 57
38. Figure 5.9 Magnitude velocity path lines for simulation 11 to 15[26]..58
39. Figure 5.10 Drag and lift coefficient variation for all the simulations..59
43. Figure 6.4 Mesh view at the plane near the foot step65
44. Figure 6.5 Drag coefficient plot for all the simulations on foot step.66
45. Figure 6.6 Total Pressure contour for all the simulations at Y= 0.79m.67
46. Figure 6.7 Pressure coefficient variations for all foot step simulations ....68
47. Figure 7.1 Vortex strake device from DOE 2004 Paper[14] 74
xiii
1
Chapter 1
AUTOMOBILE AERODYNAMICS
air, particularly when it interacts with a moving object. Aerodynamics is also a subfield
gas dynamics, with much theory shared with fluid dynamics. Aerodynamics is often used
synonymously with gas dynamics, with the difference being that gas dynamics applies to
all gases. Understanding the motion of air (often called a flow field) around an object
enables the calculation of forces and moments acting on the object. Typical properties
calculated for a flow field include velocity, pressure, density and temperature as a
function of position and time. By defining a control volume around the flow field,
equations for the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy can be defined and used
to solve for the properties. The use of aerodynamics through mathematical analysis,
empirical approximation and wind tunnel experimentation form the scientific basis.
Aerodynamics and its analysis are basically divided into two major sub-categories,
namely the external and internal aerodynamics. External aerodynamics is the study of
flow around solid objects of various shapes. Evaluating the lift and drag on an airplane,
the shock waves that form in front of the nose of a rocket, or the flow of air over a wind
turbine blade are examples of external aerodynamics. On the other hand, internal
aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects. For instance, internal
2
aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a jet engine or through an air
conditioning pipe.
Apparently, this thesis work concentrates more on the external category of the
The rapidly increasing fuel prices and the regulation of green house gasses to control
global warming have given tremendous pressure on the design engineers to enhance the
current designs of the automobile using minimal changes in the shapes. To full fill the
above requirements, design engineers have been using the concepts of aerodynamics to
The Figure 1.1 shows the spectrum of task for vehicle aerodynamics. The figure
illustrates the various problems which can be solved using the aerodynamics of the
vehicle. Aerodynamics is used by design engineers for cooling the engines, improving the
performance of the vehicle, enhancing the comfort of the rider, stabilizing the car in
external wind conditions and also increasing the visibility of the rider.
Although aerodynamics has so many tasks in its basket, this thesis concentrates on
external devices which affect the flow around the automobile body to reduce the
Figure 1.2 Typical Fuel Energy usage at urban and highway driving [24]
4
The Figure 1.2 shows the description of the fuel energy used in a modern vehicle at
urban driving and highway driving. The shape of the vehicle uses about 3 % of fuel to
overcome the resistance in urban driving, while it takes 11% of fuel for the highway
driving. This considerable high value of fuel usage in highway driving attracts several
design engineers to enhance the aerodynamics of the vehicle using minimal design
changes. This brings the idea of using external devices which could be attached to the
present vehicle without changing the body. This thesis is based on the design and
developments of external devices which will let the manufacturers of Sport Utility
Vehicle (especially known as SUV) make the present vehicles more aerodynamically
attractive.
The Figure 1.3 shows the streamline of an external flow around a stationary vehicle.
When the vehicle is moving at an undistributed velocity, the viscous effects in the fluid
are restricted to a thin layer called boundary layer. Outside the boundary layer is the
inviscid flow. . This fluid flow imposes pressure force on the boundary layer. When the
air reaches the rear part of the vehicle, the fluid gets detached. Within the boundary layer,
the movement of the fluid is totally governed by the viscous effects of the fluid.
5
The boundary does not exist for the Reynolds Number which is lower than 104. The
Reynolds number is dependent on the characteristic length of the vehicle, the kinematic
viscosity and the speed of the vehicle. Apparently, the fluid moving around the vehicle is
dependent on the shape of the vehicle and the Reynolds number. There is another
important phenomenon which affects the flow of the car and the performance of the
vehicle. This phenomenon is commonly known as Wake of the vehicle. When the air
moving over the vehicle is separated at the rear end, it leaves a large low pressure
turbulent region behind the vehicle known as the wake. This wake contributes to the
The major factors which affect the flow field around the vehicle are the boundary
layers, separation of flow field, friction drag and lastly the pressure drag.
BOUNDARY LAYER: The Aerodynamics boundary layer was first defined by the
aerodynamicists to simplify the equations of fluid flow by dividing the flow field into two
areas: one inside the boundary layer and the one outside the boundary layer. In this
boundary layer around the vehicle, the viscosity is dominant and it plays a major role in
drag of the vehicle. The viscosity is neglected in the fluid regions outside this boundary
layer since it does not have significant effect on the solution. In the design of the body
shape, the boundary layer is given high attention to reduce drag. There are two reasons
why designers consider the boundary layer as a major factor in aerodynamic drag. The
first is that the boundary layer adds to the effective thickness of the body, through the
displacement thickness, hence increasing the pressure drag. The second reason is that the
shear forces at the surface of the vehicle causes skin friction drag.
SEPARATION: During the flow over the surface of the vehicle, there is a point when the
change in velocity comes to stall and the fluid starts flowing in reverse direction. This
phenomenon is called Separation of the fluid flow. This is usually occurred at the rear
part of the vehicle. This separation is highly dependent on the pressure distribution
which is imposed by the outer layer of the flow. The turbulent boundary layer can
7
withstand much higher pressure without separating as compared to laminar flow. This
separation causes the flow to change its behavior behind the vehicle and thereby affect
the flow field around the vehicle. This phenomenon is the major factor to be considered
FRICTION DRAG: Each wall surface or material has a distinct friction which resists the
flow of fluids. Due to molecular friction, a stress acts on every surface of the vehicle. The
integration of the corresponding force component in the free stream direction leads to a
friction drag. If the separation does not occur, then friction drag is one of the main
PRESSURE DRAG: The blunt bodies like large size vehicle show different drag
characteristics. On the rear part of such vehicles, there is an extremely steep pressure
gradient which leads to the separation of the flow separation in viscous flow. The front
part of the flow field shows high pressure value, whereas on the rear part flow separates
leading to a high suction in the area. As we integrate the force component created by such
high change in pressure, the resultant is called as Pressure Drag. This factor is affected
by the height of the vehicle as well as the separation of the flow field.
8
When the vehicle is moving at a considerable speed, the air passing over it
imposes various forces and moment on the vehicle. The Figure 1.4 shows the details
sketch view of the various forces and moment acting on the vehicle body.
Figure 1.4 Sketch views of the various forces and moment on vehicle body [24]
The vertical force acting on the body indicated by the letter L is known as Lift
force. This force causes the vehicle to get lifted in air as applied in the positive direction,
whereas it can result in excessive wheel down force if it is applied in negative direction.
Engineers try to keep this value to a required limit to avoid excess down force or lift.
9
1
= 2 2 ------------------------------------------ (1)
where:
= Lift Force
= Lift Coefficient
Aerodynamic drag force is the force acting on the vehicle body resisting its
forward motion. This force is an important force to be considered while designing the
external body of the vehicle, since it covers about 65% of the total force acting on the
complete body. The Aerodynamic drag force is calculated by the following formula:
1
= 2 2 ------------------------------------------ (2)
where
= Air Density
The sideforce is crosswind acting on the vehicle and under the steady state wind
1
= 2 2 ------------------------------------------ (3)
where:
= Sideforce
The pitching moment, N, transfers weight between the front and rear axles and is
where:
= Pitching Moment
= Wheelbase
wheelbase, and when the crosswinds do not act at the middle of the wheelbase a yawing
1
= 2 2 ------------------------------------------ (5)
where:
= Yawing Moment
= Wheelbase
where:
= Rolling Moment
= Wheelbase
12
Chapter 2
that uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve
fluid flows. Computers are used to simulate the interaction of liquids and gases with
algorithms that can tackle fluid flow problems. All the CFD codes available in the market
have three basic elements which divide the complete analysis of the numerical
(i) Pre-processor
(iii) Post-Processor
13
The pre-processing of the CFD process consists of the input of a flow problem by
input into a form is made suitable to use by the solver. The pre-processor is the link
between the user and the solver. The user activity at the pre-processing stage of the CFD
computer aided design (CAD) software like CATIA, Solidworks, Pro-E and
much more. By the help of CAD software, the topology of the fluid flow
region of interest is defined. This software plays a major part of the design
region of interest needs to be divided into several structured elements. All the
elements or cells are connected to each other through nodes to form the
required region of flow. For this purpose, special meshing or grid generation
software like GAMBIT and T-grid are used. This stage is the key element in
the CFD finite volume numerical simulation and it also contributes to the
3) Definition of Fluid properties: Every fluid domain or surface has its own
distinct property. The properties of the fluid used in the CFD domain or region
14
of interest are defined at this stage of the CFD Process. Usually the CFD code
4) Boundary Conditions: Every different setup of the CFD domain needs to have
code usually has this facility to define the boundary conditions of the CFD
problem, where each cells at specific boundary are given finite values.
The numerical solver is the key elements of the CFD process and covers the major
part of the CFD process. In the current market, the solvers usually use three distinct ways
of calculating the solutions, namely, the finite difference method, finite element method
The finite difference and element method are usually suitable for stress and
structure analysis and does not suite the requirements of the CFD process. The finite
volume method is the most suitable method for the CFD process. As the name implies,
finite volume method is the numerical algorithm calculation process involving the use of
finite volume cells. The steps involved in this solving process are usually carried out in
1. Formal integration of the governing equations of fluid flow over all the control
2. The conversion of the integral forms of the equations into a system of algebraic
equations.
15
The post processor is the last phase of the CFD process which involves data visualization
and results analysis of the CFD process. This phase uses the versatile data visualization
tools of the CFD solver to observe the following results of the simulation:
2. Vector plots
5. Particle tracking
2.6 SUMMARY
analysis of each CFD simulation performed. The CFD process starts with defining the
geometry using the CAD software Solidworks and then it is followed by the meshing
software GAMBIT, which is used to create the surface mesh accordingly. After the
surface mesh is created, the resulting surface mesh is imported to special unstructured
volume meshing software, known as T-grid. This software creates a hybrid mesh in the
required domain of interest with the help of progressive boundary layer, tetra and Hex
core cells.
16
Chapter 3
A sport utility vehicle (SUV) is a generic marketing term for a vehicle similar to a
station wagon, but built on a light-truck chassis. SUVs are usually equipped with four-
wheel drive for on- or off-road ability, and with some pretension or ability to be used as
an off-road vehicle, and some SUVs include the towing capacity of a pickup truck with
the passenger-carrying space of a minivan. Since SUVs are considered as light trucks and
often share the same platforms of pick-ups, they are regulated less strictly than passenger
cars under the two laws in the United States, the Energy Policy and Conservation Act for
In recent years there has been a phenomenal growth in the market for Sport Utility
Vehicles. The first vehicle, which would today be recognizable as a SUV, is generally
considered to have been the original Range Rover from Land Rover, which was launched
in 1970, an at the time was a unique concept. The sizes of the SUVs are available in a
wide range from small size weighing 1 ton to large sizes covering up to 3 tons. From the
mid 70s the growth in this sector was an almost exclusively North American trend, such
that today 25% of the total passenger cars sold in USA are SUVs [1]. This growing
popularity of the SUVs has pulled the attention of environmental organization due to the
amount of CO2 emission and the global warming concerns. The SUV, because of its size
and shape, is not fulfilling efficient body and engine requirement. Today designers have
17
been trying to build a good image of the SUVs by making them more efficient in shape
and engine. In this thesis, the external devices which reduce drag and make the body
designs more efficient are discussed. The other aspects of the aerodynamics like cooling
airflow, heat management and aero-acoustics along with engine performance will not be
included.
The Figure 3.1 shows the trend of drag coefficient in SUV vehicles during the
last twenty year. The open red spots indicate the SUV vehicles with high accessories
attachments and thereby are termed as the fully loaded SUVs which are often used for
off-road driving requirements. The open red spot indicates the general SUVs have made
the SUV market significant and competitive. These SUVs are not fitted with extra heavy
duty accessories and they have been kept in production for keeping the market
This data set, collected from Land Rover dataset and Motor Industry Research
Association (MIRA) aerodynamic surveys [1], shows a significant drop in the drag
coefficient in the last twenty years. This downward trend has surely proven the transition
to the softer shapes of SUV, which is helpful to increase the efficiency of the vehicle
aerodynamics. The lowering drag coefficient shows the taste of competitive environment
in the field of designing SUV, where every possible year there is a decrease in drag
The drag coefficient of the early 1994 Range rover was about 0.40 and was
considered as the best design till then. Later the drag coefficient reduced and today the
new designs like BMW X5, X3 and Lexus RX 300 claim to have a drag coefficient of
0.35. The latest design of the Mercedes ML is the current class-leading vehicle with a
drag coefficient of 0.34. This lower trend in the aerodynamic drag coefficient shows that
On the other hand, the Figure 3.2 shows the trend of frontal area for the same set
of vehicle described in the Figure 3.1, indicating that as the vehicles are showing a
decrease in vehicle drag, the size of the vehicles is increasing. This reflects that the
vehicle weight is also increasing along with the frontal area. This could be considered as
the disadvantage of the transition to the soft body of the SUVs for acquiring lower drag
coefficient.
19
The Shape of the vehicle plays an important role in the drag reduction. Low drag
is achieved by a shape which avoids sudden changes in the cross sectional area and has a
degree of tapering towards the base of the vehicle. In practical design environment, drag
reduction comes from attention to detail and it results from the accumulation of small
incremental benefits in the development process. The shape changes which can affect the
performance of the vehicle body are shown in the Figure 3.3. The arrows show the
required direction to morph the surface to create drag reduction, although this is totally
dependent on the initial shape. So the direction is susceptible to change as the original
shape of the SUV could be aerodynamically friendly or filled with blunt edges.
20
The drag at the SUV base can be reduced by increasing the pressure in the base
area and reducing the base area. Tapering the body sides and roof has a significant effect,
but this will compromise the loading area at the tailgate and reduce rear passenger
headroom. If steps are made to make small chamfers at the rear end of the roof and the
side body, there will be a significant change in the drag. The foot step of the vehicle is
moved downward to decrease the ground clearance near the wheels and this makes major
changes in the drag of the vehicle. Lowering the front bumper and bonnet, inclining the
front windshield, rounding off the corners and sharp edges and lastly extending the front
bumper are some of the ways contributing to reduce drag. The aerodynamicist usually
works closely with the designers to use these ways with high level of compromises to
make the vehicle more comfortable for the customers. This thesis takes this point of
21
compromise in view and makes available several external devices which will fulfill the
The Figure 3.4 shows the general accessories which are attached on SUVs. All
the accessories used for an SUV have the tendencies to increase the drag and thus drag
coefficient. The Table 3.1 shows the typical increase in drag for the various accessories
used in SUVs. The Roof box covering about 0.3 m2 frontal area shows a drag increment
of about 0.075. The headlamp protectors show a drag increment of about 0.006. Even the
smallest accessories like the mud flaps show an increment in drag of about 0.011. The
drag penalties for a particular accessory will depend on the detail design and the vehicle
Figure 3.4 Loaded off-road SUV with all the accessories [1]
22
Table 3.1 Typical increase in drag for the various accessories [1]
In this thesis, the accessories like the Side steps and the rear spoilers will be
optimized to get the lowest drag or reduction in drag from the original.
23
Chapter 4
new configuration, one should benchmark (validate) the technique against a known
(respected) test case similar to the new configuration. If no suitable test case exists, then
cross referencing with another analysis technique, such as a wind tunnel, is essential. The
benchmark test process is the process of numerical analysis performed on a case which is
replica of the real time testing or previous results of numerical simulations. While
performing the benchmark testing, the results of the test will be further compared with
For CFD, the benchmarking process should result in guidelines for a specific class
turbulence model and meshing strategy (clustering and growth rate) required to achieve a
For current benchmarking process, the SUV generic model will be simulated. The
Generic model is fabricated by Michigan State University with the help of General
Motors. They performed a wind tunnel test on this model using advance PIV techniques.
The results of this wind tunnel test are compared with the results of the numerical
simulations using advance solvers like Fluent. The model used by the wind tunnel test
was 3D printed and it will be used for all the numerical simulations.
24
This section describes the details of the wind tunnel experiments performed at the
The experiments over the proto-type scaled model of SUV Generic model were
University of Michigan. The wind tunnel was an open return suction wind tunnel
equipped with glass test section so that the optical measurements were possible.
The Figure 4.1 above demonstrates the wind tunnel facility and the setup of the
different components used inside the wind tunnel. The 1/12 scaled model is kept inside
the glass-walled wind tunnel with the wheels facing towards the top. The top wall of the
25
wind tunnel is holding the ground board which is about 0.1m below the upper wall. This
ground wall is used to create the ground effects of the road over the SUV model and it is
also used to equip the pressure sensor tubes to pass over it without affecting the flow. The
schematic diagram of the experimental setup is displayed in the Figure 4.2 below.
The test section cross section area is approximately 0.60 x 0.60 m2. The tip of the
SUV model front bumper is considered as the origin of the co-ordinate measurements of
x-direction, y-direction and the z-direction. The inlet or test section entrance is about
383.79 mm in front of the SUV model and the length of the wind tunnel is approximately
2.1m long. The inlet of the wind tunnel is approximately 2.5 times base size of the SUV
model ahead of the front bumper and the exit is about 8 times base size behind the SUV
26
model. These empirical relations are used in the numerical simulations to define the wind
tunnel dimensions.
The Generic model of the SUV is shown in the Figure 4.3 below with relevant
dimensions. The length of the model is 432 mm, the width of the model is 152 mm, and
the height of the model is 148 mm. The maximum cross section of this model is about
approximately 0.020 m2 giving the blockage area ratio of 5.2 %. The figure also shows
the origin of the coordinate system used. The x-axis is in the flow direction with its origin
at the front bumper. The y-axis is in the horizontal direction across the flow with its
origin at the symmetry plane of the model. The z-axis is in the vertical direction with its
origin at the underbody of the model. The model was fitted with 70 pressure taps which is
shown in Figure 4.3 as bubbles. These pressure taps measured the surface pressure
coefficient at the symmetry plane and the base. These measurements are discussed in
Section 4.2.3.
This Generic model of the SUV has a strong front shape which resembles the
typical shape of a modern sport utility vehicle or a pick-up truck. Apparently, the base
part of the vehicle has lower shape definition to make the analysis simple and easy to
simulate in numerical analysis. The base of the SUV is kept flat, while there is smooth
shape bending at the pillar A of the vehicle. The wheels of the SUV model are not given
many details. The wheel edges are given sharp angles and only half wheel is defined. The
underbody of the vehicle is also given flat faces with no details of the transmission line
27
and fuel tank. The geometry is defined in such a way that most of the aerodynamic
characteristics of the SUV are maintained, thereby minimizing the use of heavy
The pressure taps located at the symmetry plane of the SUV model measured the
mean pressures at the top and bottom surface of the SUV model. The wind tunnel tests
Figure 4.4 Mean pressure coefficient plot on the symmetry plane of SUV [2]
The Pressure coefficient (Cp) is a dimensionless number which describes the relative
pressures throughout a flow field in fluid dynamics. The pressure coefficient is used
in aerodynamics and hydrodynamics. Every point in a fluid flow field has its own
unique pressure coefficient, Cp.
29
-----------------------------------(7)
where:
p is the pressure at the point for which pressure coefficient is being evaluated
is the pressure in the free stream (i.e. remote from any disturbance)
is the free stream fluid density (Air at sea level and 15 C is 1.225 kg / m3)
is the free stream velocity of the fluid, or the velocity of the body through
the fluid
The experimental results presented by Mr. Khalighi from the reference paper [2]
are shown in the following context. The Figure 4.4 shows the mean pressure coefficient
on the symmetry plane of the SUV model. As shown in the Figure 4.4, the mean pressure
of the SUV engine hood and the passenger roof is marked by the term Cab while the
underbody is indicated by term Bottom. As the wind speed accelerates, the Cp over the
front bumper of the vehicle reflects a stagnation value of 1.0. There is a sudden drop to a
negative value of Cp as the air slips from the front bumper to the radiator. This negative
value of Cp changes gradually to a positive value as the air reaches the intersection of the
hood and windshield. This intersection is one of the two high pressure areas. Usually this
place is used for the inlet of the air conditioning of the vehicle. The mean pressure
coefficient of the air near the edge of the passenger roof entrance shows a significant
drop in pressure causing high velocity over the roof surface. Finally, the negative
30
pressure on the roof increases to a value near to the negative base pressure before
Although several experimental data is collected during the experiments, only the
pressure coefficient data at the symmetry plane and the horizontal center plane
downstream mean velocity in the wake region is considered for the validation process.
This decision was made to support the decision of using symmetry plane in CFD
analysis. The use of symmetry plane complies with the limited computational resources.
The second data used for the benchmark analysis is the downstream mean velocity
profiles of the flow in the horizontal plane (z = 69.2 mm) of the wake of the SUV.
The Figure 4.5 plots the downstream mean velocity profiles collected at 450mm,
500mm, 550mm, 600mm and 700mm measured by the PIV method in the wake region of
the SUV model at the horizontal plane. The distance of the measurements above are
Figure 4.5 Downstream mean velocity profiles in the horizontal center plane [2]
31
This section describes about the numerical simulations performed on the SUV
model using state of the art CFD techniques. The software used for the numerical
analysis was ANSYS FLUENT 6.3, GAMBIT, and T-grid 5.0 . Since the process of
CFD meshing is a learning process, several meshing were applied and tested. Due to
limited time and space, only two major benchmarking simulations will be described.
The SUV model used in the Wind tunnel experiment at University of Michigan is
The Figure 4.6 above shows the details named to each distinct surfaces of the
SUV in the CFD simulations discussed in the later part of this thesis. This geometry was
shared from Mr. Khalighi who worked on the experimental analysis in wind tunnel. The
CAD model of the SUV was refined using GAMBIT, since the model had too many
intersecting surfaces and free edges. After the model was completely refined, Solidworks
was used to add the external devices for testing them. As seen from the figure above, the
radiator, the hood, the windshield and the passenger roof are indicated by a term Cab.
The term side includes the complete side surface of the SUV model including the doors
and the windows. The back surface of the SUV model is indicated by Base. The term
underbody is given to all the surfaces below the car except the wheels. The front wheels
are indicated by the term fwheel. The rear wheel surfaces are divided into two terms.
The front surface of the rear wheel is named as rwheel1 while the other surfaces are
named as rwheel2.
The SUV model shown above used in the wind tunnel is used for the simulation.
The location of the SUV model in the wind tunnel differentiates the two major
benchmarking described in this thesis. As discussed in Section 4.2.1, the wind tunnel
used in the experiments had the cross section of 0.60 x 0.60 m2. If noticed, the ground
plate used actually separated the 0.60 x 0.10 m2 area from the complete cross section.
Due to this reason, the cross section of the virtual wind tunnel is approximately 0.60 x
0.50 m2.
33
In the first benchmarking simulation, which was used for the boat tail plate
simulation illustrated in Chapter 5, the inlet of the wind tunnel was placed two times the
length of the SUV model ahead of the SUV with origin defined in Section 4.2.2. The
pressure outlet of the wind tunnel was placed five times the length of the SUV model
behind the SUV base. The Figure 4.7 below shows a preview of the location of the SUV
5L L 2L
In the second benchmarking simulation, which was used for the foot step
simulation illustrated in Chapter 5, the inlet of the wind Tunnel was placed four times the
length of the SUV model ahead of the SUV with origin defined in Section 4.2.2. The
pressure outlet of the wind tunnel was placed four times the length of the SUV model
behind the SUV base. The Figure 4.8 below shows a preview of the location of the SUV
4L L 4L
The inlet of the Wind tunnel in the simulation is given maximum velocity of
Due to the complexity of the simulation with limited computer resources and
time, the complete domain was divided to half using a symmetry plane at Y = 0. Similar
to the strategy in Section 4.3.2, different meshing characteristics were used for the
different wind tunnel domains. Although the methods were different, the same mixed
configuration of triangular and hex core cells were used for both the domains. The
triangular shape surface mesh was used due to its proximity to changing curves and
bends. These elements easily adjust to the complex bodies used in automobile and
aerospace bodies. In both the benchmarking simulations, the vehicle component surfaces
were discretized with triangular mesh elements. A typical surface mesh size did not
exceed the value of 36mm on the first benchmarking simulation, while surface mesh
element size of 12mm was used for the second benchmarking simulation. The original
1/12th scale model of the SUV used in the experiment [2] was scaled up by the factor of
35
12. The surfaces of the virtual wind tunnel were discretized with a larger triangular mesh
to define course meshes near the surface of the wind tunnel surfaces away from the SUV
model. Cells of mixed cell type were used in the computational domain. Soon after the
surface meshes on the vehicle surfaces, seven layer prismatic layers were defined over
the vehicle surface and the floor to resolve the boundary layers over the surface of the
vehicle and the floor. The first layer of the boundary layer was set to approximately
0.2241684 mm using the NASA y+ online calculator [3]. The growth rate of these
TETRA CELLS
PRISMATIC
BOUNDARY
LAYER
Figure 4.9 Details view of unstructured cells near the wheels [26]
36
As seen in the Figure 4.9, next to these prismatic cells, tetra cells were generated
to connect the prismatic layers to the Hex core cells. The unstructured grid included the
Hex-core cells to fill the remaining computational domain as well as to accelerate the
simulation process. To increase the reliability and accuracy of the simulations, two
HEXCORE refinement regions were defined in the computational domain (as shown in
Figure 4.10). Hex core cells of size 2mm were used constantly over these entire
refinement regions.
Figure 4.10 Hex core refinement regions of first benchmark simulation [26]
simulation, there were two refinement regions defined. The first refinement region was
37
placed right before the front bumper of the vehicle and had the purpose to solve the
stagnation pressure created at the first contact part of the SUV model i.e. the front
bumper. The second refinement region was placed at a location just behind the vehicle
which is most frequently termed as the wake of the vehicle. This space behind the SUV
model plays an important role in the aerodynamics of the vehicles. As shown in the
Figure 4.10 above, the refinement region used for resolving the stagnation pressure is
indicated by HEX A, while the second refinement region used for the wake region is
indicated by HEX B. The refinement regions are measured in terms of base height H.
The HEX A region is approximately 1H ahead of the SUV model, while the HEX B is
approximately 2H behind the Base of the SUV. The y+ value in this benchmarking exists
For the second benchmarking simulation, the following details concentrate on the
unique changes made in the second benchmarking simulation. In this simulation, the two
refinement regions were combined to a single refinement region. The vehicle body
surfaces were more refined to a value of 1 mm all over the SUV model. The value of y+
over the body surfaces were maintained in the range of 1 to 8 for all the simulations as
shown in Chapter 6 and in the second benchmark simulation. The Cartesian box, which
included the refined and constant hex-core cells around the vehicle body, was measured
with 11.184m in the length, 2.64m in width, and 1.992m in height. The Figure 4.11
showed below gives the view of the domain mesh at the wheel center. For the Generic
SUV model simulation in the second benchmark simulation, the cell count was slightly
above the value of 5.8 million cells. After the completion of first convergent, the mesh
38
adaptation module in FLUENT was used to adapt the cells over the boundary of the SUV
model. Initially the y+ value was in the range of 150 to 200, but later the boundary cells
had values of y+ within 8. This value of y+ is really good for solving the boundary layer
near the surfaces and thereby solving the pressure near the surface of the SUV model.
Also, the value of the cells increased from 5.8 million cells to 7.2 million cells after the
adaptation.
Hex Core
Refinement
region
completed before starting the simulations. The solver setting includes type of solver (3D
or 2D), the viscous model, boundary condition and solution controls. The inlet of the
wind tunnel is indicated by the term Velocity inlet, while the outlet of the wind tunnel is
termed as Pressure outlet. The fluid properties were calculated taking into account the
temperature and density of the average ambience condition of the area near the lab of
University of Michigan. The solver settings and boundary condition for both the
benchmark simulations are shown in the Table 4.1, Table 4.2 and Table 4.3.
39
Viscous Model
Benchmark # Benchmark 1 Benchmark 2
Turbulence Model k- (2 eqn) k- (2 eqn)
k-epsilon Model Standard Realizable
Near-Wall Treatment Standard Wall Functions Enhanced Wall Functions
Operating Conditions Ambient Ambient
Table 4.2 Viscous model and Turbulence model settings
Boundary Conditions
Velocity Magnitude (Measured normal to 30 ms (constant)
Inlet Boundary)
Turbulence Specification Method Intensity and Viscosity Ratio
Turbulence Intensity 1.00%
Turbulence Viscosity Ratio 20
Pressure 0 pascal
Gauge Pressure magnitude
Outlet
Gauge Pressure direction normal to boundary
Turbulence Specification Method Intensity and Viscosity Ratio
Backflow Turbulence Intensity 10%
Backflow Turbulent Viscosity Ratio 10
Wall Zones No Slip
Fluid Air
Fluid Type
Properties
Density = 1.175 (kgm^3 )
Kinematic viscosity v = 1.824710^(-5) (kg(ms))
Table 4.3 Boundary condition settings
40
The results of the simulations are described in this section. First the simulation
results of the first benchmark will be illustrated. A discussed earlier, only the Cp plots
over the cab and underbody was calculated for the first benchmark analysis. Figure 4.12
and Figure 4.13 show the plot of Cp over the cab and underbody respectively for the first
benchmark.
As seen in the figures below, the blue symbol indicates the experimental results
while the red symbol indicates the simulations results of the first benchmark. Although
the results of the pressure coefficient on the cab surface closely match the experimental
results, the underbody pressure coefficient shows a slight variation but the pattern of the
plot is similar. The maximum pressure coefficient is found near the front bumper of the
SUV model. The result of maximum coefficient on the front bumper was 0.97 for the
simulation which is quite close to the value for the experiments, i.e., 0.98.
Figure 4.12 Cab Cp plot comparison with experiment for first benchmark [26]
41
Figure 4.13 Underbody Cp plot comparison with experiment for first benchmark [26]
model, some changes were made in the parameters of the turbulence model as well as
some finer surface mesh was used all over the SUV model. The Figure 4.14 and Figure
4.15 shown below illustrates the pressure coefficient plots extracted from the second
benchmark simulations.
42
Figure 4.14 Cab Cp plot comparison with experiment for second benchmark
Figure 4.15 Underbody Cp plot comparison with experiment for second benchmark
43
As shown in the figures above, the pattern and value of the results are much closer
to those of experiments than the previous benchmark simulations. Since the results of the
coefficient pressure plots are not sufficient enough to conclude the benchmark results,
mean velocity profiles in the downstream direction were plotted in the central horizontal
The figures from Figure 4.16 to Figure 4.21 shown below illustrate the
comparison of the mean velocity downstream profiles with the experimental results in the
wake region at distinct locations. The Figure 4.16 shows the comparison of the Mean
downstream velocity at 0.3 m behind the base of the SUV model. The value of the mean
velocities are very close at Y= 30, 67 and 77mm. The pattern of the plot is closely
matching the results of the experiments near the symmetry plane, but it shows a drastic
deviation near the outer edges of the SUV model (i.e. Y= 74mm). The Figure 4.17 shows
the comparison of the mean velocities at 0.6 m behind the SUV base. The results of the
benchmark at this wake spot moves closer to the experimental results at the symmetry
plane and overlaps at several point with the experimental results. This shows that the
wake profile is captured correctly at this distance from the base of the SUV model.
Similar to Figure 4.17, the Figure 4.18 illustrates that the values of the benchmark
results, the profile of the plot and the wake profiles are nearly matching the experimental
results at 1.2 m behind the base of the SUV model. The Figure 4.19, Figure 4.20 and
Figure 4.21 shows a similarity between them. The values of the mean velocities from the
benchmark simulations are very close to the experimental results near the symmetry
plane. At the same time they show huge deviations near Y= 74 mm. The comparison of
44
the mean velocities concludes that the profiles of the mean velocity profile are closely
matching the results of the experiments. Since the experiments are performed using the
symmetry plane, the downstream velocity are compared and benchmarked and the lateral
Figure 4.16 Mean downstream velocity profiles of the flow at Z = 0.830184m and X = 5.484m
45
Figure 4.17 Mean downstream velocity profiles of the flow at Z = 0.830184m and X = 5.784m
Figure 4.18 Mean downstream velocity profiles of the flow at Z = 0.830184m and X = 6.384m
46
Figure 4.19 Mean downstream velocity profiles of the flow at Z = 0.830184m and X = 6.984m
Figure 4.20 Mean downstream velocity profiles of the flow at Z = 0.830184m and X = 7.584m
47
Figure 4.21 Mean downstream velocity profiles of the flow at Z = 0.830184m and X = 8.184m
From the simulation results and the setting shown above, the conclusion can be
drawn from the benchmarking process for the SUV model used. The results give us the
suitable turbulence model and the mesh settings to be used for the optimization process of
the boat tail plate and the side steps. The results of the simulation agree well with
experimental results for downstream components considered. If the results are to be made
completely reliable, the re-simulation is needed without using any symmetry plane. For
complete domain simulation, very competitive computer configuration and power will be
Chapter 5
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this section, first external device is tested and optimized to reduce the drag of
the complete SUV model benchmarked in the previous section. The external device used
is termed as boat tail plate. This external device is a simple device in a shape of flat
plate connected to the base portion of the SUV. The idea of using this device had
Chometon over the Ahmed Reference model at different angles of the rear windshield
[4]. The Ahmed Reference Model, also termed as ARM Model, showed large variation
in drag when the value of the angle of rear windshield changed from 5 to 40. When the
angle reached 12.5 , this value was expected to show the lowest drag and needed to be
simulated for the boat tail plate to investigate the effects on the flow behind the vehicle
The CAD model of SUV model from the first benchmarking is modified using
CAD software Solidworks. The Figure 5.1 shown below gives the view of the boat tail
plate installed on the base of the SUV model. There are basically two plates installed on
the base of the SUV model. The top plate is termed as the Upper plate and the bottom
plate is termed as the Lower plate. This location of the boat tail plate is inspired from
49
the imaginary sketch created by Gaylard published in his published paper IMPROVING
conference [4]. The imaginary drag improving sketch of SUV is shown in Figure 3.3 in
Chapter 3.
As seen in the Figure 3.3, the rear base of the SUV has a spoiler extension at a
particular angle. This spoiler angle is expected to play a major role in reducing drag for
the complete SUV. The base of the SUV is directly connected to the low pressure wake
region of the SUV. If the size of the SUV wake region is reduced, then the low pressure
at the wake region will have the tendency to increase. This will cause the pressure
50
difference of the vehicle in the flow direction to decrease. Eventually the pressure drag
on the SUV model will be reduced, giving advantage to the SUV model in propulsion.
the particular problem. Every problem can achieve highly effective results if
optimizations are performed on its design variables. The design variables are the
The design variables for the boat tail plate are horizontal length of the plate,
thickness of the plate and the angle of the plates. Since the angle of the plates were
considered as the prime design variable for the testing of this device on the SUV, all the
other design variables except the angle are kept at constant value throughout all the
simulations.
Figure 5.2 Side view of Boat tail plate along with dimensions [26]
51
The Figure 5.2 above shows the detail sketch view of the boat tails plates
installed on the base of the SUV. The horizontal length of the upper plate was kept at a
value of 18.75 mm (1/12 scale value) while the horizontal length of the lower plate was
kept at a value of 14.06 mm. These values were extracted after live measurements of the
five different SUV vehicle using spoilers in the current marker of year 2008. The
thickness of the plates were randomly selected as 2mm (1/12 scale value). The angle of
upper boat tail plate is termed as angle A, while the angle of the lower boat tail plate is
termed as angle B. These angles are incremented at a value of 5 degrees and simulated
at different combinations to determine the effects of it on the overall drag of the SUV as
well as to find the best angle for optimization. The Table 5.1 below shows the details
about the values of angle A and angle B for each simulation performed.
The wind tunnel size and dimensions are adapted in the same way as used
for the first benchmark simulation discussed in Section 4.3.2. The inlet section of the
wind tunnel is approximately 0.60 x 0.50 m2. The inlet of the wind tunnel is placed at two
times the vehicle body length ahead of the SUV model and the velocity of the air at the
inlet is 30 m/s. On the other hand, the outlet of the wind tunnel is placed five times the
length of the SUV model measured from base of the SUV model. The pressure outlet is
set to be atmospheric value. The Figure 5.3 shows a preview of the orientation of the
vehicle.
5L L 2L
the mesh setting used in the all the simulations performed for the boat tail plates. As
described in section 4.3.3, two refinement regions were used in the simulation. The first
refinement box was implemented to resolve the stagnation pressure near the first contact
element of the SUV model i.e. the front bumper. Similarly, the second refinement box
53
was used to resolve the wake profiles of the SUV model. The second refinement in these
simulations helps to better understand the dynamics of the air flow over the SUV boat tail
plates. The Figure 5.4 below gives the view of the mesh generated at the symmetry plane
Figure 5.4 Hybrid Mesh near the upper boat tail plate
The Figure 5.5 shows the Total pressure contour at the symmetry plane of the
Benchmark simulation. There is very high pressure on the surrounding air which is
represented by dark red. As the air passes over the vehicle, a low pressure wake region is
formed. This wake region, along with the pressure inside it, plays a major role in
controlling the drag coefficient of the SUV model. If the size of the SUV wake region is
54
reduced, then the low pressure at the wake region will have the tendency to increase. This
will cause the pressure difference of the vehicle in the flow direction to decrease.
Eventually the pressure drag on the SUV model will be reduced, giving advantage to the
Figure 5.5 Total Pressure Contour of the Benchmark Simulation at symmetry plane
The Figure 5.6 shows the total pressure contour of the A10B10 simulation. The
drag coefficient of this simulation is the lowest among all the simulations performed on
the SUV model. The angle value of 10 is the optimum angle of upper and lower boat tail
plate for reducing drag of the complete SUV model. After comparing the Figure 5.5 and
Figure 5.6, it is seen that the pressure of the air above the SUV model has reduced. At
the same time, the pressure inside the wake region has increase drastically. The pressure
difference in the flow direction has decreased, thereby causing a decrease in the drag of
The Figure 5.7 illustrates the Pressure contour of the simulations which has the
least lift coefficient. In this simulation, the SUV model gives the optimum lift coefficient.
The wake profile of this simulation is compressed, but the pressure around the top surface
55
simulation in Figure 5.5. This high pressure on the top surface pushes the vehicle
Figure 5.6 Total Pressure Contour of the A10B10 Simulation at symmetry plane
Figure 5.7 Total Pressure Contour of the A20B20 Simulation at symmetry plane
The Figure 5.8 and Figure 5.9 shows the magnitude velocity path lines for all the
angular combinations of boat tail plates described in the Table 5.1 in section 5.3. All the
simulations are named as A*B#, in which A represents the angle of the upper boat tail
plate and * symbol will replace with the angle used for the respective simulation.
56
Similarly, the B represents the lower boat tail plate angle and # represents the angle of
while lower
B. For example, A10B5 indicates upper plate inclined at an angle of 10
plate inclined at an angle of. 5From the Figure 5.8 and Figure 5.9, it could be
concluded that the wake region is large for the original SUV model, which extends to
about 1.2 times the height of the base, behind the base of the SUV. As the angles A and
B increases, the distance between the two circulatory flow region in the wake decreases.
At the same time the length of the wake region increases, causing a smooth flow and
avoiding the instability of the wake region. This could be observed before the simulation
reaches angle of 10 for both the A and B angles. As soon as the angles are increased
above 10, the flow behind the wake region becomes more unstable, leading to a
deceased pressure at the wake region to cause the drag of the SUV model to increase.
The Figure 5.10 shows the drag and lift coefficient variation for different
simulations described in Table 5.2. After observing the Table 5.2 as well as the Figure
5.8 and Figure 5.9, it could be seen that the drag coefficient of the SUV model drops
from 0.349 to 0.324 after inserting the flat plates inclined at an angle of 10. The drag
coefficient drops down gradually as the angle reaches 10 for both A and B angles. At
the same time the lift coefficient of the SUV model has uneven drop and rise in its value
till the plate angles reach 10. As seen in Figure 5.10, the drag coefficient rises rapidly
till the plate angles reach 35 although the lift coefficient shows drastic drop in its value
also agreed with the simulation results over the Ahmed reference model by Gillieron, P.,
Chometon, F. [4].
57
Figure 5.10 Drag and lift coefficient variation for all the simulations
5.7 SUMMARY
This thesis started by reproducing the experimental results of the SUV Generic model by
Bahram Khalighi [2] using CFD technique. After the validation of the CFD setup and
mesh settings, the results along with the original SUV CAD model were used for
installing new devices keeping the drag reduction concept referring Gaylards Paper [1].
15 simulations were performed for different angel combinations between upper plate A
and lower pate B. The results of the simulations performed showed that the optimum
angle for the boat tail plates lies between the angle of 10 and 15.
61
Chapter 6
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This Chapter describes about the simulation over the SUV model using the
external drag-reducing device usually termed as Foot Step. This device is generally
used by most of the SUV models in the market for the comfort of the passenger for easy
entrance. The idea of testing this external device came from the technical paper
Industry Research Association (MIRA) conference [4]. The paper describes that the foot
step used by the Jaguar Land rover vehicle reduced the drag coefficient in the range of
0.003 and 0.006. The Figure 6.1 below describes about the device that will be tested and
The CAD model of SUV model from the second benchmarking is modified using
CAD software Solidworks. The Figure 6.2 shown below gives the view of the foot step
installed on the body of the SUV model. The shape of the Foot step is generalized to an
ordinary shape to make the simulation results more descriptive and easily understandable.
Each face of the foot step is given a specific term to illustrate the results of drag of each
faces in the following sections of the chapter. As shown in Figure 6.2, the top face of the
foot step is termed as steptop, while the bottom surface is termed as stepbottom. The
left face is termed as stepleft, while the right face is termed as stepright. Lastly the
front face of the foot step is named as stepfront, while rear face of the foot step is
named as stepback.
As described in the previous chapter, the design variables are the key elements in
the shape optimization process of the foot step device used on the SUV model. The
design variables used in the foot step are the length of the foot step, width of the foot step
Since width of the foot step is the focus of interest in the current simulation
optimization, all the other design variables are kept constant. The length of the foot step
is 2.07mm (scaled up value) and the height of the foot step is maintained at 0.096mm
(scaled up value). These values are average values of the five measurements of current
footsteps used in the market of SUV accessories. The width of the foot step is measured
in terms of width of the vehicle wheels. The Table 6.1 gives the details of the dimensions
of the foot step used for five different simulations performed on the vehicle.
The wind tunnel size and dimensions are adapted in the same way as used for the
second benchmark simulation discussed in Section 4.3.2. The inlet section of the wind
64
tunnel is approximately 0.60 x 0.50 m2. The inlet of the Wind tunnel is placed at four
times the vehicle body length ahead of the SUV model and the velocity of the air at the
inlet is 30 m/s. On the other hand the outlet of the wind tunnel is placed four times the
length of the SUV model measured from base of the SUV model. The pressure outlet is
set to be the atmospheric value. The Figure 6.3 below shows a preview of the orientation
of the vehicle.
4L L 4L
all the mesh setting used in the all the simulations performed for the foot step. As
described in section 4.3.3, one large refinement regions was used to cover the entire
vehicle in the simulation. This refinement box resolved the stagnation pressure near the
first contact element of the SUV model i.e. the front bumper. It extended to about 2 times
the base size of the SUV model ahead of the SUV model an 2 times the base size behind
the base of the SUV model. Thereby, this refinement box also resolved the wake profiles
of the SUV model. The second refinement in these simulations helps to better understand
65
the dynamics of the air flow over the SUV boat tail plates. The Figure 6.4 below gives
the view of the mesh generated at the plane near the foot step center parallel to the
symmetry plane.
Figure 6.4 Mesh view at the plane near the foot step
66
The Figure 6.5 below shows the drag coefficient variation for all the simulations
performed on the SUV at different configurations stated in Table 6.1 at section 6.3. As
the step width increased gradually to a width of 1.1W (where W indicates width of the
wheel in meters), the drag coefficient showed an increment from the benchmark value of
0.3545 to 0.3584. As the step width increased to 1.2W in the next simulation, the drag
started decreasing gradually and then stopped decreasing as the value of step width was
increased from 1.3W. Increase of drag coefficient approached a higher rate as the width
of the step reached 1.5W. The detail value of the drag coefficient for each surface is also
Figure 6.5 Drag coefficient plot for all the simulations on foot step
67
The Figure 6.6 displays the total pressure contour for all the simulations plotted
at the plane where Y= 0.79m. The figure clearly shows the variation of the total pressure
above the cab surface and the wake region. By comparing the benchmark with Step 3, it
can be clearly seen that the wake region experiences a slight increase in pressure
indicated by the yellow color. Further examination indicates that simulation results using
Step 5 have a drastic increase in pressure in the air above the cab surface making the
color of the high pressure air darker. This high pressure adds more drag force on the cab
surface keeping the wake pressure constant, which thereby increases the drag coefficient.
Figure 6.6 Total Pressure contour for all the simulations at Y= 0.79m
68
The Figure 6.7 shows the variation of the pressure coefficient Cd plot over the
surface of the foot step. For the foot step, STEP 1, there is a high concentration of red
spot on the front outer surface of the foot step due to the blocked air. This high pressure
spot is darker in red, showing an increase in drag on the front surface of the foot step. For
STEP2, the red spot has the same intensity with reduction in pressure coefficient on the
back surface of the foot step. For STEP 3, the intensity of the red spot decrease and the
spread of the high pressure coefficient is more scattered in the front surface. The back
portion of the step shows an increment in pressure coefficient, thereby reducing the drag
of the foot step. In STEP 4 and STEP 5, the intensity of the pressure coefficient and the
spread area of high Cd value on the front surface of the foot step are high enough to cause
drag increment, which can be compared with the drag values in Table 6.2.
Figure 6.7 Pressure coefficient variations for all foot step simulations
69
From the Table 6.2, the changes in cab surface was first discussed. As the Step
size is changed from no step to STEP 1, the drag coefficient on the cab surface shows a
drastic decrease from 0.0827 to 0.0787. The drag coefficient shows a slight bump for the
cab surface as soon as the foot step extrudes to the size of 1.2W. After careful
observation from the Cd plot profile on the step in Figure 6.7, it concluded that the front
surface of the foot step had some impact on the cab surface of the SUV model. As soon
as the size of the foot step changes to STEP 3, the drag coefficient on the cab surface
shows a drop in the Cd value. This value goes on increase at a faster rate till the width of
Body Surface
Drag Drag Drag Drag Drag
Total
Coeff. Coeff. Coeff. Coeff. Coeff.
Drag
Cd Cd Cd Drag Coeff. Cd Cd
Coeff.
on on on Cd on on
Cd
cab base fwheel on rwheel1 rwheel2 side
Benchmark 0.3545 0.0827 0.2276 0.0563 0.0135 0.0202 -0.0486
STEP 1 0.3584 0.0787 0.2491 0.0533 0.0068 0.0201 -0.0452
STEP 2 0.3576 0.0792 0.2486 0.0520 0.0065 0.0192 -0.0450
STEP 3 0.3508 0.0785 0.2432 0.0523 0.0072 0.0188 -0.0450
STEP 4 0.3546 0.0792 0.2439 0.0516 0.0063 0.0189 -0.0444
STEP 5 0.3847 0.1096 0.2378 0.0479 0.0058 0.0172 -0.0374
Body Surface Cont.
Drag Drag
Drag Drag Drag Drag Drag Coeff. Coeff.
Coeff. Coeff. Coeff. Coeff. Coeff. Cd Cd
Cd Cd Cd Cd Cd on on
on on on on on Step- Step-
underbody Step-left Step-right Step-top Step-bottom front back
Benchmark 0.0027 - - - - - -
STEP 1 0.0016 .00032 .00050 .00006 0.00073 -.00742 -.00015
STEP 2 0.0019 .00037 .00043 .00014 0.00072 -.00689 .00040
STEP 3 0.0011 .00035 .00039 .00032 0.00074 -.00786 .00081
STEP 4 0.0022 .00040 .00046 .00041 0.00087 -.00660 .00127
STEP 5 0.0036 .00041 .00037 .00048 0.00050 -.00367 .00204
Table 6.2 Drag Coefficient on all surfaces of the SUV model
70
Now consider the base surface of the SUV model. The base surface has a major
impact on the SUV overall drag, since it is connected to the wake region of the SUV. The
value of the base Cd shows an increase in its value as soon as the foot STEP 1 is inserted.
This value of the base Cd remains approximately constant for the entire simulations from
STEP 2 to STEP 4; until it shows a drop to the value higher than the benchmark but
lower than the optimal solution of STEP 3. The value of the Cd plot on the front wheel
shows almost no change till the STEP 4 simulation. There is a drop in the Cd value of the
front wheel, when the final simulation STEP 5 is simulated. Since the rear wheel is the
only wheel which faces the air after the impact on the foot step, the rear wheel surface are
closely analyzed. The front face of the rear wheel is named as rwheel1, while the other
surfaces of the rear wheel are named as rwheel2. If closely observed, it is seen that the
front surface of the foot step shows minor increase in drag coefficient while there are
major decrease in drag of the rwheel2 surfaces. This is seen till the simulation of STEP
3. The side surface of the SUV model is constant for all the simulations. The underbody
of the SUV model also plays one of the major roles in reducing overall drag. The value of
the drag Coefficient on the underbody surface shows drastic changes till the STEP 3
simulation and then there is steeper increase in its value till the simulation reaches the
STEP 5 simulation.
Now consider the simulations of the foot step surfaces. The left and right surfaces
of the foot step are the surfaces which are parallel to the direction of the flow. Therefore
these surfaces show gradual decrease till STEP 3 simulation and then gradually increase
to higher value till simulation STEP 5. The top surface of the foot step shows a constant
71
increase in drag till the simulation STEP 5, while the bottom surface shows a constant
value till simulation STEP3. The value of Cd over the bottom surface increases
drastically until simulation of STEP 5. The front surface of the foot step adds negative
drag in all the simulations. This means that the front surface overcomes the resistance of
air and pushes the vehicle in the opposite direction of the flow of the air. The back
surface was showing negative drag till the STEP 1 simulation, but the Cd value show
6.7 SUMMARY
CFD technique was used to analyze the flow around the Generic SUV model
using steady state formulation. The objective of the present study in Chapter 6 was to
study the effect of foot step on the drag coefficient of the SUV model. The comparison
between the CFD results and the experimental test established a reliable benchmark. Five
simulations of the modified SUV model with different foot step sizes were simulated and
compared with the benchmark model. The results concluded that the optimum size for the
width of the foot step between the range of 1.3W and 1.4W (where W indicates the
wheel width). In the current study, the STEP 3 with foot step width of 1.3W had the
lowest drag and the percentage decrease of drag coefficient was more than 1% from the
original model.
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Chapter 7
7.1 CONCLUSION
In todays world, SUVs are considered as one of the sources for all the problems
of fuel economy, global warming and unhealthy environment. Today the aerodynamicist
have a major challenge to change this image created on the minds of American and
worldwide customers. The efficiency of these large size cars are needed to be increased.
efficient SUVs. In this thesis, various computational fluid dynamic simulations were
performed on the SUV using external drag reducing devices like boat tail plates and
spoilers. The state of the art software like FLUENT, GAMBIT, T-grid and Solidworks
In this thesis, the experimental data extracted from the wind tunnel testing over
the Generic SUV model are compared with the numerical results of the SUV model. The
pressure coefficient over the SUV surface and the mean velocity profiles in the wake
region at distinct points are compared and thereby validating the CFD simulations. This
thesis effectively developed a validated CFD model of the SUV, which can be used to
As discussed in Chapter 5, the boat tail plates were tested on the validated CFD
SUV model. The upper and lower boat tail plate angles of 10
illustrated a remarkable
73
decrease in drag from 0.349 to 0.306. This value is nearly 12.3 % decrease in drag from
the benchmark model. This will affect the performance of the vehicle and thereby save
The second device i.e. foot step for drag optimization. This device is used by
about 80% of the vehicles for the comfort of the passengers. After thoroughly analyzing
the complete simulation results, it could be observed that slight changes in its dimension
reduced the drag of the overall SUV from 0.354 to 0.350. This optimized shape of the
SUV foot step reduced the drag to about 1.12 % from the original benchmark model.
devices, there is more work needed to be worked upon. The two external drag reducing
device like Boat tail plate and Foot step were simulated and optimized in this thesis.
Combination of these both devices could be simulated as future work. Taking the basic
shape of the foot step simulated in this thesis, a more well-defined shape of the foot step
could be simulated in the future. Since the validation of the SUV model is completed,
various ideas of external devices could be tested on the Generic SUV model. Some of the
ideas could be Vortex Strake Devices which is commonly known as VSD. The Figure
7.1 below shows the detail view of the VSD device. This device was tested on the trailer
of the truck by the department of Energy in 2004. The wind tunnel and live road testing
of this device resulted in a decrease of drag for the trailer of the truck. Eventually, this
device could be tested on the SUV model, expecting the drag to be reduced.
74
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