PUBLICATION SUPERSEDED

This document was published by Austroads.

Whilst it has been superseded by later publications, it

has been made available electronically on the ARRB
Knowledge Base for historical purposes with the
permission of Austroads.

For those seeking current material and guidance,

please visit the Austroads online publications database:

http://www.onlinepublications.austroads.com.au/
 624.21
AUS
Section 2
 i
For as; 0,08 ex = 0.13 x a I
'

Ifbf a> 0.09 ex = 0.13 + 5.3 (a-0.08)."

624.21
AUS
Section 2
Amendment
COMMENTARY
Page C2.12 Article C 2.13.1
Delete the two paragraphs and substitute the
following:
"AS 1170.4, Minimum Design Loads on
Structures Part 4: Earthquake loads, provides
a changed method for determining earthquake
loads to that on which this Section was origi
nally based. Earthquake severity at different
locations is now defined by an acceleration
coefficient, a, for which values for particular
locations are given in Table 2.3 of AS 1170.4
and contours are shown on Figures 2.3(b) to
2.3 (g).
At this stage, AS 1170.4 does not cover
bridges, but could do so, with some additional
requirements.
In order that the requirements for bridges cur
rently given in the Australian Bridge Design
Code can still apply, a conversion from the
values for the acceleration coefficient, a, given
in AS 1170.4 to the Seismicity factor, a, is
given. This conversion, together with the use
of the site-structure resonance factors from
Clause 2.4 of AS 1170.4 for General
Structures, will allow the calculation of earth
quake forces appropriate to this Australian
Bridge Design Code."
Page C2.13 Article C2.13.2
Delete second paragraph and substitute the
following:
"In a general situation, design for earthquake
resistance must comprise an assessment of the
seismicity of the site, an estimation of the
induced seismic load and an evaluation of the
structural system characteristics and the
dynamic structural response. The subject is
discussed in Newmark and Rosenbleuth
(1971). Evaluation of the dynamic response
due to seismic loading of a specified accelera
tion spectrum can be performed with the aid of
a number of readily available computer
programs."
Page C2.13 Article C2.13.4
1. Delete fourth paragraph and substitute the
following:
"The Seismicity Factor, a, has been related to
the acceleration coefficient, a, given in
AS 1170.4-1993."
2. Delete sixth paragraph and substitute the
following:
"The Horizontal Force Factor category has
been extended from that in the 1976 NAASRA
Bridge Design Specification, recognising the
part that frame action and redundancy can play
in modifying seismic behaviour. It is consid
ered that a minimum value of 0.8 for bridges
should apply. The three dimensional redun
dancy available in buildings is not generally
achievable in bridges."
3. Delete eighth paragraph and substitute the
following:
'The Site - Structure Resonance Factor is taken
from AS 1170.4-1993. In recent times there
has been ample evidence, in areas of high
seismicity around the world, illustrating the
poor performance of simply supported
bridges, bridges with intermediate hinges and
bearings and those which were inadequately
connected to substructures. The requirements
regarding restraining devices are therefore
considered particularly important."
 Bridge Design Code

Section 2: Design Loads

--!'
" r,' ,- I:
, , ; . :; .' '
,!' T-l

,
: : .: ,
AUSTROADS is the association of State, Territory and Federal road
and traffic authorities in Australia. It was established in 1989 to
replace NAASRA (National Association of Australian State Road
Authorities)

The mission of AUSTROADS is:

To pursue the effective management and use ofthe nation's roads as part
ofthe Australian transport system by the development and promotion of
national policies and practices.

AUSTROADS will maintain a national perspective and provide strategic

direction to the development, management and use of Australia's road
system. AUSTROADS provides a central organisation where co
operation permits the co-ordination and rationalisation ofroad research
projects, road and bri dge design standards, construction and maintenance
practices, and the gathering and publishing of facts about Australia's
principal roads and their financing.

Member Authorities

'
Roads and Traffic Authority, New South Wales

Roads Corporation of Victoria

Department of Transport, Queensland

Main Roads, Western Australia

Department of Road Transport, South Australia

Department of Roads and Transport, Tasmania

Department of Transport and Works, Northern Territory

Department of Urban Services, ACT

Department of Transport and Communications

jjJUSTROAD:j
fl

National Office

Level 1 Centennial Plaza

260 Elizabeth Street
SURRY HILLS NSW 2010
PO Box K659
HAYMARKET NSW 2000 AUSTRALIA

Telephone : (02) 218 6218

Facsimile: (02) 281 7458
 Bridge Design Code

Section 2: Design Loads

Sydney 1992
 NAASRA B ridge Design Code - Working Stress Format
First Published 1953
Second Edition 1958
Third Edition 1965
Fourth Edition 1970
Fifth Edition 1976

AUSTROADS B ridge Design Code - Limit State Format

First Published 1992

Project Manager
Mr Ray Wedgwood, RTA NSW

Working Group - Section 2

Dr John Fenwick, DoT Qld
Mr Rex Atkins, VIC ROADS
Mr John Pressley, MRD WA
Mrs Sue Lothringer, RTA NSW

Previous Members
Mr John Thomas, CRB Vic
Mr Geoff Bowmaker, DMR NSW
Mr Gerry Brameld, Qld Institute of Technology
Mr Don Lewis, Langer Dames & Campbell (Brisbane)
Mr Chris Abraham, Sinclair Knight & Partners (Brisbane)
Mr John Wheeler, MRD WA

Technical Editor
Mr Gil Marsh, Western Australia

COPYRIGHT A USTROADS
AUSTROADS Publication No. AP-15.2

National Library of Australia Card Number and ISBN 0 85588408 8

0 85588405 3 (for the set)

Reproduction of extracts from this publication may be made subject to due acknowledgement of the source.

Although this publication is believed to be correct at the time of its printing, AUSTROADS does not accept respon
sibility for any consequences arising from the use of the information contained in it. People using the information
should apply, and rely upon, their own skill and judgement to the particular issue which they are considering.

Printed by The Kelvin Press Pty. Limited, 2 Paton Place, Manly Vale 2093. Telephone: (02) 949 5299.
 Foreword

AUSTROADS works towards uniformity of practice in design, construction and user aspects of roads and bridges and
with this purpose in view, publishes guides, codes and general procedures.

This Code is issued for use by road authorities and their consultants for the design of conventional road and pedestrian
bridges up to approximately 100m spans. For the design of longer spans or unusual structures, other appropriate design
codes and specialist literature should also be consulted.

This Code has been developed in a limit states format to give designs of consistent levels of safety and economy. It is
intended that the results of future research and field measurements can be incorporated in the design process to achieve
more economic structures.

As for previous versions, some of the Code is based on specifications issued by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials and AUSTROADS acknowledges the help obtianed from AASHTO publications
and research. Much of the pioneering work in the development of a bridge design code in limit states format has been
carried out by the Ontario Ministry of Transportation and the influence of the Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code is
acknowledged.

Also, acknowledgement is made to the Standards Association of Australia, with which AUSTROADS is developing a
memorandum of understanding regarding the development of Standards. AUSTROADS representation on SAA
Committees has been aimed at developing consistency between SAA Standards and the relevant Sections of this Code.
The contributions of the SAA Standards to this Code have been most important.

For the first time, a commentary has been prepared to provide background to the Code requirements.

The 1992 AUSTROADS Bridge Design Code is intended for use by professional engineers experienced in bridge design
and by qualified engineers supervised by experienced bridge engineers.

This Code is published as a series of separate but complementary Sections, the provisions of which are to be applied
consistently to determine appropriate responses to the Design Loads. These Sections are:

Section 1: General
Section 2: Design Loads
Section 3: Foundations
Section4: Bearings and Deck Joints
Section 5: Concrete
Section 6: Steel*
Section 7: Temporary Works*

* To be printed at a later date.

 Acknowledgments

Work on the development of the Bridge Design Code in limit states format commenced in 1979. Since that time there
have been many and varied contributions not only from within the State Road Authorities but also from interested
academics and consultants. Whilst it is not possible to name all contributors, their contributions are gratefully
acknow ledged.

Particular mention must be made of the work of the Steering Committee for Conversion of the Bridge Design
Specification to Limit States Format. The names of members of the Committee are listed below. This Steering
Committee provided valuable guidance and direction in the early years of the development of the Code, and its work
provided the bases for the activities of the Working Groups.

Thanks are also due to Mr Ian Ross and his staff of the Main Roads Department, Western Australia for the attention given
to the Policy Review of the Code.

Steering Committee For Conversion Of Bridge Design Specification to Limit States Format

Convenors
Mr Keith Opie, Country Roads Board, Victoria (1979 - 1980)
Mr Gil Marsh, Main Roads Department, Western Australia (1980-1985)
Mr Kevin Williams, Department of Transport and Works, Northern Territory (1985-1986)
Mr Albert Contessa, Main Roads Department, Queensland (1986-1988)

Members
Mr Albert Contessa, Main Roads Department, Queensland
Dr JohnFenwick, Department of Transport, Queensland
Mr UlfFraser, Roads and Traffic Authority, New South Wales
Mr Norm Haylock, Country Roads Board, Victoria
Mr Bob Hinchcliffe, Roads and Traffic Authority, New South Wales
Mr Geoff Hughes, Department of Main Roads, New South Wales
Mr Jim Leslie, (Association of Consulting Engineers Australia), Maunsell & Partners (Melbourne)
Mr Gil Marsh, Main Roads Department, Western Australia
Mr Bob Meggs, VIC ROADS
Mr Keith Opie, Country Roads Board, Victoria
Mr Brian Pearson, Department of Main Roads, New South Wales
Prof Harry Poulos, University of Sydney
Mr Peter Selby-Smith, (Association of Consulting Engineers Australia), Maunsell & Partners (Melbourne)
Prof Len Stevens, University of Melbourne
Prof Bob Warner, Universities of New South Wales and Adelaide
Mr Kevin Williams, Department of Transport and Works, Northern Territory
 Contents Summary

2.1 General .................................................................................................................... 2.1

2.2 Dead Loads ............................................................................................................ 112.1

2.3 Traffic Loading ..................................................... ,................................................ 2.2

,

2.4 Dynamic Load Allowance ...................................................................................... 2.6

2.5 Horizontal Forces Due to Traffic . . . .

... ....................... ... ............ ............... . ........... .. 2.6

2.6 Collision Loads on Bridge Supports ..................................................................... 2.7

2.7 Kerb and Barrier Design Loadings ...................................................................... 2.7

2.8 Wind Loads ............................................................................................................. 2.8

2.9 Thermal Effects . .. . . . .

.......... . .
.. .. . . ...... .......... .... . . ..
............. ........ ............. . ................ 2.10

2.10 Forces Due to Water Flow ................................................................................... 2.11

2.11 Earth Pressure ..................................................................................... , ................ 2.14

2.12 Friction Forces ...................................................................................................... 2.14

2.13 Earthquake Forces ............................................................................................... 2.15

2.14 Shrinkage, Creep and Prestress Effects ....... .

............................... ...................... 2.16

2.15 Differential Movement of Supports ...... ............ ... . ..

.... .. . ... .
......... . . . .. 2.16
. .... ........... ...

2.16 Construction Forces and Effects ......................................................................... 2.17

2.17 Load Combinations .............................................................................................. 2.17

2.18 Dynamic Behaviour .............................................................................................. 2.18

2.19 Road Signs and Lighting Structures ................................................................... 2.18

 Contents Details

2.1 General .................................................................................................................... 2.1

2.2 Dead Loads ............................................................................................................I f 2.1

2.2.1 General .......................................................................................................... 2.1
2.2.2 Dead Load of Structure ................................................................................. 2.1
2.2.3 Superimposed Dead Load ............................................................................. 2.2

2.3 Traffic Loading ....................................................................................................... 2.2

2.3.1 General .......................................................................................................... 2.2
2.3.2 T44 Truck Loading ....................................................................................... 2.2
2.3.3 L44 Lane Loading ......................................................................................... 2.3
2.3.4 Heavy Load Platform Loading ..................................................................... 2.3
2.3.5 Number of Lanes for Design and Lateral Position of Loads ........................ 2.4
2.3.5.1 T44 truck and L44 lane loadings ....................................................... 2.4
2.3.5.2 Heavy load platform loadings ........................................................... 2.4
2.3.6 ModificationFactors for Multiple Lane Bridges .......................................... 2.4
2.3.7 Design for Localised Load Effects - W7 Wheel Loading ............................ 2.5
2.3.8 Fatigue Loading ............................................................................................ 2.5
2.3.9 Pedestrian Loading ....................................................................................... 2.5
2.3.10 Tramway and Railway Loading .................................................................... 2.5
2.3.11 LoadFactors for Design Traffic Loadings .................................................... 2.5

2.4 Dynamic Load Allowance ...................................................................................... 2.6

2.4.1 General .......................................................................................................... 2.6
2.4.2 Dynamic Load Allowance - T44 Truck and L44 Lane Loadings ................. 2.6
2.4.3 Dynamic Load Allowance - Heavy Load Platform Loadings ...................... 2.6
2.4.4 Dynamic Load Allowance for Decks ............................................................ 2.6
2.4.5 Application of the Dynamic Load Allowance .............................................. 2.6

2.5 Horizontal Forces Due to Traffic . ....

........... . ......................................................... 2.6
2.5.1 CentrifugalForces ......................................................................................... 2.6
2.5.2 BrakingForces .............................................................................................. 2.6
2.5.3 LoadFactors for Design HorizontalForces Due to Traffic .......................... 2.7
2.5.4 Minimum Lateral Restraint Capacity - Ultimate Limit State ....................... 2.7

2.6 Collision Loads on Bridge Supports ..................................................................... 2.7

2.6.1 General .......................................................................................................... 2.7
2.6.2 Collision Loads from Road Traffic ............................................................... 2.7
2.6.3 Bridge Piers Adjacent to Railways ............................................................... 2.7
2.6.4 Ship Impact on Bridge Piers ......................................................................... 2.7

2.7 Kerb and Barrier Design Loadings ............ . ...

............ . ... . . .. .
... . . .... ........ .. .. ............ 2.7
2.7.1 Kerb Design Loads ....................................................................................... 2.7
2.7.2 Levell Barrier Design Loads ....................................................................... 2.8
2.7.3 Level 2 Barrier Design Loads ....................................................................... 2.8
2.7.3.1 Ultimate design load .......................................................................... 2.8
2.7.3.2 Distribution of loads - post and rail barriers ...................................... 2.8
2.7.3.3 Distribution of loads - concrete barriers ............................................ 2.8
2.7.3.4 Distribution of loads - integral concrete/post and rail barriers ......... 2.8
 Contents Details

2.7.4 Level 3 Barrier Design Loads . ..

...................... .. . .......... ................................ . 2.8
2.7.5 Pedestrian Railing Design Loads .................................................................. 2.8

2.8 Wind Loads ........ ........ .. ... ....................... ............

. . . .. . ..
.... . ...... .. ... .. ... .. ...
. . . ... .. ........... 2.8
2.8.1 General . .
.......... ... ...... .......... . . . . . .. .......... . ............ .. .. .. . ...
.. . .. ......................... ... . . 2.8
2.8.2 Design Wind Speed ...................................................................................... 2.8
2.8.2.1 Mean return interval ..................................................... ...... .. ....... . . . ... 2.9
2.8.3 Transverse Wind Load . . ........................ .. ............................................... . .... .. 2.9
2.8.3.1 Area of structure for calculation of transverse wind load A/ . . . . ......... 2.9
(a) Superstructures with solid parapets . . . .......................................... ................ . 2.9
(b) Superstructures with open parapets .............................................................. 2.9
(c) Piers .............................................................................................................. 2.9
2.8.3.2 Calculation of drag coefficients Cd . .. . ...................... ................... . ... 2.9
..

(a) Drag coefficient for all superstructures with solid elevation ................. ...... . 2.9
(b) Drag coefficient for truss girder superstructures . .
...... ..... ...................... .... 2.10.

(c) Drag coefficients for beams during erection ............................................... 2.10

(d) Drag coefficients for parapet railings, parapet barriers and substructures . 2.10
2.8.4 Longitudinal Wind Load ................................................. ........................... . 2.10
2.8.5 Vertical Wind Load . . .
.. . . .......... .... .......... .. . . ,................................................. 2.10

2.9 Thermal Effects ... .......... ........ . ...... .. ....

. ... . . . . .......... . ... .. .. ... .. . ...
. . ... .... . . .. . . . ..... . . ........ 2.10
2.9.1 General . .
. ...... ................. ....... . .. .
.......... .................................... ... . .. ............... 2.10
2.9.2 Variation in Average Bridge Temperature ................................................. 2.10
2.9.3 Differential Temperatures . . .
.................. .... ........ ....... ... .............................. . . 2.11
2.9.4 Limit States . .
............. ...... ................................................................. ......... . . 2.11

2.10 Forces Due to Water Flow . ... .. ..... . .. . ...... .. .. ....................... .

. . . ... ....... . . . .. ... .. . .. . .. . 2.11
. . . .

2.10.1 General . .
....... ........ ............................... ... . .. . . . .
..... ..... ... .......... ..................... . . 2.11
2.10.2 Limit States .
......... ..................... ... .............................. ... ...
. .
..... .................... 2.11
2.10.2.1 Serviceability limit state .
...... ........................ . ............... ..... .. . .. ......... 2.11
2.10.2.2 Ultimate limit state ................................ ..... . .. .
. ................................ 2.11
2.10.3 Forces on Piers Due to WaterFlow ............................................... ............ . 2.11
2.10.3.1 Drag forces .......................... .. ..... ...
.. . ............................... ............... . 2.11
2.10.3.2 Lift forces ..
.... . ... .. ....
. ... .. .................................................. ... . .. ..
.. ...... 2.13
2.10.4 Forces on Superstructure Due to WaterFlow . ..
....... . . . .... .. . .
... ... ....... .......... . 2.13
2.10.5 Forces Due to Debris . . . .
... .. ........... ................. ......... . .. .................... ........ ... . . 2.13
2.10.6 Forces Due to Log Impact . . ........... . . .. ............ .. ..
........ . ....................... .... . . . . . 2.14
2.10.7 Effects Due to Bouyancy . .
. . .......... .................. .......... ................................. . 2.14

2.11 Earth Pressure ....... .. ... .. ... ..... .... ..... .. .. . .......
. . . ... . . . .. ... ........ . . .. . ... ......... .. . .........
. . . ... .. 2.14
2.11.1 General .
....... ................................................................................................ 2.14
2.11.2 LoadFactors for Design Earth Pressure Loadings .
... .... ... ... .
. . .................... 2.14
2.11.3 Surcharge Loads .
...................................... .......................... ...... ................. . . 2.14

2.12 Friction Forces .. ...... ... .. .... ... ....

. . . .. . .. . ..... ........ .. . ... ............................ .. .... .......... . 2.14 . . . ..
 Contents Details

2.13 Earthquake Forces ......... . ..... . .. ..... .......... .................. .. .............................. 2.15
. . . . . . . .. .. .

2.13.1 General ........................................................................................................ 2.15

2.13.2 Earthquake Resistant Design ..................................... ... . . .. .. .................... ... . 2.15
2.13.3 Limit States . .
.............. .. .................................. . . .. . ..... . .................................. 2.15
2.13.4 Equivalent Quasi-Static EarthquakeForces . . . . .. .......................................... 2.15
2.13.4.1 Horizontal earthquake force ....... ....... .......... .
..... .............................. 2.15
(a) Seismicity factor, IX . . .
..................... .............. .. ............................................. 2.15
(b) Importance factor, 1 ..
.
...................... ............... .... ....................... .................. . 2.15
(c) Horizontal force factor, K ....................................................... .. .. ................ 2.15
(d) Seismic response factor, C .
...... ................................................................... 2.15
(e) Site-structure resonance factor, S ....................................................... .. ...... 2.16
2.13.4.2 Vertical earthquake force .
........................ ......................... ............. . 2.16
2.13.5 Other Seismic Design Considerations ............................................ ........... . 2.16
2.13.5.1 Restraining devices ............... ... ........................................................ 2.16
2.13.5.2 Soil behaviour ......................................... .................. . ... ................... 2.16
2.13.5.3 Detail design and ductile behaviour ................................................ 2.16

2.14 Shrinkage, Creep and Prestress Effects ......... ........... . . .. ..... ..................... ....... . 2.16 . ..

2.14.1 Shrinkage and Creep Effects ............................................................. ......... . 2.16

2.14.2 Prestress Effects .
...... ....................................... .. .
. .............. ... ....................... 2.16

2.15 Differential Movement of Supports .... ...... .. ... . ... .. ... ...... .. . .... . .. . . .. ............. 2.16
.. . . .. . . . . .

2.15.1 Differential Settlement Effects ............... . ... .. ... .

............ .............................. 2.16
2.15.2 Mining Subsidence Effects ............ ........ . ... . . ..... .. .... ..
.. . ........................ ...... . 2.17

2.16 Construction Forces and Effects . .. . .......... ... ... .. .............. . ...... . .. ... ..
. . .. . . .. . .. . ... . ..... 2.17
.

2.17 Load Combinations ..... . . .. ....... .......... ... .... . ... ....... ................. ...
. . ... .......... . ... . . .. 2.17
. . . .. ..

2.17.1 Classification of Loads and Load Effects .

............... ....................... ..... .... .. . 2.17
2.17.1.1 Permanent effects . .. . .. ................ ... ..
.......... . ............................ ... . ..
...... 2.17
2.17.1.2 Thermal effects .......... ... ................. .. ......... . . .. .
........... ... ................. . .. 2.17
..

2.17.1.3 Transient effects .............. .. ................................................................ 2.17

2.17.2 Serviceability Limit State Load Combinations ................................ .......... . 2.17
2.17.3 Ultimate Limit State Load Combinations ... . .
............ ........................... .... ... 2.17
2.17.4 Design Loads Specific to an Element ..... . . .. ............ . . ... . .
... .... ...................... 2.17

2.18 Dynamic B ehaviour .. .. . .

..... ... ......... .......... .
. . ... ... ...... . ....... ..... ...... ...... .... .
. . . . .. . . . .... ... 2.18
2.18.1 General .......
..... . .
..................... ............... ................ ..................................... . 2.18
2.18.2 Road Bridges ..
....... . ........................... .. .
... ...................................... ............. . 2.18
2.18.2.1 With footways .
........................ ............................. ............................. . 2.18
2.18.2.2 Without footways .
.................. ...................... ....... . .................... ........ . 2.18
2.18.3 Footbridges . ...
........ . . ................................................... . . .. .
... ... .... ................. 2.18
2.18.4 Special Structures . . ................... ........... .. . . . ...................... ..... .
.......... ............. 2.18
 Contents Details

2.19 Road Signs and Lighting Structures ................................................................... 2.18

2.19.1 General . .
... .................. .................... "........................................................... 2.18
2.19.2 Limit States ........................................................... ""''''.............................. 2.19
2.19.2.1 Serviceability limit state .................................................................... 2.19
2.19.2.2 Ultimate limit state ............................................................................ 2.19
2.19.3 Design Wind Speeds . . .
.................................................. . . . . .......................... 2.19
2.19.3.1 Serviceability limit state .................................................................... 2.19
2.19.3.2 Ultimate limit state .
....... ................... .. ............................................. .. 2.19
2.19.4 Design Wind Pressure .
............ .......................................................... .. ........ 2.19
2.19.5 Design Loading . .. ... , .................................................................................... 2.19

2 Design Loads
2.1 General
Structures shall be proportioned for the design loads,
forces and effects when they exist as set out in Articles 2.2
to 2.16.
If the Authority approves, the design engineer may vary
any of the loads set out in this Section on the basis of
engineering measurements and calculations, provided the
loads comply with the general principles of design as set
out in Section 1.
These design loads and forces shall be considered as acting
in combinations as set out in Article 2.17.
The design engineer shall consider each individual bridge
to assess whether any other loads, forces or effects are
applicable for that particular design. The magnitude of
these additional forces or effects and their combination
with other loads shall be consistent with the principles set
out in Section 1.
On the front sheet of the bridge drawings, the following
details relating to design loads must be shown where
relevant:
the edition of the Code used
any significant variation to the minimum design
loads as set out in this Section
traffic load (W7, T44, L44 and Heavy Load Platform
- including lateral position, if critical)
collision load on piers where applicable
design wind speeds
flood data (design velocities, levels,debris etc)
earthquake zone
differential settlements and mining subsidence
effects allowed for in design
foundation data where not shown elsewhere.
Where required by design conditions, the construction
methods and sequence or any other specific limitations
shall be indicated on the bridge drawings.
2. 1
2.2 Dead Loads
2.2.1 General
The nominal dead load shall be calculated from the
dimensions shown on the drawings and the mean value of
the weight per unit volume of the materials. The design
engineer shall adopt a figure based on the densities of the
materials, the percentage of reinforcement and other
appropriate factors. Wherever possible, design densities
shall be based on measurements of the materials to be used.
Selecting a high value of density may be conservative
when considering some limit states, but may not be
conservative when considering stability, stresses at
transfer of prestress, etc. If insufficient information is
available to enable the design engineer to accurately assess
the mean weight per unit volume, then calculations should
be performed using a range of values and the most critical
case used for design.
2.2.2 Dead Load of Structure
Dead load shall be considered as the weight of the parts of
the structure that are structural elements plus any non
structural elements that are considered unlikely to vary
during construction and use of the structure, such as
parapets and kerbs of steel or concrete.
To obtain the design dead loads for Serviceability and
Ultimate Limit States, the nominal dead load shall be
multiplied by the appropriate load factor Yg from
Table 2.2.2.
For all types of structures, except structures of balanced
cantilever or anchor cantilever design, or similar, the
appropriate value of Yg shall be applied to the dead load of
all parts of the structure. For the exceptions the values of
Yg given in parts (b) or (c) of Table 2.2.2 for unfavourable
or favourable dead load shall be applied to the appropriate
parts of the structure.
2.2 AUSTROADS Bridge Design Gode

2.2.3 Superimposed Dead Load 2.3 Traffic loading

Superimposed dead load shall be considered as the weight
of all materials forming loads on the structure that are not
structural elements and which are likely to vary during
construction and use of the structure. Examples include
surfacing material, footway filling, tram tracks, pipes,
conduits, cables and other utility services and additional
concrete to compensate for the hog of prestressed beams.
If a separate wearing surface is to be placed when the
bridge is constructed or if placement of a separate wearing
surface is anticipated in the future by the Authority,
adequate allowance shall be made for its weight in the
superimposed dead load.
The design superimposed dead loads for Serviceability
and Ultimate Limit States, shall be obtained by applying
the appropriate load factor IJs given in Table 2.2.3, to the
nominal superimposed dead loads on the structure.
For special cases, and subject to the approval of the
s
appropriate Authority, the values of Yg to be applied to the
nominal superimposed dead load may be reduced to an
amount not less than those given in part (b) of Table 2.2.3.
The Authority shall be responsible for ensuring that the
nominal superimposed dead load is not exceeded during
the life of the bridge.
2.3.1 General
Traffic loading is the loading resulting from the passage of
vehicles (either singly or in groups) or pedestrians.
The magnitude and positioning of loads specified in this
Code produce effects in structures which approximate the
effects of real vehicles or groups of vehicles. All road
bridges shall be designed for the effects of the T44 Truck
loading, the L44 Lane loading and the appropriate fatigue
loading spectrum.
The Heavy Load Platform loadings shall be applied to
bridges as specified in Article 2.3.4.
The W7 Wheel loading shall be considered in design for
localised load effects, as specified in Article 2.3.7.
2.3.2 T44 Truck Loading
The T44 Truck loading shall consist of the loads shown in
Figure 2.3.2. The loads represent wheel loads of a
hypothetical truck. The tandem axle group spacing shall
be varied between the specified limits to produce
maximum effects in the structure.
The T44 Truck loading shall be positioned latemlly within
a 3 m Standard Design Lane as shown. Only one T44
Truck loading shall be applied per lane.

Table 2.2.2 Load Factors Yg for Dead Load of Structure

Ultimate Limit States

Type of Structure Type of Serviceability Where Dead Load
Construction LimitStates Reduces Increases
Safety Safety

(a) All Structures (except as detailed below) Steel 1.0 1.1 0.9
Concrete 1.0 1.2 0.85

(b) Balanced Cantilever Structures: All 1.0 1.1 1.0

at a section subjected to approximately
equal favoumble and unfavourable dead loads

(c) Anchor Cantilever Structures: All 1.0 1.2 1.0

at a section subjected to unequal
favourable and unfavourable dead loads

Table 2.2.3 Load Factors Ygs for Superimposed Dead Load (SDL)
Ultimate Limit States
Type ofStructure Type of Serviceability WhereSDL
Load Limit States Reduces Increases
Safety Safety

(a) All Structures (except as detailed below) Permanent 1.3 2.0 0.7
Removable 1.3 2.0 0

(b) Special Cases: on major structures where Permanent 1.0 1.4 0.8
superimposed dead loads are controlled by Removable 1.0 1.4 0
the Member Authority
2 - Design Loads 2.3

Table 2 .3.4 Functional Classes ofRoads 2.3.3 L44 Lane Loading

Rural Areas The L44 Lane loading shall consist of a uniformly
Class 1 Those roads which form the principal avenue for distributed load as given in Figure 2.3.3 together with a
communications between major regions of Australia,
concentrated load of 150 kN. The L44 Lane loading shall
i ncludi ng direct connections between capital cities.
be considered as uniformly distributed over the width of a
Class 2 Those roads, not bei ng Class 1, whose main function 3 m Standard Design Lane.
is to form the principal avenue of communication for
movements between: For continuous spans the L44 Lane loading shall be
a capital city and adjoi ning states and their capital cities; or continuous or discontinuous as may be necessary to
a capital city and key towns; or produce maximum effects, and the concentrated load shall
key towns. be placed in such a position as to produce maximum
Class 3 Those roads, not bei ng Class 1 or 2, whose m ain effects. Only one concentrated load shall be used per lane
function is to form an avenue of communication for except that one additional concentrated load of equal force
movements:
shall be placed in each lane in one other span in the series
between important centres and the Class 1 and Class 2 roads
in such a position as to produce maximum negative
and/or key towns; or
moment. The L44 Lane loading does not apply for spans
b etween important centres; or
of an arterial nature withi n a town in a rural area. less than 10 m.

Class 4 Those roads, not being Class 1, 2 or 3, whose main

fun ction is to provide access to abutti ng property (including
2.3.4 Heavy Load Platform Loading
property within a town in a rural area). (a) For bridges on roads of Functional Class 1,2, 3, 6 or
7 (see Table 2.3.4),the HLP 320 design loading shall
Class 5 Those roads which provide almost exclusively for one
activity or function which cannot be assigned to Classes 1, 2, be applied.
30r4. (b) For bridges on roads of Functional Class 4, 5, 8, or 9
UrbanAreas (see Table 2.3.4), the Authority shall determine
Class 6 Those roads whose main function is to perform the whether the bridge shall be designed for the effects of
prin cipal avenue of communication for massive traffic Heavy Load Platform loadings.
movements.
(c) For bridges on special designated routes, as
Class 7 Those roads, not bei ng Class 6, whose main function
determined by the Authority, the HLP 400 design
is to supplement the Class 6 roads in pr oviding for traffic
loading or a special heavy load configuration
movements or which distribute traffic to local street systems.
specified by the Authority shall be applied.
Class 8 Those roads not being Class 6 or 7, whose main
function is to provide access to abuttin g property.
(d) The Heavy Load Platform (HLP) loadings shall have
the following configurations:
Class 9 Those roads which provide almost exclusively for one
activity or function and which cannot be assigned to Classes 6, (i) 16 rows of axles.
7 or 8.
(ii) The total load per axle shall be 200 kN for the
HLP 320 loading, or 250 kN for the HLP 400
loading. The axle load shall be equally
distributed among all wheels.

Tandem axle group spacing

,3,7m

Special analyses
E I required for loaded
"-
z
Il .le ngths ;> 150m __

48kN
99
96kN 96kN
99
96kN 96kN

E
Q)
c
12.5
I
....
Elevation View 0 I
I
Qj
E I
D-1 +-B B ----'=+-. B B . Q) I
L

-
WI a.
I
200mrn
Ili:::l t -i I fOOmm
...
C
" II
I
" " 't) I
L C

" -' 0
"
C
0 I
Vi ...J
150
o B B -
---,Ji;=t-- B
ci
B E
M 0 Loaded length Iml

Plan View
Figure 2.3.3 L44 Lane Loading
Figure 2.3.2 T44 Truck Loading (uniformly distributed part only)
2.4 AUSTROADS Bridge Design Code

(iii) Axles shall be spaced at 1.8 m centres.

(iv) 8 tyres per axle row. 16 axles. s aced at 108m centres

(v) The overall width of axles shall be 3.6 m for the
HLP 320 loading, or 4.5 m for the HLP 400
OOd P" ", . .
{ 200 kN HLP 320
2SO kN HLP 400
loading.

The lateral spacing of dual wheels along an axle - till t t. it t.

is as shown in Figure 2.3.4.
Elevation View
(vi) For continuous bridges, the loading may be
separated into two groups of 8 axles with a
central gap of between 6 m and 15 m, the gap
being chosen to give the most adverse effect.

(vii) The tyre contact area for each dual wheel shall
be assumed to be 500 mm x 200 mm.

2.3.5 Number of Lanes for Design ill-{}{}

and Lateral Position of Loads 1400 I
l I
1400
2.3.5.1 T44 truck and L441ane loadings
3600 for HLP 320
T44 Truck and L44 Lane loadings shall be assumed to
4500 for HLP 400
occupy one Standard Design Lane of 3 m width.

When designing for the effects of T44 Truck and L44 Lane
End View of an HLP Axle
loadings, the number and position of Standard Design
Lanes shall be as follows: Figure 2.3.4 Lateral Spacing of Dual Wheels along an
For urban bridges and other bridges specified by the
Axlefor Heavy Load Platform Loadings
(a)
Authority.

The number of Standard Design Lanes n shall be:

If the two Standard Design Lanes containing the Heavy
n = (rounded down to next integer)
Load Platform loadings are positioned such that one or
3.1
more marked traffic lanes are unobstructed, then a loading
where b carriageway width (in metres) between
=

of 1/2 of either the T44 Truck loading or L44 Lane loading,

kerbs or traffic barriers (whichever is lesser)
as appropriate, shall be placed in those lanes, unless the
These Standard Design Lanes shall be positioned Authority directs otherwise.
laterally on the bridge to produce the most adverse
effects. 2.3.6 Modification Factors for
(b) For rural bridges other than those specified above. Mul tiple Lane Bridges
For I lane loaded, the Standard Design Lane shall be When loading a number of Standard Design Lanes
positioned laterally in any location within the simultaneously the load modification factors given in
carriageway. Table 2.3.6 shall be applied to all loads of the T44 Truck
For 2 or more lanes loaded, the Standard Design or L44 Lane Loadings.
Lanes shall be positioned within the marked traffic The modification factors shall not be applied to Heavy
lanes. The centre of each Standard Design Lane shall Load Platform loadings.
be laterally positioned up to 500 mm from the centre
of the appropriate marked traffic lane in order to give
the most adverse effects.

2.3.5.2 Heavy load platform load ings

Table 2.3.6 Multiple Lane Modification Factors
The HLP 320 and HLP 400 Heavy Load Platform loadings
shall be assumed to centrally occupy two Standard Design Load Modification
Number of Standard
Lanes. Design Lanes Loaded Factor
The Standard Design Lanes containing the Heavy Load
1 1.0
Platform loadings shall be positioned laterally on a bridge
2 0.9
as specified by the Authority. To account for errors in the
3 0.8
positioning of actual vehicles, bridges shall be designed
4 0.7
for the effects of the Heavy Load Platform loadings
5 0.6
positioned up to 1 m laterally in either direction from the
6 or more 0.55
specified position.
2 - Design Loads 2.5

2.3.7 Design For localised load
Effects - W7 Wheel load ing
For bridge decks constructed from materials other than
reinforced or prestressed concrete, and for all structural
elements (including reinforced and prestressed concrete)
for which the critical load is a single, dual-tyred wheel
load,an additional load effect, consisting of a 70 kN load
over a contact area of 500 mm x 200 mm, shall be
considered. This wheel load is designated as the W7 Wheel
loading.
2.3.1 1 load Factors For Design Traffic
load ings
For Serviceability Limit State design loads,the load factor
shall be 1.0 for all traffic loadings (with dynamic load
allowance then added) (see Note 2, Table 2.3. 11).
For Ultimate Limit State design loads, the load factors
shall be as shown in Table 2.3. 1 1.

2.3.8 Fatigue loading

Table 2.3.11 Ultimate Limit State Load Factorsfor
The fatigue design traffic loading shall be the unfactored
Design Traffic Loadings
W7 Wheel,T44 Truck or L44 Lane loading,as applicable
for the structural element under consideration, with the Traffic Loading Factor
multiple lane modification factor and dynamic load
W7 Wheel loading 1 2.0
allowance added.
T44 Truck loading 1 2.0
The number of stress cycles corresponding to the fatigue
L44 Lane loading 1 2.0
1. 5 2
design traffic loading to be used in the assessment of
Heavy Load Platform loading 1
fatigue shall be determined from Table 2.3.8.
Pedestrian loading 2.0
Notes

1 with dynamic load allowance then added

Table 2 .3.8 Fatigue Stress Cycles for Traffic Loadings 2 the Authority may elect to reduce the Serviceability
and Ultimate Limit State load factors for the Heavy
Fatigue Number of fatigue stress cycles Load Platform loading where it considers it can
Design Traffic for bridges on roads of Functional exercise a high degree of control over and can
Loading Class (see Table 2.3.4) monitor the passage of actual Heavy Load Platform
1,2,3,60r7 4,5,8,or9 loadings on a bridge. In such cases, the Authority
shall determine the Heavy Load Platform load
W7 Wheel loading 2000 000 500 000 factors.

T44 Truck loading 500 000 100000

L44 Lane loading 100 000 100 000

For footbridges and

2.3.9 Ped estrian loading footway, independent
of the road bridge
superstructure
Footbridges and footways on road bridges shall be I
5
designed for the loads per square metre of loaded area as
given in Figure 2.3.9. I
--- -- I
I I
I

,
\
4 - I ---- !-
The loaded area is that area related to the structural element , ---- --- - -- ......
I
under consideration. I I
I I I
The design of road bridges for the simultaneous I I
I I I
application of road traffic loading and pedestrian loading I I
I
is not required. I I
I I I
Where it is possible for a vehicle to mount the footway or -t--
----- - ----- r --

for light vehicles,such as park tractors,or livestock to use I For footways attached I
I to the road bridge I
the pedestrian facility, the footway shall be designed to I superstructure I
carry an isolated concentrated load of 20 kN. I I
I I
I I
2.3.1 0 Tramway and Railway loading
o 10
If road bridges are to carry tramway or railway traffic,the
Loaded area (m 2 )
operating Authority for the utility shall be consulted to
determine the appropriate design loads and load factors. Figure 2.3.9 Pedestrian Loading
2.6 AUSTROADS Bridge Design Code

2.4 Dynamic load Allowance 2.4.5 Application of the Dynamic

2.4.1 General
The dynamic load allowance set out in this Article
specifies an increase in the traffic load resulting from the
interaction of moving vehicles and the bridge structure and
is described in terms of the static equivalent of the dynamic
and vibratory effects. For design purposes i t is specified as
a fraction of the static traffic load. The dynamic load
allowance applies to both the serviceability and the
Ultimate Limit States.
2.4.2 Dynamic load Al l owance - T44
Truck and l44 lane loadings
The Dynamic Load Allowance shall be a function of the
first longitudinal flexural frequency of the superstructure
as set out in Figure 2.4.2.
load Allowance
For all parts of the structure extending down to the ground
line the Dynamic Load Allowance shall be as specified in
Articles 2.4.2, 2.4.3 or 2.4.4.
For parts of the substructure and foundation below the
ground line, the Dynamic Load Allowance shall be
linearly transitioned from the ground line value to zero at
a cover depth of 2 m.
For buried structures, such as culverts and soil - steel
structures, the Dynamic Load Allowance shall be not less
than 0.4 for a cover depth of zero and not less than 0.1 for
a cover depth of 2 m or more, with a linear interpolation in
between. The Dynamic Load Allowance established for
the appropriate cover depth shall apply to the complete
structure.

2.4.3 Dynamic load Al l owance - 2.5 Horizontal Forces Due to

Heavy load Platform load ings Traffic
The Dynamic Load Allowance for the Heavy Load
Platform loadings shall be 0.1.
2.5.1 Centrifugal Forces
For bridges on horizontal curves allowance shall be made
2.4.4 Dynamic load Al l owance for for the centrifugal effects of traffic loading on all parts of
Decks the structure.

The dynamic load allowance for reinforced and
prestressed concrete deck slabs or slab structures, whose
design is governed by the local effects of the W7 Wheel
load or the T44 Truck or HLP axle or wheel loadings, shall
not be less than 0.25.
The traffic load shall be assumed to be moving at the
design speed for the road. Each design lane shall be loaded
with one T44 vehicle placed in a position for maximum
effect. The lane loading shall not be used and no dynamic
load allowance shall be included.

The centrifugal force shall be assumed to act at deck level

and shall be calculated from:

2
CF =mV
r
where
0.5
CF = centrifugal force (leN)
Q) m = total mass of traffic load (tonnes)
g 0.4
V = design speed of road (m/s)
v "
o
\.m)
r = radius of curve
-0 0.3 I "
'0
"
V
o 2.5.2 Braking Forces

.!'! 0.2 Braking and acceleration effects of traffic shall be

E
o considered as a longitudinal force, assumed to act at road
c
>-
o 0.1 surface level.

A restraint system shall be designed to resist this

2 3 4 5 6
First flexural frequency of
the superstructure (Hz J
NOTE: A range oflirst flexural frequencies from 0.9 to 1.1 times
the calculated superstructure frequency, shall be considered.
The dynamic load allowance adopted shall be the maximum
value obtain ed from this figure for this frequency range.
Figure 2.4.2 Dynamic Load Allowance for T44 Truck
and Lane Loadings (one lane loaded)
longitudinal force.
Irrespective of the width of the structure, the longitudinal
force applied shall be as obtained from Figure 2.5.2. The
length of structure considered shall be the length
associated with the proposed restraint system.
When assessing the effects of longitudinal forces on bridge
bearings and substructure, the friction or shear
displacement characteristics of expansion bearings and
the stiffness of the substructure shall be taken into account.
2 - Design Loads 2.7

2.5.3 load Factors For Design 2.6 Col lision loads on B ridge
Horizontal Forces Due to Traffic S u pports
The load factor to be applied in calculating the design
centrifugal and braking forces shall be:
2.6.1 General
(a) Serviceability Limit State: Piers supporting road bridges over otherroads, railways or
centrifugal and braking forces 1.0 navigable rivers shall be designed to resist accidental
collision loads. Alternatively, a protective barrier system
(b) Ultimate Limit State:
shall be designed and installed.
centrifugal forces 2.0

braking forces 1.5 2.6.2 Col lision load from Road

Traffic
2.5.4 Minimum lateral Restraint
Capacity - Ul timate limit State Where the piers supporting an overbridge are not located
behind rigid traffic barriers, they shall be designed to resist
To ensure that the superstructure has sufficient lateral
an equivalent static load of WOO leN applied at an angle of
restraint to resist unaccounted lateral forces not otherwise
10 degrees from the direction of the road centreline passing
catered for in the design, a positive lateral restraint system
under the bridge. The load shall be applied 1.2 m above
between the superstructure and the substructure shall be
ground level. This load, in conjunction with the ultimate
provided at piers and abutments.
design dead loads on the structure, shall be considered at
For continuous superstructures, lateral restraints may be Ultimate Limit States, with a load factor of 2.0.
omitted at some piers provided each continuous section of
If a pier is positioned well clear of the roadway, a traffic
the superstructure between expansion joints is adequately
barrier may not be required. This safety clearance shall be
restrained.
determined by the Authority.
The restraint system for each continuous section of
superstructure shall be capable of resisting an ultimate
2.6.3 Bridg e Piers Adjacent to
design horizontal force normal to the bridge centreline of
500 leN or 5% of the superstructure dead load at that
Railways
support, whichever is greater. Where possible, rail crossings should be a clear span
Supports providing this lateral restraint shall also be between abutments.
designed to resist this design force at Ultimate Limit
Where piers are necessary and they are situated within
States.
5.5 m of a rail track centreline, they shall be designed to
Restraints shall have sufficient lateral clearance to allow resist the following minimum impact loads applied
thermal movements, especially on wide and curved simultaneously as an ultimate design load:
superstructures.
(a) 2000 kN parallel to rails, plus
(b) 1000 kN normal to rails

Both loads shall be applied horizontally, 2 m above rail

level, and in conjunction with the ultimate design dead

8 0 0 f-- - - - - - - - - -
I loads on the structure. I n addition, any design

1/: I
requirements of the appropriate Rail Authority shall be
satisfied.

600 V I
I
2.6.4 Ship Impact on Bridg e Piers

QJ
V I The design engineer shall consider possible impact loads

.2 400
V I
I
I
from shipping. Either the pier must be protected by
auxiliary structures designed to absorb the impact energy,
01 or the pier shall be designed to resist impact from typical
C I I
river craft travelling at normal navigable speeds .
I
E
al 200
I I
Specialist literature shall be consulted.

I
: I 2.7 Kerb and Barrier Design
I I
Loadings
I I
o 20 40 60 80
2.7.1 Kerb Desig n Load
Length of st r u ct u re considered (m)
Kerbs shall be designed to resist an ultimate design load of
Figure 2.5.2 Braking Forces 15 kN per linear metre applied at the top of the kerb.
2.8 AUSTROADS Bridge Design Code

2.7.2 level 1 Barrier Design loads The resulting loading on the individual post and rail and
concrete elements of the integral barrier shall be treated as
The design loading shall be determined with reference to
detailed in Articles 2.7.3.2 and 2.7.3.3 respectively.
specialist literature and the following considerations:
(a) level of risk involved 2.7.4 level 3 Barrier Design loads
(b) size of vehicle to be contained
The design performance requirements for Level 3 barriers
(c) design speed of traffic corresponds to those for standard roadway barriers, such
(d) curvature of bridge deck and possible angles of as the flexible steel W-beam guardrail barrier. Where such
impact. a standard barrier is adopted as a Level 3 bridge barrier, the
barrier elements shall be detailed in accordance with the
2.7.3 level 2 Barrier Design loads normal design assumptions made for the standard barrier
and the strength of the associated bridge deck connections
2.7.3.1 Ultimate design load
shall be at least equal to that of the posts.
Level 2 traffic barriers shall be designed to resist an
Where a non-standard type barrier is to be used on a bridge,
ultimate design transverse load, P u* (leN) as follows: the design loading and performance requirements shall be
P: 90 for h 850 determined by a rational method, taking into account the

( h- )
=

+ 850 size of the car to be contained and its design speed at the
P u* 90 1 for h > 850
bridge site, and the impact resisting characteristics of the
=

450
barrier.
where h = height of top traffic rail or height of concrete
barrier (mm)
2.7.5 Pedestrian Rai l i n g Design
The design load P u* shall be applied as a point load.
loads
2.7.3.2 Distribution of loads - post and rail Pedestrian railings shall be designed for a serviceability
barriers design loading of ws* = 0.75 leN per lineal metre, acting
The design transverse load shall be divided equally simultaneously in a transverse and vertical direction on
between all rails which are located in accordance with each longitudinal member.
geometric requirements of Article 1 .5.8. Posts shall be designed to support,from the top rail only,
The connection between rails and posts shall be designed the design serviceability load (wL)/ , in leN
to transmit:
where L = span of rail between posts (m).
(a) the appropriate portion ofthe outward design 10adP u*
The maximum static deflection of a pedestrian railing
for which the rail is designed,
subject to the above design serviceability loadings shall
(b) a vertical load (either upward or downward) equal to not exceed:
0.25 times the outward railing load, and
for longitudinal members, L /800
(c) an inward load equal to 0.25 of the outward rail load.
for posts, h /500
Posts shall be designed for the same outward loads as
applied to the rails, plus a longitudinal load equal to 0.5 Where
times this amount. Posts shall also be designed to L = span of the member between posts
withstand an inward load of 0.25 times the outward loads.
h = height of the top rail.
Where the tensile strength of the rail members is
maintained across a series of posts, the longitudinal design 2.8 Wind loads
loading may be divided among up to four posts in a
continuous length. 2.8.1 General
This Article provides design wind loads for conventional
2.7.3.3 Distribution of loads - concrete
bridge structures. For wind sensitive structures, such as
barriers
suspension or long-span cable-stayed bridges, which may
The design transverse load shall be spread over a
be subj ect to wind excited oscillations, special
longitudinal distance of 1 .5 m at the top of the barrier and
investigations into the dynamic behaviour of the structure
then distributed at45 degrees down to the supporting slab.
should be carried out. For wind loads on lighting, traffic
Barrier impact loadings and wheel loads on the deck need
signal and traffic sign structures refer to Article 2 . 1 9 .
not be applied simultaneously when designing the deck.
2.8.2 Design Wi nd Speed
2.7.3.4 Distribution of loads - Integral
concrete/post and rail barriers The design wind speed shall be derived from the
appropriate regional basic design wind speeds, after
The design transverse load shall be distributed between the
adjustment for:
various concrete barrier faces, which are greater than
380 mm above the reference surface, and the rail members, (a) mean return interval
which are located in accordance with Article 1 .5.8. (b) geographical location
 2 - Design Loads 2.9

(c) terrain category (b) Superstructures with open parapets

(d) shielding The total load shall be the sum of the loads for the
(e) height above ground superstructure, the windward barrier and the leeward
barrier considered separately. Where there are more than
The mean return interval shall be as given in Article 2.8.2.1. two parapets or safety fences, irrespective of the width of
The values and factors for all of the other above-mentioned the superstructure, only those two elements having the
considerations shall be obtained from AS1170.2 SAA greatest unshielded effect shall be considered.
Loading Code, Part 2: Wind Loads.
(c) Piers
2 .8.2.1 Mean return interval
Shielding shall not be considered.
The mean return interval to be adopted shall be:
2.8.3.2 Calculation of drag coefficients, Cd
(a) For Serviceability Limit States - 20 years (for wind in
conjunction with permanent effects only) (a) Drag coefficient for al/ superstructures with
For serviceability limit state wind loads in conjunction solid elevation
with traffic loads on a structure, the selection of a wind For superstructures with or without traffic load, Cd shall
speed for a specified return interval is not appropriate be derived from Figure 2.8.3.2, where
and the design wind speed shall be taken as 3 5 mls in b = overall width of bridge between outer faces of
all locations. The effect of wind on the traffic parapets
load need not be considered.
(b) For Ultimate Limit States - 2 000 years
The regional basic design wind speed for a 2 000
2'8 ..L1...1 1 I I I I I I
year retum interval shall be extrapolated from the 'tJ
ll. ..1 ..1-'. I I
u
appropriate Ultimate Limit State gust speed 2'4 II coeTTIClent
t- . M i n i m U m l-
..... 1\
given in AS1170.2. c I- for d ecks s u pported l-
QJ
20
1/ t- by I sect i o ns, l-
r..... t- more than 4 b e a m s I-
. .
..... l'6 l-
2.8.3 Transverse Wi nd Load ..... t-r- or box - g i rd e rs
QJ . -l-
12 I...."'"
. I- t- -
The transverse wind load shall be taken as acting 8 ,..
01
horizontally at the centroids of the appropriate areas, 0 0 8
L-
and shall be calculated as: 0
0 '4
(a) Serviceability design transverse wind load WIS*
o 0'4 0-8 1'2 1-6 20 2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30
WI/ = 0.0006 V/ AI Cd (kN)
R a t i o bid
(b) Ultimate design transverse wind load WIU *
WI U* = 0.0006 V/ AI Cd (kN) Notes
where: 1 . The values g iven assume a vertical elevation and a horizontal wind.
.
=
2. Where the windward face is inclined to the vertical, the drag coefficient
Vs design wind speed for Serviceability
Cd may be reduced by 0.5% per degree of inclination from the vertical,
Limit States (m/s) subject to a maximum reduction of 30%.
Vu = design wind speed for Ultimate Limit 3. Where the windward face consists of a vertical and a sloping part or two
States (m/s) sloping parts inclined at different angles, the wind load shall be derived
as follows:
AI = area of the structure for calculation of (a) The basic drag coefficient Cd is calculated using the total depth of the
wind load (m2 ) structure.

=
(b) For each non-ve rtical face, the basic drag coefficient calculated
Cd drag coefficient.
above is reduced in accordance with Note 2 .
(c) The total wind load i s calculated by applying the appropriate drag
2.8.3.1 Area of structure for calculation of coefficients to the relevant areas.
transverse wind load, At 4. Where a superstructure is superelevated, Cd shall be increased by 3%
per degree of inclination to the horizontal, but not by more than 25%.
The area of the structure or element under
5. Where a superstructure is subject to wind inclined at not more than
consideration shall be the solid area in normal
5 degrees to the horizontal, Cd shall be increased by 1 5%. Where the
proj ected elevation subj ect to the following angle of inclination exceeds 5 degrees, the drag coefficient shall be
provisions. derived from tests.
6. Where a superstructure is superelevated and also subject to inclin ed
(a) Superstructures with solid parapets wind, the drag coefficient shall be the subject of special investigation.

The area of the superstructure shall include the area of

the solid windward parapet, but the effect of the Figure 2.8.3.2 Drag Coefficient Cd for Superstructures with
leeward parapet need not be considered. Solid Elevation
2.1 0 AUSTROADS Bridge Design Code

d = depth of superstructure (including solid parapet if 2.9 Thermal Effects

applicable)
(b) Drag coefficient for truss girder superstructures
The wind force on truss girder superstructures shall be
calculated by considering each component individually,
using the drag coefficients Cd from AS 1 170.2.
(c) Drag coefficients for beams during erection
The drag coefficient for beams and girders during erec tion
stages shall be calculated for individual beams using
Figure 2.8.3.2. Shielding shall not be considered for
individual beams, but may be allowed for when two or
more beams are connected, provided the ratio of the clear
distance between beams to the depth does not exceed 7.
Under such circumstances, the drag coefficient for the
combination may be taken as 1 .5 times the value for an
individual beam.
(d) Drag coefficient for parapet railings, parapet
barriers and substructures
Drag coefficients shall be obtained from AS 1 170.2.
2.8.4 Longitudinal Wind Load
For piers, truss bridges and other superstructure forms
which present a significant surface area to wind loads
parallel to the longitudinal centreline of the structure, a
longitudinal wind load shall be considered.
serviceability and ultimate design longitudinal wind loads
shall be calculated in a manner similar to those for
transverse wind loads.
Longitudinal wind loads on the superstructure may also be
significant during the construction stage of some bridge
types which are not affected by these loads at normal
service levels.
2.9.1 General
Daily and seasonal fluctuations in air temperature and
solar radiation cause both variations in average bridge
temperature and differential temperature gradients across
structural members.
Variation in average bridge temperature shall be used as a
basis for:
(a) assessment of bearing and deck joint movement
requirements; and
(b) evaluation of design loads or load effects resulting
from the restraint of associated expansion or
contraction by either the form of structure (eg as in
portal frames and arches) or by the support and
bearing stiffnesses.
Differential temperatures within bridge superstructures
result in load effects within the section. In the case of
statically indeterminate or restrained structural forms,
these differen tial temperatures also cause both
longitudinal and transverse parasitic load effects, which
shall be taken into account in the design.
2.9.2 Va riation i n Average B ridge
Temperature
The
Extremes of shade air temperature appropriate to the
structure location shall be obtained from Table 2.9.2(a).
Consideration should be given to particular site
characteristics, eg frost pockets and sheltered low-lying
areas where the minimum shade air temperature may be
substantially lower; and in urban and coastal areas where
the minimum values may be higher than indicated by
Table 2.9.2(a).

2.8.5 Vertical Wind Load

Table 2.9.2(a) Shade Air Temperatures
An upward or downward vertical wind load, acting at the
centroid of the appropriate area, shall be calculated as
Shade Air Temperature (0C)
follows:
Region (See Notes)
(a) Serviceability design vertical wind load Wys* (kN) Maximum Minimum
WyS* = 0.00045 V/ A
p I. North of 22.5S 1 ,3 46 0
(b) Ultimate design vertical wind load WyU * (kN)
II. South of 22.5S, 46 -5
WyU* = 0.00045 V/ Ap
excluding Tasmania 1 ,3
where
III. Tasmania 2,3 37 -5
Vs = design wind speed for Serviceability Limit
States (m/s) Notes:
1 . For regions I and II, at locations g reater than 1 000m above
Vu = design wind speed for Ultimate Limit States sea level the maximum temperature shall be reduced by
(mls) 1 0C and the minimum reduced by 5C .

Ap = bridge area in plan (m2). 2.

The above relationships may be used provided the angle of
inclination of the wind to the structure is less than 5
degrees. For inclinations in excess of 5 degrees, the lift
For region III, at locations greater than 1 000m above s a
level, the maximum temperature shall be reduced by 5 C
and the minimum reduced by 5C.
3. For coastal locations (less than 20 km from the coast) in
regions I , II and III the maximum temperature may be

coefficient shall be investigated by testing. reduced by 2 C and the minimum i ncreased by 4C.
2 - Design Loads
For major or spe,cial structures, extreme shade air
temperatures for the actual site should be determined. For
minor structures, consideration should be given to
increasing displacements determined for the range of
average bridge temperatures to allow for limited
surpervision and control of setting bearings and deck
joints.
For concrete superstructures (Types 1 and 2 of Figure
2.9.3) the minimum and maximum average bridge
temperatures shall be derived from the minimum and
maximum shade air temperatures by reference to Table
2.9.2(b). Average temperature values indicated relate to
bridge cross sections with a depth of up to 2 m. Where
sections are greater in depth, an allowance should be made
in average temperatures to account for the heat sink effect.
For superstructures consisting of a concrete deck on steel
girders (Type 3 of Figure 2.9.3), the range of average
bridge temperatures derived from Table 2.9.2(b) shall be
extended by reducing the minimum average temperature
by 5C and increasing the maximum average by l00C.
For superstructures consisting of a steel deck on steel
girders, such as pedestrian bridges, the range of average
bridge temperatures derived from Table 2.9.2(b) shall be
extended by reducing the minimum average temperature
by IOOC and increasing the maximum average by 20C.
Table 2.9.2(b) Average Bridge Temperatures
Minimum
Shade Air Temp (0C) Average Bridge Temp (0C)
-8 2 bodies of water, estuaries and open sea will generally be
-2 4 subject to tidal and wave action.
4 8
10 12
Maximum
Shade Air Temp (0C) Average Bridge Temp (0C)
50 54
46 50
42 46
38 43
34 40
30 37
2.9.3 Differential Temperatu res
The effects of vertical differential temperature gradients
through a bridge superstructure shall be derived for both
positive temperature differential conditions, where solar
radiation has caused a gain in top surface temperatures,
and negative temperature differentials, where re-radiation
of heat from the sectionresults in relati vely low top surface
temperatures.
Design effec tive vertical tempera ture gradients
appropriate to various regions and superstructure types are
given in Figure 2.9.3. These design temperature gradients
have been derived for cases where decks are unsurfaced or
where surfacing is limited to 50 mm of bituminous
2. 1 1
concrete. For substantially greater thicknesses of
surfacing some reduction in design temperature gradients
may be warranted.
The effects of transverse differential temperature
gradients across the superstructure may also need to be
considered for some structures, such as very wide bridges.
2.9.4 Limit States
Thermal effects shall be considered, where they adversely
affect a structure, as follows:
(a) For Serviceability Limit States - all thermal effects
shall be considered, and serviceability design effects
determined using a load factor of 1 .0.
(b) For Ultimate Limit States - the thermal effects that are
applicable for the structure, as determined from the
relevant material section of this Code, shall be
considered, and ultimate design effects determined
using a load factor of 1 .25.
2. 1 0 Forces Due to Water Flow
2.1 0.1 General
When a bridge crosses a river, stream or any other body of
water, it shall be designed to resist the effects of water flow
and wave action, as applicable. The design shall include
an assessment of how the water forces may vary in an
adverse manner under the influence of debris, log impact,
scour and buoyancy of the structure. Bridges across large
2.10.2 Limit States
2.1 0.2.1 Serviceabi l ity l im it state
The Serviceability Limit S tate is defined as the capability
of the road/bridge system to remain open during a
serviceability design flood or to sustain an overtopping
flood with acceptable damage to bridges, culverts,
floodways or embankments within the system. The
serviceability design flood shall be associated with a 20
year return interval.
2.1 0.2.2 Ultimate l imit state
The Ultimate Limit State is defined as the capability of a
bridge to withstand, without collapse, the design flood
associated with a 2 000 year return interval. It is accepted
that scour of the stream bed and considerable damage to
approaches and embankments may take place.
2.10.3 Fo rces on Piers Due to Water
Flow
2.1 0.3.1 Drag forces
In bridge structures subjected to water flow effects, the
fluid forces on the piers arc dependent on the pier shape,
the water velocity and the direction of flow. The design
drag forces parallel to the plane containing the pier may be
2. 1 2 AUSTROADS Bridge Design Code

BRIDGE TYPE TYPICAL CROSS SECTION EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE GRADIENT

Deck concrete surface

1. Concrete b e a m

and slab. or slab -,r-'--" o
+_-$-___--,
-
:;;oI-____----
-o T (OC)
o
o
M

o
o
S off:.:.
i t-L_""
-L_
_
_t_-"t
5-sofflt within 8 m of ground
O-over water
y (mm)

'f
-.r---,*_-er---I-
,I-rr--- T(O()
o
a
2. Concrete box M
L T (y)= T +3 -0.05y
Temperature profile
girders across deck slabs over
o closed box cells
(shaded areal A

T {y l = T ( 1 - ..L1 5
a 1200
a
N

5 or 0 (as for Type 11

to co
.! .! T (OC)
3. Concrete slab. on

steel trough. box.

L Tlyl=T+8-0.05y
(shaded areal &
T(yl={T+5l!1-..L1 5
or I girders 1200

Temperature dependent
o n deck thickness , t

y (mml

REGIONAL VALUES FOR T

REGION REGIONAL CATEGORY
KEY
T

--- Positive differential 20C Continental-Inland o f Great Dividing Range or further than 200km
temperature gradients from coast (typical Canberra, Alice Springs)
2 18C Coastal temperature -No further than 200km from coast
---- Negative differential
(typical Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne. Sydneyl
temperature gradients
3 14C Coastal sub-tropical; monsoonal
{typical Brisbane, Darwin I

ANOTE: The temperature gradient given for deck slabs forming closed box cells is only applicable
for slab thicknesses (including any internal fillets) of d <300mm. Therefore, any deck slab
lor part thereat) over a box cell with a thickness > 300mm, shall be subject t o the general
effective vertical temperature gradient shown.

Figure 2.9.3 Design Effective Vertical Temperature Gradients

2 - Design Loads 2. 1 3

calculated as: calculated as:

(a) Serviceability design drag force Fds* (leN) (a) Serviceability design drag force Fds* (leN)
Fds* = 0.5 Cd V/ Ad Fds* = 0.5 Cd V/ As
(b) Ultimate design drag force Fdu * (leN) (b) Ultimate design drag force Fdu* (leN)
Fds* = 0.5 Cd V/ Ad Fdu* = 0.5 Cd V/ As where
where
Vs = mean velocity of flow at superstructure level,
Vs = mean v e locity of w ater flow for for Serviceability Limit States (m/s)
Serviceability Limit States (m/s)
Vu = mean velocity of flow at superstructure level,
Vu = mean velocity of water flow for Ultimate for Ultimate Limit States (m/s)
Limit States (m/s)
Cd = drag coefficient
Cd = drag coefficient, depending upon pier shape
Ad =
As = projected area of the superstructure
area, equal to the thickness of the pier
(including any rails or parapets) normal to
normal to the direction of flow, multiplied 2
2 flow (m ).
by the height of flow (m ).

In the absence of more exact estimates , the value of

In the absence of more exact estimates, the value of Cd may
Cd may be assumed to depend upon the upstream and be assumed as 2.2.
downstream pier nose shapes as: Where the flood stage height is significantly higher than
the superstructure and the deck i s inclined by
Cd = 0.7 (semi-circular) superelevation then 'lift' type forces may act on the
= 1 .4 (square end) superstructure, in addition to drag forces on both the
= 0.8 (wedge-nosed, sharper than 900) superstructure and substructure. These 'lift' forces maybe
calculated in the same manner as for wall type piers, in
2.1 0.3.2 Lift forces Article 2.10.3.2,
except that AL shall be taken as the plan
2
In plate or wall type piers angled to the direction of flow,
deck area (m ). Values of CL
may be calculated by

transverse 'lift' type forces can be significant. The design

interpolation of those given in Article 2.10.3.2. Where lift
forces on the superstructure are significant, a positive tie
lift forces, perpendicular to the plane containing the pier,
down system shall be provided.
may be calculated as:

(a) Serviceability design lift force FLs* (kN) 2.10.5 Forces Due To Debris
FLs* = 0.5 CL V/ AL The serviceability and ultimate design forces due to debris
(b) Ultimate design lift force FLu* (leN) shall be calculated using the equations given in Article
FLu* = 0.5 CL V} AL 2.10.3.1, and with
where Cd = 1.04
Vs = m ean velocity of water flow for Ad = the projected area of debris (m2)
Serviceability Limit States (m/s) The depth of debris varies depending on the catchment
Vu = mean velocity of water flow for Ultimate vegetation. In the absence of more accurate estimates, the
Limit States (m/s) projected area of debris shall be calculated as:

CL = lift coefficient, depending on the angle (a) For bridges where the water level is below the
between flow direction and the plane superstructure, the area of debris acting on the piers
containing the pier shall be calculated assuming the minimum depth of
= 0 for 0 debris is1 .2 m below flood level, and the maximum
= 0.5 for 5 depth is3 m. The length of debris mat shall be taken
= 0.9 for 10 as one half the sum of the adjacent spans or 20 m,
= 0.9 for 20 whichever is the smaller.
= 1 .0 for 30 or greater (b) For bridges where the superstructure is submerged,
A = area, equal to the width of the pier parallel to the depth of debris shall be the superstructure depth,
L
the direction of flow, multiplied by the height including any substantial railing or traffic barrier,
2 plus a minimum of 1 .2 m. The maximum debris depth
of flow (m ).
shall be assumed as 3 m unless local experience
2.1 0.4 Forces o n Superstru ctu re Due indicates that larger debris mats may accumulate.
to Water Flow The length of the debris mat shall be the projected
length of the superstructure.
Where the superstructure is partially or fully submerged in
a flood, the design horizontal drag forces on the Debris forces shall be applied with such other water
superstructure, normal to its longitudinal axis, may be flow forces as are appropriate.
2. 1 4
2.10.6 Forces Due T o Log Impact
Where floating logs are possible, the serviceability and
ultimate design forces exerted by such logs directly hitting
piers shall be calculated on the assumptions that a log with
a minimum mass of2 tonnes shall be stopped in a distance
of 300 mm for timber piers, 1 50 mm for hollow concrete
piers and 75 mm for solid concrete piers. Should fender
piles or sheathing to absorb the energy of the blow be
placed upstream from the pier, the stopping distance may
be increased. The design forces shall be calculated using
the mean velocity of water flow at flood level (m/s), Vs for
Serviceability Limit S tates, or Vu for Ultimate Limit
States, as appropriate.
The forces due to log impact and debris shall not be applied
concurrently. Log impact shall be applied with such other
water flow forces as are appropriate.
2.1 0.7 Effects Due to B u oyancy
In assessing the effects of buoyancy on bridge structures,
consideration shall be given to the following:
(a) the effects of buoyancy on substructure (including
piling) and superstructure dead loads.
(b) the provision of a positive tie-down system for the
superstructure.
(c) for beam and slab or box girder bridges, the provision
of horizontal bleed holes in webs and/or diaphragms
or vertical bleed holes in the deck to dissipate air
which may be trapped between high water level and
the underside of the deck slab. Several escape paths
and a minimum diameter of 75 mm should be used.
(d) provision of drainage from internal cells.
2.1 1 Earth Pressu re
2.1 1 .1 G eneral
The nominal loads on a retaining structure due to earth
pressure shall be determined from Section 3 of this Code.
2.1 1 .2 Load Factors for Design Earth
Press u re Loadi n gs
The Serviceability Limit State design earth pressure
loadings shall be calculated using a load factor of 1 .0.
The Ultimate Limit S tate design earth pressure loadings
shall be calculated using the load factors specified in
Section 3 .
2.1 1 .3 S u rc harge Loads
Where highway live loads can approach within a distance
equal to the effective height of the wall from the backface
of the structure, an equi valent load caused by an additional
height of fill , which diminshes over the height of the wall,
as given in Figure 2.1 1 .3 , shall be assumed for the purpose
of computing design earth pressure. This load shall be
assumed to act above the finished grade and over the entire
AUSTROADS Bridge Design Code
length of the retaining structure. The effect offoundations
or other loads placed in or on the backfill within a distance
equal to the effective height of the wall shall also be
included.
The live load surcharge should be applied irrespective of
whether or not there is provision for an approach slab in the
bridge design.
Surcharge loading : equivalent
additional height of fill ( m )
0 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 8 1. 0
o
2
Depth 4
below
top o f
w a ll ( m )
6
8
10
Figure 2.1 1 .3 Equivalent Loading due to Live Load
Surcharge
2.1 2 Friction Forces
Bridges shall be designed for the forces arising from the
friction of sliding and rolling bearings and the load
displacement characteristics of elastomeric bearings.
The forces due to friction on bearings shall be calculated
considering permanent loads only acting.
Mean values of the coefficient of friction, under normal
operating conditions of bearings, are given in Section 4.
For Serviceability Limit States, the average design friction
forces, calculated using the mean coefficient of friction,
the nominal dead loads of the structure and a load factor of
1 .0, shall be treated as a permanent effect, acting in either
direction.
For Ultimate Limit States, the design friction force shall be
calculated using the mean coefficient of friction, the
nominal dead loads of the structure and a load factor of 1 .3 ,
i n combination with other ultimate loads.
In any structure where an increase in the coefficient of
friction would increase the safety of the structure, the
coefficient of friction shall be taken as zero.
The effects of a seized bearing in conjunction with
permanent loads and thermal movements may be
considered where it could be critical.
2 - Design Loads 2. 1 5

2. 1 3 Earthquake Forces H (kN) shall be determined as:

H = aIK C S W
2.1 3.1 General
where W (kN) is the total gravitational force of the nominal
Certain areas of Australia are considered liable to seismic dead load which is subject to acceleratio n . The
disturbances of sufficient intensity as to produce coefficients, a, I, K, C, S are as set out below.
significant horizontal and vertical forces in bridge
The ultimate design horizontal earthquake forceHu * (kN)
structures.
shall be calculated using a load factor of 1 .6.
There is a substantial variation in seismic hazard from
place to place and four seismic zones have been defined in (a) Seismicity factor, a
AS2 1 2 1 - 1 979 Earthquake Code. The seismic zone The value of the Seismicity Factor for a 2 000 year return
appropriate to any site shall be determined in accordance interval shall be determined from Table 2 . 1 3.4. 1 . The
with this Standard. seismic zone appropriate to the bridge site shall be
determined from AS2 1 2 1 - 1979, Figure 3 . 1 or its large
2.13.2 Earthquake Res istant Des ign scale version AS21 2 1M.
Where earthquakes may b e anticipated during the design
(b) Importance factor, I
life of a structure, it shall be designed to resist earthquake
motions by considering the struc tural system The Importance Factor shall be taken as 1 .5, or as
characteristics, the seismicity of the site and the dynamic determined by the Authority, but not less than 1 .0.
response behaviour of the structure.
(c) Horizontal force factor, K
Any design shall provide sufficient stability against
The Horizontal Force Factor is a numerical coefficient
seismic disturbances for the structure as a whole and for
representing the ability of the structural system to absorb
the components thereof. Particular attention should be
energy, and shall be:
given to the prevention of dislodgement of the
superstructure fro m its support syste m . Special K= 0.8 for bridges where continuous frames resist
consideration should be given to the design of bridges horizontal load and the piers and deck form a frame.
which must perform as a means of post-disaster vehicular K= 1 .0 for bridges, on bearings, continuous over the
communication. piers.
The simplified method of equivalent quasi-static K= 1 .33 for bridges where single-column piers resist the
earthquake force, as set out in this Article, may be used horizontal force.
except in the case of special structures which are outside
K= 1 .5 for bridges where the spans are simply supported.
the scope of this Code. Such exclusions apply to sites with
unusual geological conditions, bridges with long periods (d) Seismic response factor, C
of resonant vibration, bridges which have substructures
The Seismic Response Factor is a numerical coefficient
with tall, slender proportions and bridges which have large
representing the structural stiffness and shall be calculated
variations in support stiffness. For these special structures
dynamic analyses are required using properly from C = 0. 06 /..ff
substantiated technical data.
where T is the period of the first mode of vibration (sec).
2.1 3.3 Limit States The period T may be estimated from:
The effects of earthquakes shall be investigated as an
Ultimate Limit State, in which considerable damage may (i) T = 0.063 {Wi
occur but without collapse of the bridge. The bridge
should be usable by emergency traffic after minor repairs for a structure where the deck weight constitutes a
and should be capable of permanent repair to an acceptable significant proportion of the total nominal dead load,
level for both vehicular and seismic loading, as determined W (kN). P (kN) is the force required at deck level to
by the Authority. The ultimate design earthquake loading deflect the structure 1.0 mm in the direction under
shall be that associated with an event having a 2 ODO year consideration.
return interval.

2.1 3.4 Eq u ivalent Quasi-Static Table 2.13.4.1 Seismicity Factor a

Earthquake Forces
Zone ex
2.1 3.4.1 Horizontal earthquake force
2 0.45
Horizontal earthquake forces shall be considered to act in
1 0.225
any horizontal direction.
A 0.13
The equivalent quasi-static horizontal earthquake force Zero 0
2. 1 6
L m j (Oj)2
(ii) T = 21r
g L (m j oj )
for a structure with a more general mass distribution.
The structure is represented by a number of discrete
masses, mj (kg), while OJ (m) is the horizontal
deflection at the centroid of mass mj due to a
horizontal load of (mj g) applied at the centroid.
(e) Site-structure resonance factor, S
The Site-Structure Resonance Factor shall be either taken
as 1.5 or calculated from Appendix 2A of AS 2121-1979.
2.1 3.4.2 Vertical earthquake force
An ultimate design vertical earthquake force, acting either
up or down and equal to half the ultimate design horizontal
earthquake force, shall be applied simultaneously with the
horizontal force. The vertical earthquake force does not
include nonnal gravity force. Where vertical earthquake
forces do not produce adverse critical effects they shall be
ignored. Earthquake forces shall be applied to the
structure according to the distribution of mass. The
distribution of forces between the superstructure and the
substructure shall be in accordance with the stiffness of the
bearings or connections.
2.1 3.5 Other Seismic Design
Considerati ons
2.1 3.5.1 Restraining devices
Restraining devices, such as ties, shear keys, stops and
dowels, shall be provided with the specific aim of
preventing dislodgment of the superstructure from the
support structure. Restraining devices and connections
shall be designed to withstand the horizontal design
seismic force specified in Article 2. 13 04. 1, but not less than
the minimum lateral restraint force specified in Article
2.5 A. Vertical restraint devices should be provided at all
supports where the vertical earthquake force specified in
Article 2. 13.4.2 opposes and exceeds 50% of the static
dead load reaction.
2.1 3.5.2 Soil behaviour
(i) Consideration shall be given to the effects of
excessive settlement of approach embankments and
allowances made for increased earth pressures on
earth retaining structures.
(ii) Loose granular soils, when subjected to seismic
loading of sufficient duration and intensity, may
suddenly lose their strength and behave as viscous
liquids. This possibility of soil liquefaction should be
investigated where saturated sandy soils within 10 m
of ground surface have a standard penetration test
value of 10 or less.
2.1 3.5.3 Detail design and ductile behaviour
Special attention should be given to the detailing of
concrete members bearing in mind the manner in which
AUSTROADS Bridge Design Code
earthquake-induced energy will be dissipated and the
desirability of avoiding brittle failures, particularly in
shear. In structures where ductile behaviour is not
exhibited at minimum specified loads, the provision of
additional shear capacity, to provide resistance to greater
loads in a ductile manner, should be considered.
2. 1 4 Shrinkage, Creep and
Prestress Effects
2.1 4.1 Shrinkage and Creep Effects
Consideration shall be given to the effects of shrinkage and
creep in concrete structures. The characteristics of
different types and different ages of concrete shall be
considered. S hrinkage and creep s train s shall be
calculated as detailed in Section 5.
The design effects shall be calculated using the nominal
dead loads of the structure and a load factor of 1.0 for
Serviceability Limit States and 1.2 for Ultimate Limit
States.
S hrinkage and creep effects shall be included in
serviceability design checks for stresses, cracking and
deflection.
The design engineer shall consider whether shrinkage and
creep affect the ultimate strength or stability of a structure
or its components and include these effects when
necessary.
2.1 4.2 Prestress Effects
The secondary effects of prestress induced in restrained
components and indeterminant structures shall be
considered in the design ofprestressed concrete structures.
These effects shall be included in both Serviceability and
Ultimate Limit States using a load factor of 1.0.
The case of dead loads plus prestress at transfer shall be
considered as an Ultimate Limit State using the ultimate
load factors given in Table 2.2.2 for unfavourable and
favourable dead load, as applicable, and an ultimate load
factor of 1.0 for all prestress effects.
2.1 5 Differential Movement of
Su pports
2.1 5.1 Diffe rential Settlement Effects
Where predicted differential settlement of the supports,
especially in continuous span configurations, affects the
structure in whole or in part, the effects shall be taken into
account.
Differential settlement effects shall be calculated
assuming permanent loads only acting, and using the
nominal dead loads of the structure.
The effects of differential settlement or rotation may take
account of the relief afforded by creep and soil-structure
interaction.
2 - Design Loads 2. 1 7

Design differential settlement effects shall be included in
Serviceability Limit States for the structure, including
bearings and deck joints, using a load factor of 1 .0.
The design engineer shall consider whether differential
settlement effects need be included in Ultimate Limit State
loadings for the structure. As this state is approached these
shrinkage and creep effects (zero effects and full
effects)
prestress effects (before and after losses)
bearing friction or stiffness forces and effects
differential settlement and/or mining subsidence

effects.
effects, which are generally due to restraint of the
superstructure, tend to become negligible as a result of the
2 . 1 7. 1 .2 Thermal effects
non-linear behaviour of the structure. Where a structure effects due to variation in average bridge temperature
has negligible plastic capacity, differential settlement
differential temperature effects.
effects shall be included in Ultimate Limit States using a

load factor of 1 .5.

2.1 7.1 .3 Transient effects
vehicular traffic loads including dynamic effects
2.1 5.2 M i n i n g Su bs idence Effects

pedestrian traffic loads
Bridge structures in areas underlain by known coal

wind loads
deposits shall be designed to cater for anticipated mining
subsidence effects, which may include a vertical earthquake loads
displacement or change in the slope of the ground, or the flood loads including debris and impact loadings.
development of surface strains.

Mining subsidence effects shall be included in 2.1 7.2 Servi ceability Li mit State Load
Serviceability Limit State checks of the superstructure, Combinati ons
bearings, deck joints and substructure using a load factor
A t Serviceability Limit States more than one transient load
of 1 .0.
can coexist at any time. The basic combination to be
The foundations shall be designed for mining subsidence considered for Serviceability Limit States is:
effects at Ultimate Limit States, using a load factor of 1 .5 .
PE + (Serviceability design load for one transient
or thermal effect)
2.1 6 Construction Forces and + k (Serviceability design load for one or more
Effects other transient or thermal effects)
where
The permanent forces and effects introduced during
k = 0.7 for one additional effect
construction shall be considered in the design. Allowance
k = 0.5 for two additional effects.
shall also be made for the weight of any falsework or plant
which may be carried by the structure, resulting from the 2.1 7.3 Ulti mate Limit State Load
anticipated method or sequence of construction. Combi nati ons
The design engineer shall consider forces arising during
The Ultimate Limit S tate load combinations to be
possible methods of construction and the stability and
considered for strength and stability analyses include:
serviceability of component parts.
PE + ultimate thermal effects #
Where the design is dependent on a particular method of
PE + ultimate traffic load ##
construction, the structure shall be capable of safely
sustaining all construction loads, and these restraints PE + ultimate wind load ##
+
inherent in the design shall be clearly detailed in the PE ultimate flood load #
drawings and specifications.
PE + earthquake
#
2.1 7 Load Com binations Serviceability traffic loads may be included in these
combinations, provided that the structure is open to
traffic under ultimate conditions.
2.1 7.1 Classification of Loads and
Load Effects ## Serviceability thermal effects may be included in these
combinations, when they produce an adverse effect.
Loads and load effects are divided into Permanent Effects
(PE), Thermal Effects and Transient Effects. 2.1 7.4 Design Loads Specifi c to an
2 . 1 7. 1 .1 Permanent effects
Element
structure dead load Many elements of a bridge, such as traffic barriers and
piers have a specified accidental collision load. In such

additional permanent loads (superimposed dead loads)

cases , in addition to any other applicable load
earth pressure loads combination, the element shall be designed for:
normal water flow loads and buoyancy PE + collision load.
2. 1 8 AUSTROADS Bridge Design Code

2. 1 8 Dyna m i c Behaviou r
2.1 8.1 General 50

Vibration induced in road bridges by the passage of

vehicles and in footbridges by pedestrians may constitute
a Serviceability Limit S tate if the level of vibration causes E 40
alann or public unease as to the safety of the structures. E
c

2.1 8 .2 Road Bridges

0
.....
u
(l)
30
\ UNACCEPTABLE

2 . 1 8.2.1 With footways .....

QJ
"Cl
\
\
The vibration of a road bridge shall be investigated as a
U
Serviceability Limit S tate when the structure is fitted with ...... 20
0
a footway intended for public use. The serviceability .....
design load of a single T44 Truck, including dynamic load
If)

allowance, shall be positioned along the spans and within
a lane to produce the maximum static deflection at a 10
\
"
footway. This deflection shall not exceed that given in
I'-,...
Figure 2. 1 8.2. 1 .
ACCEPTABLE
2.1 8.2.2 Without footways
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Where the deflection of a road bridge without a public
footway complies with the limits specified in Section 5 or F i rst m ode fl e x ura l f re q u ency (Hz)
6, as applicable, the vibration behaviour of the bridge need
not be specifically investigated. Where these deflection Figure 2.18.2.1 Static Deflection Limits/or Road
limits are exceeded, the vibration behaviour of the bridge Bridges with Footways
shall be assessed by a rational method, using acceptance
criteria appropriate to the structure and its intended use.

2.1 8.3 Footbridges

The vibration of a footbridge superstructure shall be 6 0
investigated as a S erviceab i l i ty Limit S tate.
Superstructures shall be proportioned such that, with one
pedestrian traversing the structure, the maximum dynamic
50
deflection does not exceed the limit gi ven in Figure 2. 1 8.3.
The design pedestrian load shall have a weight of 700 N
E
and be assumed to cross the structure at an average walking E
speed (ie 1 .75 to 2.5 footfalls per second). 4 0

2.1 8.4 Special Stru ctu res

c
0
+'
U
\
This Code does not provide acceptance criteria for the

.....
OJ
"0
30
\ UNACCEPTABLE

dynamic behavious of bridges with spans in excess of

1 00 m, suspension and cable-stayed bridges. The dynamic
.5,1
5
\ \
c
behaviour of such structures under the action of traffic,
.g 2 0
wind or other loadings shall be the subject of special
investigations.
E
:J
E
\
x
0
::i 10 "'-
2.1 9 Road S i g ns a nd Lig hting r-...... r-- --
Stru ct u res

ACC PTA LE
2.1 9.1 General
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The provisions of this Article shall apply to lighting Fi rst mode fle x u ral freq u ency ( H zl
support structures, traffic signal supports and traffic sign
structures whether post mounted or attached to overhead Figure 2.18.3 Dynamic Amplitude Limits/or
gantries or other structures. Footbridges
2 - Design Loads 2. 1 9

2.1 9.2 limit States In structures fitted with walkways and/or service
platforms a total load of 2.2 kN shall be distributed over
2.1 9.2.1 Serviceability limit state
any 0.6 m length of walkway or platform, and multiplied
This is defined as excessive vibration from lateral or cross by the following load factors to obtain the appropriate
wind effects induced by vortex shedding, leading to design load:
fatigue or failure of electrical components or other
(a) Serviceability Limit State 1 .0
functional problems. The critical wind speed, where the
frequency of vortex shedding equals a structure resonance (b) Ultimate Limit State 2.0
frequency, should be greater than the maximum
This additional design load shall be applied in conjunction
serviceability design wind speed or low enough to produce
with design dead and wind loads for Serviceability Limit
very small vibratory amplitudes only.
States. For Ultimate Limit States it shall be applied with
2.1 9.2.2 Ultimate limit state design dead loads only. 0

This is defined as loss of static equilibrium, inelastic

instability and failure to further sustain the design loading.

2.1 9.3 Design Wind Speeds

2 . 1 9.3.1 Serviceabil ity limit state
The design wind speed shall be any speed up to and
including 20 m/s.

2.1 9.3.2 Ultimate limit state

The design wind speed shall be:

For sign gantries which span or 200 year

cantilever over traffic lanes, and return
high mast lighting poles, 20 m or interval
greater in height. wind speed*

For roadside signs, signals and light 35 m/s

poles, not included above.

* Determine from AS 1 170.2.

2.1 9.4 Design Wind Pressure

The design wind pressure, q* (kPa), for Serviceability or
Ultimate Limit S tates, may be calculated using an
equivalent dynamic pressure approach:
Table 2.19.4 Drag Coefficientsfor Elevated Sign
3
q* = 0.61 Cd V} 10- Panels. Luminaires and Traffic Signals
where
Sign Panels (more than 2 m above ground level)
V = design wind speed (m/s) for the Serviceability or
w
Ultimate Limit S tate, as appropriate, Width/Height Drag Coefficient
Ratio of Sign
determined from Article 2. 19.3 Cd
Cd = drag coefficient, determined from AS 1 1 70.2 or 1.0 1.18
Table 2. 19.4, as appropriate. 2.0 1 .19
5.0 1 .20
Note: For tall slender structures, such as high masts, the
10.0 1.23
eq u i v a l e n t d y n a m i c p re s s u r e approach may be
unconservative. As an alternative the g u st-energy or gust 15.0 1.30
factor m ethod of determining design wind loads may be (for intermediate values, use linear interpolation)
employed.
Luminaires

2.1 9.5 Design Load ing With generally rounded surface: C = 0.5
d
The design loading shall consist o f a combination o f the With rectangular, flat-sided shape: C = 1.2
appropriate Limit State design dead load and wind load.
d
The wind load shall be assumed to come from any Traffic Signals
direction at the design wind speed specified in Article Cd = 1.2
2. 19.3.
 Information Retrieval

AUSTROADS (1992), Bridge Design Code Section 2: Design Loads

Sydney A4, 19pp, AP- 1 5 (whole set), AP- 1 5.2 (this publication).

KEYWORDS (Major INROADS descriptors)

Bridge design, bridge foundations, bridge loads, bridge materials, bridge plan
ning, code of practice, concrete, culvert, durability, hydrology, limit states design,
pile, prestressed concrete, reinforced concrete, retaining wall, steel, structural
design, welding.

ABSTRACT

AUSTROADS Bridge D esign Code provides, in limit states format, require

ments for the design of road and pedestrian bridges in Australia. This code
replaces the NAASRA Bridge Design Specification, 1 976. It is issued for use by
member authorities of AUSTROADS and their consultants for the design of
conventional bridges of up to 100m spans.

This Code is published as a series of separate but complementary Sections, each

with a separate Commentary, as follows:

Section I : General
Section 2: Design Loads
Section 3: Foundations
Section 4: Bearings and Deck Joints
Section 5: Concrete
Section 6: Steel
Section 7: Temporary Works
 P U B L ICATIONS

AUSTROADS publishes a large number of guides and reports. Some of the more
recent publications are:

AP-1I89 Rural Road Design

AP-2190 Design of Sprayed Seals
AP-3/90 Guide to Geotextiles
AP-4/9 0 Roadwork Standards
AP-5/90 Pavement Management Systems
- National Pavement Indicators
AP-6/90 Pavement Management in Australia
- Summary of National Issues and Terminology
AP-8/87 Visual Assessment of Pavement Condition
AP-9/91 Road Demand Management Report
AP-10/91 Road Demand Management Seminar Proceedings
AP-11 Traffic Engineering Practice

AP-11. 1/88 Part 1: Traffic Flow

AP-11.2188 Part 2: Roadway Capacity
AP-11.3/88 Part 3: Traffic Studies
AP-11.4/88 Part 4: Road Crashes
AP-11.5/88 Part 5: Intersections at Grade
AP-11.8/88 Part 8: Traffic Control Devices
AP-11 .9/88 Part 9: Arterial Road Traffic Management
AP-11.10/88Part 10: Local Area Traffic Management
AP-11.11188Part 1 1 : Parking
AP-11.12188Part 12: Roadway Lighting

AP-12191 Road Maintenance Practice

AP-13/91 Bridge Management Practice
AP-14/91 Guide to Bridge Construction Practice
AP-17/92 Pavement Design
AP-21/91 Bridges - Part of the Transport System Conference Proceedings
AP- 22192 Strategy for Pavement Research & Development

AUSTROADS Pavement Research Group

APRG Rpt. 1 Strategy for Liaison with the Strategic Highway Research
Program
APRG Rpt. 2 Colloquium on Pavement Surface Characteristics
APRG Rpt. 3 National Workshop on Elastic Characterisation of Unbound
Pavement Materials and Subgrades
APRG Rpt. 4 Strategy for Liaison with the Strategic Highway Research
Program - Phase 2

These and other AUSTROADS publications may be obtained from :

Australian Road Research Board, Telephone: (03) 881 1547

PO Box 156, Fax: (03) 887 8104
Nunawading,
Victoria, 3131, Australia

or from road authorities in all States and Territories.