Running head: BILINGUALISM AND INCREASED CREATIVITY

Bilingualism and the Positive Effects on Creativity

Morgan Lacher

Loras College
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Bilingualism and the Positive Effects on Creativity

Bilingualism in the United States in prospectively increasing yearly and in 2012, 20% of

the American population reported being able to speak more than one language proficiently

(Grosjean, 2012). This topic is relevant to my personal interests due to the fact that I am fluent in

both English and Spanish and am majoring in Spanish language and culture as well as

pyschology. While a lot of research has been conducted on the benefits of bilingualism, the

United States still statistically lacks bilingual individuals. In a 2006 study conducted by the

European Commission, 56% of Europeans reported being bilingual (Franklin, 2013). Due to the

evidence supporting that learning another language modifies the structure and the function of the

human brain, differing levels of creativity and divergent thinking can be attributed to the

accumulation of another language. As reported in extensive research, levels of creative and

divergent thinking tend to be higher in bilingual individuals as opposed to monolingual

individuals. However, sociocultural contexts have also been noted as playing prominent roles in

the creativity of individuals in addition to the presence of bilingualism.

In order to ensure unified meanings in this essay, creativity can be defined as the usage of

imagination to propose original thoughts and ideas. Monolingualism is defined as the speaking of

only one language proficiently or fluently, while bilingualism is the speaking of two languages

proficiently or fluently. I hypothesize that bilingual individuals will outperform monolingual

students in the Torrance Tests of Creativity (TTCT) and the solving of insight-based problems.

Operational definitions of creative thinking and bilingualism and the methods used to

determine definitions.

The Torrance Tests of Creativity (TTCT) are utilized in order to determine levels of

creativity. The TTCT were first conducted in 1966 by Dr. E. Paul Torrance and the most updated
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version of these tests was established in 1998. The tests comprise of three picture-based exercises

to assess five creative characteristics: fluency, elaboration, originality, resistance to premature

closure, and abstractness of titles (Torrance, 1998). The tests can be conducted on anyone from

kindergarten aged to adulthood, allowing the testing of numerous participants. However, the

Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults (ATTA) is more suitable for those in adulthood and

quantifies figural and creative verbal attributes to determine a creativity index (Goff & Torrance,

2002). To determine the linguistic fluencies of participants, multiple methods were approached,

including the utilization of Word Association Tests (WAT) and the Picture Test. The WAT

evaluates the semantic meanings of the words to determine linguistic efficiency while the Picture

Test involves showing the participants a basic image and the demonstration of the correct word

for the object in that image.

Evidence of increased levels of creativity in bilingual children.

Studies involving bilingualism and creativity levels support that bilingual children,

individuals under the age of eighteen or graduating high school at the age of eighteen for this

case, experience higher levels of creative thinking than monolingual children. In a study

conducted in 2011, 116 Korean-American elementary school students in the United States were

tested utilizing the WAT to determine the degree of bilingualism and the TTCT to determine

measures of creative potentials and dictate a creativity index. The WAT scores were negatively

correlated with the creativity index scores from the TTCT (p<.05), insinuating that participants

who are more linguistically balanced between the two languages achieved higher scores on the

creativity index than those who are monolingual. On the TTCT, the subgroups of Creative

Strengths (p<.01) and Abstractness of Titles (p<.05) were strongly correlated with the WAT
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scores. The study discovered a positive relation between the degree of bilingualism and creativity

(Lee & Kim, 2011).

In Mexico in 1974, 353 Mexican high school students were tested and bilingual students

scored significantly higher on the creativity tests than monolinguals. Through the TTCT, twelve

bilingual Spanish-English high schools and twelve Spanish monolingual high schools were

tested to determine levels of creative thinking. A WAT was given to the participants in order to

determine the extent of bilingualism. Through the comparison of the TTCT and WAT, the

participants demonstrated a p =.05 level in favor of bilingual students over monolingual students

in verbal measures of flexibility, a p< .05 favor in figural fluency (the measure of initiation and

planning) and a p<. 01 favor in figural measures of originality. The results of the study

demonstrated that there is a correlation between languages spoken and creativity because the

bilingual students scored significantly higher on the creativity tests (Carringer, 1974).

Another important discovery regarding the effects of bilingualism on creativity was

documented in a study conducted by Cushen & Wiley in 2011. 160 Midwestern university

students were tested to determine the levels of bilingual fluency and the age of acquisition of a

second language and its correlation to creative thinking. This study supported the concept that

early-age bilingual individuals who have acquired the second language before the age of six,

exemplified higher levels of creative thinking in insightful problems over late bilingual

individuals who have acquired the second language after the age of six, and monolinguals

(Cushen & Wiley, 2011).

Evident in these studies, bilingual children tend to exhibit more creatively inclined

behaviors and engaged in divergent thinking more than monolingual children. I believe the data
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collected is relevant to the concept that bilingualism enhances creativity because the data

supports this theory.

Evidence of increased creativity in bilingual adults.

Not only has research supported the positive effects of bilingualism on creative thinking

for children, there are also studies that provide insight into the evidence of increased creativity

capacities in bilingual adults.

The Cushen & Wiley study in 2011 that tested 160 Midwestern university students in the

United States reiterates the positive correlation between bilingualism and creative thinking. Of

the 160 college-aged individuals, 64 individuals were found to be bilingual. All of the

participants in this study had attended high school in the United States and spoke English as a

first language. The second languages were not unique to a specific language and although

Spanish was the most prominent language following English, the bilingual students also spoke

Indian dialects, Chinese dialects, Korean, Polish, Tagalog, and Albanian. The students were

questioned utilizing a unique linguistic exam to determine fluency and were then given tests

containing non-insight and insight problems to determine creativity levels. The insight problems

were those developed to both enhance and require the usage of creativity; the non-insight

problems involved mathematic equations. The results suggest that monolinguals are better at

solving the non-insight problems, but early bilinguals have an advantage in solving insight

problems. The data also demonstrated that late bilinguals exhibited equal performances for both

insight and non-insight problems, alluding to neither a distinct advantage nor disadvantage in this

study. Early bilinguals possess inter-lexical associations that can be attributed to the

development of divergent thinking, thus accounting for a greater capacity to solve insightful

problems (Cushen & Wiley, 2011).

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In 2005, a researcher by the name of Anatoliy V. Kharkhurin began studies in order to

investigate sociocultural context and bilingualism effects on an individuals creativity. In this

study, 98 Russian-English bilingual college students studying in the United States and 130

Russian-English bilingual college students in Russia were compared with 47 monolingual

English speakers. The participants were tested on divergent thinking and language proficiencies

through the ATTA and Picture Naming tasks. The results of their tests demonstrated that

bilinguals who were highly proficient in at least one language outperformed monolinguals on the

ATTA test in fluency, flexibility, and elaboration of divergent thinking. This study support the

concept that divergent thinking, cognitive flexibility, and bilingualism contribute to the basis of

creativity, especially in adults (Kharkhurin, 2005).

I am able to relate to this data because I would be considered a late bilingual. I believe

that this information regarding the positive relationship between divergent thinking and

bilingualism in adults supports the concept that levels of creativity are enhanced with another

language, regardless of the age of acquisition.

Evidence of sociocultural context on creativity scores.

While there has not been extensive research on the field of bilingualism and cognitive

effects, there are many studies that can illuminate some of the data presented in the current

studies. Sociocultural differences determine the relationship between bilingualism and creative

potential. Many bilingual individuals are also members of at least two distinct cultures and

having dual-identity processes assist in the formulation of creativity. In 2014, researchers

Goclowska & Crisp developed their own model in order to assess the benefits of having two

different social identities, common in bilingual individuals, which can enhance levels of

creativity and divergent thinking. The study states that during cultural adaptations, the individual
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must alternate their concept of personal identity, integrate personal values and identities, and

broaden their definitions of themselves (Goclowska & Crisp, 2014).

In Kharkhurins study in 2012, he examined the complex relationship between

bilingualism and an individuals creativity levels with an emphasis on sociocultural contexts.

Kharkhurin suggests that the acquisition of a second language is often accompanied by the

integration of the cultural identity of the country where the language was first acquired. This

study utilized data from participants in the United States, United Arab Emirates, and Iran in

order to compare and contrast distinct cultural identities between Western and Eastern cultures.

The study tested the creativity levels of Russian-English bilinguals and English monolinguals in

the United States and Farsi-English bilinguals in the United Arab Emirates with Farsi

monolinguals in Iran. The participants were compared using the ATTA to determine levels of

creativity .The study identified two unique types of creative capacities within the ATTA: the

generative capacity and the innovative capacity. The generative capacity involves the ability to

connect unrelated concepts and the innovative capacity allows for the production and integration

of innovative and useful concepts.

However, the results for the ATTA test between the Russian and/or English speakers with

the Farsi and/or English speakers varied dramatically. There appeared to be no distinct difference

in the generative capacity between bilinguals and monolinguals in the United Arab Emirates, but

the bilinguals in the United States scored higher than monolinguals. However, the United Arab

Emirate bilinguals scored dramatically higher than their monolingual counterparts in innovative

capacity, while the United States bilinguals demonstrated no difference between monolingual

and bilingual innovative capacities. The data supported that being bilingual is not an experience

with two language systems, but the experience with two systems of cultural meanings that can
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potentially impact creative tendencies in bilinguals because the results were inconsistent between

the differing sociocultural groups (Kharkhurin, 2012).

In many of the tests utilized by the researchers, the bilingual participants demonstrated

higher levels of creative and divergent thinking in problem-solving of insightful situations over

monolingual participants. I find this data to be important due to the fact that the United States is

behind other major countries in bilingual education and the United States education system could

potentially utilize this data to enhance their foreign language programs. Due to the fact that many

bilingual individuals are individuals with two distinct cultural identities, future studies would be

of great importance to determine the exact effect of multiculturalism in relation to bilingualism

and creativity. Therefore, research is needed to further investigate the effects of joint influences

of bilingualism and sociocultural context on an individuals creativity because little is known

about the exact relationship. Through the research studies mentioned in this literature review, a

positive correlation between bilingualism and levels of creativity can be noted.

References

Carringer, D. C. (1974). Creative thinking abilities of Mexican youth: The relationship of

bilingualism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 5(4), 492-504.

http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1177/002202217400500409
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Cushen, P. J., & Wiley, J. (2011). Aha! Voila! Eureka! Bilingualism and insightful problem

solving. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(4), 458462.

https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.02.007

Franklin, L. (2013). Americans suffer from inadequate foreign language education. The Daily

Texan. Retrieved October 12, 2016, from

http://www.dailytexanonline.com/opinion/2013/10/06/americans-suffer-from-inadequate-

foreign-language-education

Gocowska, M. A., & Crisp, R. J. (2014). How dual-identity processes foster creativity. Review

of General Psychology, 18(3), 216236.

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Goff, K., & Torrance, E. P. (2002). STS - Abbreviated Torrance Test for Adults - ATTA.

Retrieved October 24, 2016, from http://ststesting.com/2005giftatta.html.

Grosjean, F. (2012). Bilinguals in the United States. Retrieved October 12, 2016, from

http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/life-bilingual/201205/bilinguals-in-the-united-

states

Kharkhurin, A. V. (2005). On the possible relationships between bilingualism, biculturalism and

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Q/8

Kharkhurin, A. V. (2010). Sociocultural differences in the relationship between bilingualism and

creative potential. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 41(56), 776783.

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Lee, H., & Kim, K. H. (2011). Can speaking more languages enhance your creativity?

Relationship between bilingualism and creative potential among Korean American

students with multicultural link. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(8), 1186

1190. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.039

Torrance, E. P. (1998). Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT). Retrieved October 24,

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