Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Training Curriculum
CRCM_130_revA_0204
Optional Topics...................................................................................Chapter 5
Spring 2002
Calgary
Igneous
Sedimentary
Metamorphic
Clastic Texture
Crystalline Texture
1
The Rock Cycle
Igneous Rock
Sedimentary Rock
2
Sedimentary Rock
Shale
Metamorphic Rock
3
Sedimentary Transport
Mass Movement
In high elevations
Severe weathering
Instability of steep slopes
A large block of bedrock
may separate along deep
fractures or bedding planes
Rockslide or avalanche
Stream Transport
4
Continental Environments
Fluvial deposits
Desert environment
Continental Environments
Glacial deposits
Aeolian deposits
Transitional Environments
Marine deltas
Beaches
5
Sedimentary Rock Classifications
Lithification
Deposited beyond the reach of erosion
Diagenesis (physical and chemical changes)
Compaction
Sediments accumulate over time in the ocean
Weight is increased by thousands of feet of more sediment
layers
Pore space is reduced as water is squeezed out
Cementation
The crystallization or precipitation of soluble minerals in the
pore spaces between clastic particles.
Clastics
Conglomerates
Sandstones
Shales
6
Evaporites
Gypsum
Halite
Carbonates
Limestone
Coal
Chert
Origin of Hydrocarbons
u talog
7
Hydrocarbons
Chemical Factors
8
Biological Factors
The food chain contributes waste products, and
every organism that is not eaten eventually dies
Bacteria plays an important role in recycling
Aerobic (oxygenated) oxidizes organic matter
Anaerobic (reducing) takes oxygen from dissolved sulfates
and organic fatty acids producing sulfides and hydrocarbons
Aerobic decay liberates certain hydrocarbons that
some small organisms accumulate within their bodies,
the anaerobics are more important in oil formation
Biological Factors
Organic waste materials and dead organisms sink to
the bottom, preserved in an anaerobic environment
Accumulation and compaction help seal the organic
matter off from dissolved oxygen
Transformation into petroleum is accomplished by
the heat and pressure of deeper burial
Examples of where anaerobic environments exist:
Deep offshore
Salt marshes
River deltas
Tidal lagoons
9
Source Rocks
Source Rock
Organic material that has been converted into petroleum
Reservoir Rock
Rock in which petroleum accumulates
The best source rocks are shales
Other source beds are limestone, evaporites, and rocks
formed from freshwater sedimentary deposition
Petroleum is found in a variety of forms and chemical
complexities
Hydrocarbon Migration
Migration
Primary migration
Movement of hydrocarbons out of the source rock
Secondary migration
Subsequent movement through porous, permeable
reservoir rock by which oil and gas become
concentrated in one locality
10
Primary Migration
Primary Migration
Primary Migration
A rock's permeability is a
measure of how easily
fluids can pass through it
The basic unit is the
Darcy; l/1000 of a Darcy is
a millidarcy (md)
<1 md Poor The permeability of
1-10 md Fair sandstones commonly
10-100 md Good ranges between 0.01 and
100-1000 md Very Good 10,000 md.
11
Permeability
Permeability can vary with direction of flow
Pore connections may be less numerous, narrower, or less
well aligned in one direction than another
In rocks formed from well-sorted beach sands, grains that
are not spherical are often aligned perpendicular to the
beach
Stream channel sands are aligned in the direction of stream
flow and often contain horizontal sheets or stringers of less
permeable clay
Fluids move more easily through such rocks parallel to grain
alignment or clay stringers than across them
Secondary Migration
Hydrocarbons are moved through permeable
rock by gravity
Compressing pore spaces containing fluid
Causing water containing hydrocarbons to flow
Causing water to displace less dense petroleum
fluids upward
Flow can mean movement of a few inches a
year, which can add up to many miles in a
geologically short time
Hydrocarbon Accumulation
12
Accumulation
Oil collects in places it cannot readily flow out of
a structural high point
a zone of reduced permeability
As accumulation occurs, distinct zones of gas, oil, and
water appear
Effective Permeability
Rock permeability to a given fluid when
another fluid is also present
Water has seven times the ability of oil to cling
to the grains of porous rock
Interstitial water reduces the space available
for oil
narrows the passages between pores
lowers the rock's effective permeability to oil
Relative Permeability
The ratio of effective to absolute permeability
1.0 = rock with oil but no water
0.0 = rock with water but no oil
Encountering higher fluid pressure
may overcome the water's resistance to the passage
of oil
may increase the effective permeability of the
formation by opening tiny fractures
13
Horizontal Movement
Interstitial water with oil droplets moves slowly
through horizontal sandstone beneath a layer of
relatively impermeable shale
The oil droplets tend to concentrate in the upper
levels of the sandstone because of their buoyancy
Diagonal Movement
If the tilt is upward in the direction of flow
The oil tends to rise updip with the flow of water
If the oil rises against the flow of water
The water flows downdip
14
Differentiation
Petroleum reservoirs are water-wet
Oil is not in contact with the rock grains because
they are coated with a film of water
Most oil fields have 50-80% maximum oil
saturation
Above 80%, the oil can be produced with very little
water mixed in
Below 10%, the oil is not recoverable
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
Hydrocarbon reservoirs divide into
two or more zones
With oil and water, oil will occupy
the upper zone
This zone has maximum oil saturation
The oil-water contact is not a sharp line
but a transition zone
Oil saturation increases gradually
from near 0% at the base to
50%-80% at the top
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
Natural gas is dissolved in the oil
and to some extent in the water
Reservoir conditions sometimes
allow undissolved gas to create a gas
cap above the oil zone
The wetting fluid in a gas cap is
usually water but occasionally oil
The transition zone between oil-gas
is thinner than the oil-water
15
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
Some reservoirs contain gas but not oil
This gas is called non-associated gas
The transition zone is a gas-water contact
The water contains gas in solution
Free methane remains in a gaseous
state even under great pressure
Ethane, propane, and butane, are gases
at the surface are often found in a
liquid state under reservoir conditions
Types of Traps
The basic requirements for a petroleum reservoir are
A source of hydrocarbons
Porous and permeable rock enabling migration
Something to arrest the migration and cause accumulation
Anticlines are not the only geologic situations for
hydrocarbon accumulation
Two major groups of hydrocarbon traps
structural, the result of deformation of the rock strata
stratigraphic, a direct consequence of depositional variations
*hydrodynamic, trapped by the force of moving water
Most reservoirs have characteristics of multiple types
Structural
Anticline
Anticlines
Structure
Created by tectonic deformation of
flat and parallel rock strata
A short anticline plunging in both
directions along its strike is
classified as a dome
Faults
Impermeable Bed
Sealing
Most faults trap oil and gas by
Fault
interrupting the lateral continuity
of a permeable formation
16
Stratigraphic
Lateral discontinuity or changes in permeability are
difficult to detect
Stratigraphic traps were not studied until after most of the
world's structural oil field discoveries
They still account for only a minor part of the world's
known petroleum reserves
Stratigraphic traps are unrelated to surface features
Many stratigraphic traps have been discovered
accidentally while drilling structural traps
Stratigraphic
Shoestring Sand
An overlapping series of coarser stream
sediments buried by clay
Stream
A sinuous string of sandstone winding
Channel
through impermeable shales
Form complex branching networks
Give no hint of the underlying channel
Tracing the course is difficult
Clues such as direction of greatest
permeability and general slope of the
buried land surface help find the next
productive location
Lens
Isolated body of permeable rock enclosed within less
permeable rock
Edges taper out in all directions
Formed by turbidity underwater slides
Isolated beach or streams sand deposits
Alluvial fans, and other deposits
Lens Traps
17
Pinchout
Pinchout
Traps
Combination Traps
18
Conclusions
19
This page intentionally left blank.
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
What comes into your mind when you hear the word geology? If youre like most of us, chances are
you get a vivid picture such as the May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. We tend to think of
geology in terms of landscapes too vast to fully comprehend volcanoes, mountain ranges, and
canyons created by forces beyond our comprehension.
Explaining the occurrence of petroleum in rock formations is very similar to explaining why it rains,
with one fundamental difference we can watch clouds forming and rain falling, but no one has ever
watched oil form and accumulate underground. To figure out what happens, we must first answer
some basic questions: Does oil start out as oil or as something else? Does it change over time? Does it
form where it is found, or does it come from somewhere else? Why is it found in some places but not
in others? These questions can be answered; but to answer them we have to look at petroleum on many
levels global, regional, local, microscopic, and molecular. In the search for petroleum, the area of
greatest interest to us is geology the science of the earth.
If you examine a typical rock, you will see that it is composed of individual mineral grains of various
types. In some rocks the grains are so small that they can be seen only under a microscope; in others,
they are quite large. Texture, the size and arrangement of these mineral particles, is one of the principal
descriptive properties geologists use to classify rocks.
Two basic kinds of texture are crystalline and clastic. In rocks with clastic texture, the grains, which
are broken fragments of rocks, minerals, or organic debris, may touch each other but are mostly
surrounded and held together by cement such as calcite. Often the spaces between the grains are not
completely filled, leaving openings or voids that can contain water or other fluids. In crystalline
texture, the grains form and grow from the molten rock material as it solidifies, and so they interlock
or touch each other on all faces. Minerals can also crystallize from ground water solutions within
existing rocks. Rocks with crystalline texture usually have very low porosity.
Cooling
Hardening
Lava Granite
Some lava cools so rapidly that it does not form crystals at all; the result is a volcanic glass known as
obsidian. Another common extrusive rock is basalt. Since igneous rocks form from a cooling body of
magma or lava, they are usually crystalline and non-porous. However, pyroclastics, composed of
fragments of ash from volcanic explosions, have clastic texture and are porous. Gas-filled lava that has
cooled rapidly may form a vesicular type of obsidian called pumice, the rock that floats on water.
Obsidian Pumice
Sedimentary Rock
When any type of rock is exposed at the surface, it becomes subject to weathering and erosion.
Weathering processes are those that break down the structure of the rock by chemical and physical
attack. Erosion is the removal of weathered rock or soil particles by flowing water, wind, moving ice,
or other agents. When weathering has proceeded far enough, the erosion process may complete the job
of separating the particles from the parent rock.
The rock and soil particles carried away by erosion eventually come to rest in a sedimentary deposit,
often far from their source. The largest and heaviest particles, requiring the most energy to transport,
Although they comprise only 8% of the volume of the earths crust, sedimentary rocks cover 75% of
the land surface. Most sedimentary rocks are porous and therefore capable of containing fluids. The
fact that most petroleum accumulates in sedimentary rocks makes them of prime interest to the
petroleum geologists.
Metamorphic Rock
Any rock that has been changed by pressure and heat while in the solid phase is termed metamorphic.
When shale, a common sedimentary rock, undergoes deep burial, heat and pressure fuse individual
mineral grains into a metamorphic rock known as slate; more intense metamorphism produces schist.
Similarly, limestone becomes marble. One type of low-grade metamorphism, the alteration of
limestone to dolomite, involves chemical replacement of calcium by magnesium in solution.
Metamorphism always results in crystalline texture; either new crystals are formed from the elements
present in the original rock, or the existing grains are deformed and molded into an interlocking
structure. Metamorphic rocks usually have little or no porosity. The final form and appearance of any
metamorphic rock is a product of its original composition and the type and intensity of the
metamorphic forces involved. About 27% of the earths crust is composed of metamorphic rocks.
The flow of a river moves the sediments in its bed downstream, but it also undercuts its banks. When
material is continually removed from the lower part of a slope, the slope eventually becomes too steep
to support its own weight. It collapses, either gradually or suddenly, into the streambed and is carried
away. Thus, although the stream acts directly only on the sediments in its bed, the valley becomes
wider at the top because of undercutting.
The inexorable pull of gravity ensures that sediments are carried downhill - ultimately to sea level.
However, tectonic forces often raise lowlands high above sea level, ensuring a continuing supply of
raw material for producing sediments. Thus any type of rock can become source material for future
sedimentary rocks by being uplifted and exposed to weathering and erosion.
Mass Movement
In high mountains, severe weathering and the
instability of steep slopes often result in the
sudden movement of large masses of rock and
sediment. A large block of bedrock may
separate along deep fractures or bedding
planes, causing a rockslide or avalanche. In
seconds, a single rock mass weighing millions
of tons can come crashing down, shattering
itself and everything it hits into boulders and
dust.
The steeper a stream, the more gravitational energy it has - and the faster it flows. If the water flows
smoothly, like a formation of marching soldiers, the flow is said to be laminar. However, if this
orderly, parallel movement is disrupted, the flow becomes turbulent, tumbling and swirling
chaotically. Such a change can be seen where a quiet stretch of river enters a section of shallow,
uneven streambed and breaks into turbulent rapids.
It is this turbulent type of flow that makes available most of the energy a stream uses in transporting
solid particles. Some of the swirling is directed upward with enough energy to pick up and carry rock
particles that are heavier than the water -the same way a high wind can pluck a sheet of tin off a roof.
In general, the turbulence of a stream increases with its velocity and with the narrowness and
roughness of its channel. Steep, narrow mountain streams have a greater proportion of turbulent
energy than sluggish lowland streams, so they are noisier.
The shape of a particle also affects ease of transport. A perfect sphere has more volume and weight per
unit surface than any other shape. The less spherical a particle, the more easily a stream can carry it. A
flat pebble of quartz will settle like a leaf; a spherical quartz pebble of equal weight will sink more
quickly. The difference in shape is like the difference between an open umbrella and a closed one.
Opening an umbrella in a high wind does not change its weight, but does make it more likely to be
blown away.
For any given shape and size, a denser particle will settle out faster than a less dense particle because
its weight-to-surface ratio is higher. For this reason, small particles of gold (S.G. 16 to 19) collect on
the bottom of a streambed, while silt (S.G. 2.5 to 3.0) is swept downstream.
Streams move only minor amounts of sediment. High winds can carry clay, silt, and sand much as a
river does. In arid climates, wind may even act as the primary weathering and transporting agent,
carving exposed rock into fantastic shapes by abrading it with airborne particles. A glacier moves
slowly but with great weight, grinding rocks into powder and carrying jumbles of unsorted rock
material to its snout. Both wind-driven and glacial sediments are often reworked and redeposited by
flowing water.
Continental Environments
Because most areas above sea level are subject to erosion, depositional conditions tend to be more
localized onshore than offshore. They are also more affected by rapid changes in weather. At certain
places and times a river deposits more sediment in its valley than it carries off. However, the sediments
deposited during months of slack water may be carried downstream in a single day of heavy runoff.
Fluvial Deposits
Sediments deposited by flowing water are called fluvial deposits. Local variations in flow determine
where particular types of sediments accumulate. Stream velocity is greatest on the outside of a bend,
where the stream under- cuts the bank and increases its sedimentary load. On the inside of the bend,
where the water slows and eddies, the stream has less energy. Here is left much of the suspended
sediment - first the sand, which takes the most energy to move; then higher on the sloping bar, silt; and
farthest from the swift main current, clay. Bed load materials such as cobbles and gravel collect in
deeper water near the base of the sand.
A river in flood uses much of its increased energy to augment its
suspended load. Adding silt and clay from its channel to the
materials coming from upstream, the river spreads out over its
floodplain. Here friction absorbs much of the flow energy. Silt
and clay settle out, raising the level of the floodplain (and
enriching the soil for plant life). Some of the heavier sediments
accumulate atop the banks nearest the river, forming natural
levees that help contain the river at lower flow stages.
Sandbars and other stream deposits over- lap one another in
characteristic ways. A cross section of such overlapping deposits
reveals their characteristic lens shape - thick in the middle and
tapering toward either edge. Bar deposits are long and curved in
the direction parallel to the stream but narrow and lens-shaped
in section across the stream. Evidence of flow direction and
volume is preserved in the form of ripple marks, scour marks,
and other structures.
A meandering river creates an even more complex system of
overlapping and undercut deposits. Meandering occurs when a
river with excess energy and a flat flood- plain erodes one of its
banks more than the other and begins shifting in a gentle curve
toward that bank. Since a curved line connecting two points is
longer than a straight line, a meander reduces the river's
gradient: the river travels farther to descend 1 foot in elevation.
As the curve deepens, the opposite bank is eroded at its
beginning and end.
Lacustrine Environments
The still waters of a lake absorb all the flow energy of inflowing rivers, causing the rivers to deposit
their sediments near their entry points. In addition to the inflow of mineral sediments, dissolved
nutrients flow in and feed the growth of a biotic community of plants and animals. The remains of
these organisms accumulate in the sediments of the lake bottom rather than being flushed downstream
as in a river. Eventually the lake fills with sediments and ceases to exist, leaving behind a deposit from
which fossil fuels such as coal or oil may be born.
Desert Environments
In arid climates, infrequent downpours and flash floods leave sheets of gravel and sand in large,
sloping deposits at the mouths of canyons. This type of deposit is called an alluvial fan. Such
fanglomerates (some of which are termed molasse) are thin, overlapping, poorly sorted sheets of
angular gravels, boulders, and mud. A line of fans may eventually coalesce into an apron that grows
broader and higher as the slopes above are eroded.
Glacial Deposits
Sediments deposited by moving ice sheets are much rarer than
other types, principally because deposits created by
geologically infrequent ice ages are subject to erosion and
reworking by other agents. Retreating glaciers and ice sheets
leave behind accumulations of un- sorted sediments called till.
Glaciers grind bedrock into flour and carry along great
boulders that a river would simply flow around. Glacial till is
thus recognizable by its chaotic jumble of mud, gravel, and
large rocks. When a glacier retreats, meltwater usually
reworks and redistributes the till. Glacial till and outwash
sediments from the last ice advance cover much of the north-
eastern United States. Buried sediments from older glacial periods can be found worldwide, often in
locations now too far from the poles to have been affected by more recent ice ages.
TRANSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
Most of the sediment produced by the weathering of rock is carried by flowing water to the sea. Here
the fresh water of the river quickly becomes dispersed in the much larger volume of salt water-as does
flow energy. Sediments are deposited throughout this transition zone, where the river gradually gives
up its energy; they are sorted by size, shape, and density according to the energy distribution of their
environment, as they were in upstream depositional environments.
Marine deltas
The mouths of rivers fall into two general categories. A river with a low sediment load may reach the
sea in an estuary, where the effect of current, waves, and tides keeps sediment from accumulating. A
heavily laden river, however, usually creates a marine delta, a seaward extension of land at or near sea
level caused by the accumulation of sediments at the river's mouth. A delta is composed mostly of
sediments brought down by the river, but mixed with them are fine wave-borne sediments brought in
by currents and tides.
Some of the finer sediments carried beyond the topset beds settle out in foreset beds on the steep
seaward face of the delta. In the upper foreset zone, where wave action suspends the finer sediments,
the foreset beds may consist of clean sand; below the wave base, muddy sand and silt; and near the toe
of the delta, thinner beds of silt and mud. As the delta grows seaward, the foreset beds are overlain by
extensions of the topset beds.
Bottomset beds are tapering layers of silt and clay extending seaward from the face of the delta.
Beyond reach of river and waves, these sediments accumulate slowly and sometimes support
considerable seafloor life.
Marine Delta
The delta described above is an idealized model that is rarely found in nature, where conditions vary
widely. Distinct topset, foreset, and bottomset beds are more often seen in lacustrine deltas in sheltered
continental environments.
Beaches
The transition zone also includes beaches, coastal depositional environments unrelated to the mouths
of rivers. Sand and finer sediments are redistributed by longshore currents (the movement of seawater
parallel to the coast). The growth and shrinkage of non-delta coastal deposits are related to the energy
of longshore currents, waves, and tides.
A cross section of a typical beach shows how the sediments brought in by long shore currents are
sorted and redistributed by wave and tidal energy. Differences in energy levels divide the beach profile
into the shoreface (the wave action zone up to the low-tide mark), the foreshore (between low- and
high-tide levels), the backshore (from high tide to storm-flood level), and the dunefield (above storm-
As the shoreface slopes upward toward the land, ocean waves begin to "feel" the bottom-that is,
friction retards the movement of water near the bottom of a wave. The top of the wave goes ahead of
the bottom, causing the wave to topple, or "break." While at the seashore you may have noticed a line
of breakers some distance offshore. A breaker line marks an underwater bar where the concentration of
wave and back- wash energy causes an accumulation of coarser sediments, such as gravel and
seashells. One or more bars may form on the shoreface, depending upon the energy of incoming waves
and the availability of sediments.
Beach Profile
Another high-energy zone occurs where the incoming wave laps up onto the foreshore. This action
sorts the beach sediments, washing the sand clean of filler sediments and leaving particles of similar
size together in distinct zones. Sediments fine enough to be suspended in the turbulent waves are
carried offshore and deposited in quiet water beyond the breaker line.
If the beach is on an offshore barrier (spit or island), the transition zone may also include a shallow
lagoon where sediments accumulate in a backbarrier complex. Such depositional environments are
highly variable and may include tidal channels, salt marshes, shell reefs, and mangrove swamps,
among other features.
Deposition in the backshore zone is intermittent. Coarser sediments may be deposited here when storm
waves surge over the highest beach bars and run back into the sea in shallow channels parallel to the
shore. Dry sand in the backshore zone may migrate inland in desert-like dunes driven by onshore
winds.
If the lagoon behind the barrier is relatively isolated from the sea, the
backbarrier complex may include such disparate features as sebkhas,
thin-bedded deposits of salt or other evaporites formed where
intermittent, landlocked pools dry out; peat, formed from heavy
deposition of plant debris (as in mangrove swamps), which may, if
buried deeply, become coal; and organic muds rich in carbonates and
other skeletal debris. On the other hand, strong currents behind the
barrier island or spit may flush out these deposits, leaving sediments
in configurations much like those in stream deposits.
Shelf Environments
A typical continental shelf is an underwater plain sloping 10 feet per horizontal mile seaward. It
extends from the transition zone (beach or delta) to the edge of the continental mass. Most of the
energy in this zone comes from shallow ocean currents and tides. Sediments are mostly silt and clay
mixed with fecal pellets, skeletal debris, and shell fragments, with local deposits of coarser sediments
brought in by infrequent tidal and flood cur rents. In warm tropical oceans, the clay of the shelf often
grades into carbonate mud made up of undissolved shell and skeletal debris.
An epeiric sea is a broad, shallow arm of the ocean extending well inland upon the continental
platform. An epeiric sea accumulates sediments from the land and organic matter from marine life, like
the continental shelf, but is isolated from oceanic currents and tides. The only known modern
examples, Hudson Bay and the Baltic Sea, are both cold epeiric seas. In the geologic past, however,
great warm, shallow seas covered most of North America. Sediments accumulated to thicknesses of
several miles as their weight gradually depressed the continental bedrock beneath. , Some of these
sediments were later thrust high above sea level, where they are visible today in the Rocky Mountains
and the Grand Canyon.
A reef is a wave-resistant deposit consisting of the calcareous remnants of marine organisms in or near
the locations where they grew. A coral reef is a familiar example; however, the term reef is also applied
to algal and oyster mounds. A reef dissipates wave energy like an offshore sandbar. Calcareous debris
and organic matter may accumulate in the relatively quiet water between the reef and the shore. The
deeper water seaward serves as a basin for detritus broken off the reef by wave action.
El Capitan
Continental Slope
The transition zone between the continental slope and the oceanic abyss is the continental rise. A
major mover of sediments on the continental rise is the turbidity current - a dense mass of sediment-
laden water that flows down the continental slope, typically through a submarine canyon. Fed by a
flooding river, underwater debris slide, or other source, a turbidity current is a sort of underwater flash
flood carrying clay, silt, and gravel rapidly downslope in a narrow tongue. Its energy is quickly
dissipated by friction upon the more gradual slope of the continental rise, where its sediments settle
largest particles first, to form a turbidite - a thick, graded bed topped by clay.
If sea level rises relative to the land, each depositional environment will follow the retreating shoreline
inland. Each type of rock thus formed will grow laterally toward the coast. Instead of a vertical
column, the limestone will form a continuous, near-horizontal sheet stretching shoreward. This layer
might be treated, and even named, as a distinct formation. In reality, however, it is merely one facies
of a larger unit and was formed over a long period of time concurrently with the facies above and
below it. The geologist must distinguish between a rock stratigraphic unit, such as the limestone in
this example, and a time stratigraphic unit, the concurrently deposited layer with all its lateral facies
variations.
Lithification
Rivers flow in only one direction - down to the sea. Unless the land subsides or sea level rises,
sediments deposited in fluvial environments above sea level are eventually carried away by the
unrelenting erosive force of the river. However, sediments that reach the sea eventually come to rest in
a relatively stable environment, beyond the influence of most wind, weather, and current, and become
buried beneath other sediments. For this reason most sedimentary rocks originate in marine
environments.
Once deposited, sediments are not necessarily lithified (transformed into stone). In order for
lithification to occur, unconsolidated sediments must remain beyond the reach of erosion, and they
must be compacted and cemented. The physical and chemical changes that sedimentary deposits
undergo during and after lithification are known collectively as diagenesis. (Diagenesis does not,
however, include the more radical changes associated with the heat and pressure of metamorphosis).
Compaction
If the accumulation of sediments continues over a long period, as it usually does in the ocean, great
thicknesses of material may be placed on top of the original layers. Burial beneath thousands of feet of
other sediments is what begins to turn sediments into rock. The weight of overlying layers squeezes
particles together into the tightest arrangement possible; under extreme conditions, it may crush some
or all of the grains. As the water that originally filled the pore spaces between particles is squeezed
out, the volume occupied by the sediments is reduced. This process is called compaction. Different
clastic materials pack differently.
A dune sand composed entirely of rounded grains of similar size may be compacted very little. In a
poorly sorted sand, however, smaller particles can be rearranged to fill the spaces between the larger
grains, thus reducing the pore space. Plate-like clay particles, however, become aligned with one
another when compacted, fitting together like bricks with very little space between. Some clays
become compacted to less than half their original volume under the pressure of deep burial.
Cementation is the crystallization or precipitation of soluble minerals in the pore spaces between
clastic particles. A defining characteristic of clastic texture is that individual particles touch each other
at various points without conforming to the shape of other particles. In crystalline texture the grain
structure originates in the rock itself as the crystals of various minerals grow in close contact with each
other. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are crystalline and therefore have little or no pore space.
The texture of cemented sedimentary rock is part clastic and part crystalline. Clastic sedimentary rock
can range from lightly cemented porous sandstone to well-cemented limey sandstone. Some sandstone
contains so much calcite that it may be considered a sandy limestone rather than a limey sandstone.
Carbonate sedimentary rocks display an even wider range of textures because calcite particles can be
created in a variety of ways. They can be the products of the mechanical breakdown of corals, shells,
and skeletons, or they can form as oolites, the egg-shaped rounded grains created by the deposition of
layers of calcite on other particles. As they collect in sedimentary basins, these particles can become
cemented together in the same way as other grains- by crystallized calcite. The result is a limestone
consisting of calcite fragments in crystallized calcite. Depending upon the admixture of other particles,
limestone can grade through sandy, silty, or shaly limestone into limey sandstone, siltstone, or shale.
The deposition of sediments occurs in the earth's biosphere - the thin zone of air, water, and soil where
all terrestrial life exists. For this reason, sedimentary rock often contains fossils - animal or plant parts,
entire organisms, or such evidence of their former presence as tracks or burrows. Limestone, in
particular, is formed partly from the remains of calcareous organisms and often contains an abundance
of their shells.
Once an accumulation of sediment has become compacted and cemented into the durable form of true
rock, it can undergo further changes in its chemical and physical environment that alter its structure
and composition. These diagenetic alterations can involve the leaching of soluble minerals (increasing
porosity), the addition of minerals by crystallization (decreasing porosity), or the recrystallization of
the minerals present in the rock itself, as in the formation of chert in siliceous shale.
Diagenesis can also involve the chemical replacement of one element or mineral by another.
Limestone, for example, is changed to dolomite {or more properly, dolomitic limestone) by
replacement of half or more of its calcium with magnesium. Dolomitization may occur when
limestone is saturated with magnesium-rich groundwater, especially at higher temperatures.
CLASTICS
Clastics are rocks such as conglomerates, sandstones, and shales that are composed mostly of
fragments of other rocks. The principal distinction among clastics is grain size.
Conglomerates
Conglomerates are rocks most of whose volume consists of particles more than 2 mm in diameter.
They are formed from the sediments found in alluvial fans, debris flows, glacial out- wash, and other
high-energy depositional environments. Most conglomerates occur in thin, isolated layers; they are not
very abundant.
Sandstones
Sandstone is clastic sedimentary rock more than half of whose grains are 1/16 mm to 2 mm in
diameter. About one-fourth of all sedimentary rock is sandstone. The sand particles are of three
principal types: quartz (SiO2); feldspar grains, derived from granite or other rocks; and lithic particles,
each of which is a mixture of various minerals. Sandstones are of particular interest to petroleum
geologists because they "are usually more permeable to formation fluids than other rocks and therefore
able to accumulate oil and gas. Many of the world's richest petroleum deposits are found in sandstone
reservoirs.
Quartz Sandstone
Graywackes are sandstones that contain more than 15% silt and clay. Their grains tend to be angular
and poorly sorted. In some cases, their clay/silt matrix is believed to have been deposited along with
the larger grains, as in the heterogeneous mixture of particles found in turbidity currents; in others,
clay and silt appear to have been added to the rock by physical or chemical alteration of the original
minerals or by infiltration. Most graywackes are thought to be marine in origin.
Shales
An estimated one-half to three-fourths of the world's sedimentary rock is shale - a distinctive, fine-
grained, evenly bedded rock composed of silt and clay. Silt grains are similar to sand grains, but much
smaller 1/256 mm to 1/16 mm - and mostly invisible to the unaided eye. Clay particles are quite
different in composition and shape; they are microscopic, flat, plate-like crystals less than 1/256 mm
across. During compaction and lithification, these plates tend to become aligned in horizontal sheets.
As a result, most shale splits along well-developed planes parallel to, but not necessarily coinciding
with, bedding planes. One variety, mudstone, is an exception; it breaks into chunks or blocks.
Formed from fine sediments that settle out of suspension in still waters,
shale and mudstone occur in thick deposits over broad areas, often
interbedded with silt- stone, sandstone, or limestone. They vary widely in
color, with the darker colors often indicating higher proportions of organic
materials from the remains of plant and animal life. Petroleum geologists
believe organic shales to be the source of most of the world's petroleum and
natural gas. Shales also make excellent barriers to the migration of fluids
and therefore tend to trap pools of petroleum in adjacent porous rock.
EVAPORITES
Rocks formed by the precipitation of chemicals from solution are called evaporites. Deposits of
evaporites can form as the result of either the drying up of a body of water, such as a desert playa lake,
or continuous evaporation from a confined body of water that is continually replenished by inflowing
water. In the latter case, dissolved minerals become
supersaturated (so concentrated that they can no longer stay in
solution) and precipitate out to form deposits on the bottom.
Evaporites usually form in a distinct sequence, the least soluble
minerals precipitating first, the most soluble last. A typical
deposit would have gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and anhydrite
(CaSO4) at the bottom, followed by halite or rock salt (NaCl),
sodium bromide (NaBr), and potash (KCl).
Gypsum
Halite
CARBONATES
Most carbonate rocks are organically deposited - that is, formed as a direct result of biological activity.
Limestone and dolomite are the most common of these, making up about one-fourth of all sedimentary
rocks. Carbonate rocks are important to the petroleum industry; many of the giant reservoirs in the
Middle East are in limestone.
Limestone forms in warm, shallow seas. Most seawater is nearly saturated with dissolved calcite
(CaCO3); many marine organisms use this calcite to build their shells and skeletons. In shallow
tropical oceans, two factors favor the formation of limestone: (1) as water gets warmer, it loses some
of its ability to hold dissolved carbon dioxide, and (2) photosynthetic algae and other plants remove
CO2 from the water to produce carbohydrates. This loss of CO2 reduces the water's ability to hold
calcite in solution. Thus the calcareous remains of dead organisms do not dissolve as they would in
colder water. Instead, they accumulate in thick layers of lime mud and sand on the bottom, cemented
by additional calcite precipitated from solution. If coral is present, the skeletons of large colonies may
be engulfed in other calcareous debris.
Great sheets of limestone formed in past epeiric seas {most notably those of the Cretaceous period)
now extend across much of the world's land area. Their structures vary from mostly clastic to mostly
crystalline and from very porous (with many large openings) to very tight, depending upon where and
how they were formed and what has happened since. Most of the limestone has undergone extensive
alteration; diagenesis is especially common in limestone because it is more soluble than other
sedimentary rocks.
Some other rocks of biochemical origin are diatomite, an accumulation of the siliceous (glassy shells
of certain microscopic algae, which sometimes recrystallizes as flinty nodules of chert; phosphorite,
ORIGIN OF HYDROCARBONS
For most of their history, oil and natural gas were thought of as minerals, substances formed out of
nonliving rock, just as gold, sulfur, and salt were part of the rock. There was little reason to assume
otherwise. Although petroleum smelled like something that had died, and although natural gas burned
like swamp gas, most of the gas and oil escaping from the ground seemed to come from solid rock
deep beneath the surface, where, as everyone knew, nothing lived.
Beginning two centuries ago, however, the geologic insights of Hutton, Lyell, and other scientists
showed that the rocks in which oil was found were once loose sediment piling up in shallow coastal
waters where fish and algae and plankton and corals lived. Now it seemed possible that oil and gas had
something to do with the decay of dead organisms, just as coal, with its leaf and stem imprints, seemed
to be the fossilized remains of swamp plants.
Later advances in microscopy revealed that oil-producing and oil-bearing rocks often contain
fossilized creatures too small to be seen with the unaided eye. Chemists discovered that the carbon-
hydrogen ratios in petroleum are much like those in marine organisms and that certain complex
molecules are found in petroleum that are otherwise known to occur only in living cells. But it was the
fact that most source rocks could be shown to have originated in an environment rich with life that
clinched the organic theory of the origin of petroleum.
Unanswered questions about the occurrence of petroleum remain, and men of science still debate the
evidence of its organic origin. Because of the weight of that evidence, however, few scientists doubt
that most petroleum originates in the life and death of living things.
Chemical Factors
Petroleum is both simple and complex. It is composed almost entirely of carbon and hydrogen; but the
number of ways that carbon and hydrogen can combine is astronomical, and most petroleum contains
putalog
Hydrocarbon Chains
Biological Factors
Petroleum contains solar energy stored as chemical energy. Many steps are involved in the conversion
from the simple radiant energy of the sun to the complex molecules of hydrocarbons. Coastal waters,
rich with nutrients brought in by rivers and upwelling deep-sea currents, support an elaborate
community of organisms ranging from microscopic, single-celled plants and animals to large
predatory fish and mammals. Some of the smallest and simplest of these organisms perform the first
capture and conversion of the sun's radiant energy.
The bulk of the living matter in such biotic communities is in the form of microscopic or near-
microscopic simple organisms: protozoa (animals) and algae (plants). The algae are photosynthetic:
they can synthesize their own food, simple sugars and starches, out of water and car bon dioxide, using
the energy of sunlight. Other organisms consume the algae and convert the simple carbohydrates into
more complex foods, such as proteins and fats; still larger organisms, in turn, eat these.
Each level of the food chain contributes waste products, and every organism that is not eaten
eventually dies. In recycling this organic material, an important role is played by a diversity of
bacteria. The two principal types are those that live in aerobic (oxygenated) environments and derive
their energy by oxidizing organic matter and those that live in anaerobic (reducing) environments by
taking the oxygen from dissolved sulfates and organic fatty acids to produce sulfides (such as
hydrogen sulfide) and hydrocarbons. Although aerobic decay liberates certain hydrocarbons that some
small organisms accumulate within their bodies, the anaerobics are more important in the formation of
oil.
If the process of aerobic decomposition continues indefinitely, all organic matter, including
hydrocarbons, is converted into heat, water, and carbon dioxide - the raw materials that photosynthetic
plants use to make their carbohydrate food. For an accumulation of petroleum to be formed, the supply
of oxygen must be cut off. Most areas along the coast are well aerated by circulation, wind, and wave
action. In some areas, however, physical barriers such as reefs or shoals hinder aeration; and in deeper
waters far offshore, the water below a certain depth is similarly depleted of oxygen. Here organic
waste materials and dead organisms can sink to the bottom and be preserved in an anaerobic
environment instead of being decomposed by oxidizing bacteria. The accumulation and compaction of
impermeable clay along with the organic matter help seal it off from dissolved oxygen. Thus isolated,
it becomes the raw material that is transformed into petroleum by the heat and pressure of deeper
burial.
Even in areas with appreciable circulation and oxygenation, organic debris can accumulate so fast that
it is quickly buried beyond the reach of aerobic organisms. Locations where this is likely to occur
include salt marshes, tidal lagoons, river deltas, and parts of the continental shelf. Epeiric seas such as
those that covered much of North America during the Permian and other periods offered broad
stretches of warm, shallow water where, unstirred by ocean currents and tides, abundant organic debris
could accumulate in an anaerobic environment.
At 120 to 150F, certain chemical reactions that ordinarily proceed very slowly begin to occur much
more quickly. The organic matter trapped within the rock begins to change. Long-chain molecules are
broken into shorter chains; other molecules are reformed, gaining or losing hydrogen; and some short-
chain hydrocarbons are combined into longer chains and rings. The net result is that solid
hydrocarbons are converted into liquid and gas hydrocarbons. Thus the energy of the sun, converted to
chemical energy by plants, redistributed among all the creatures of the food chain, and preserved by
burial, is transformed into petroleum.
Source Rocks
Rock in which organic material has been converted into petroleum is called source rock. (Rock in
which petroleum accumulates is called reservoir rock). Generally, the best source rocks are shales rich
in organic matter deposited in an anaerobic marine environment. Often these are dark shales, although
the dark color can be caused by other substances. However, limestone, evaporites, and rocks formed
from freshwater sedimentary deposition also become source beds.
Some petroleum geologists think that heat and pressure alone can convert organic detritus to
petroleum; others disagree on the relative importance of algae, plankton, foraminifera, and larger
organisms in providing source organic material. It seems likely that petroleum is formed by a range of
processes from a supermarket of raw materials under a variety of conditions; this fact would help
account for the great chemical complexity of most petroleum and the variety of forms in which it
occurs.
HYDROCARBON MIGRATION
Like other formation fluids, oil and gas migrate. In some situations, they accumulate near where they
originate, sometimes within a few inches or feet of the source bed. In other places, the migration
covers many miles.
Because it is lighter than water and does not readily stay mixed with it, oil tends to separate from
water and float on top. Usually it moves as a diffuse scattering of suspended droplets, but it may reach
higher concentrations when its movement is impeded. Gas is usually present as well, either dissolved
in the oil or as a separate, distinct accumulation.
The term migration is used in two senses. Primary migration is the movement of hydrocarbons out of
the source rock - a journey of a fraction of an inch to several feet, rarely more. Secondary migration is
the subsequent movement through porous, permeable reservoir rock by which oil and gas become
concentrated in one locality.
Primary Migration
How does petroleum leave its source rock? Apparently both compaction and the flow of water are
involved. Petroleum comes from source beds deposited mostly on the seafloor, so it usually begins and
ends its travels in company with interstitial water-water found in the interstices, or pores, of the rock.
(Connate water, a more exact term, is water that was "born with" the rock-present when the rock was
formed.) Much more water than oil and gas is present underground.
As deposition continues at the surface, the growing weight of the overburden compresses the shale
into less and less space. However, it is not the solid mineral grains that are compressed, but the pore
spaces. Interstitial water is squeezed out, carrying droplets of oil in suspension and other hydrocarbons
in solution. Although the solubility of oil in water is negligible compared to that of gas, both are more
soluble under pressure.
Under compression, some rocks maintain their porosity and permeability better than others. Imagine
two adjacent rock layers, a clean arenite sandstone and a silty shale, gradually being buried beneath
thousands of feet of overburden. The sandstone will lose very little of its porosity because its relatively
spherical grains were closely packed when deposited as sediments and its pores are not clogged with
silt or clay. Such a sandstone might have an initial porosity of 35%, which would be reduced to 30% at
depth. Clay particles, on the other hand, are relatively irregular in shape and lithified in a loosely
packed arrangement. Under pressure these particles become better aligned and more closely packed,
like a pile of bricks rearranged to form a brick wall. Under the same compressive force as that on the
sandstone, shale porosity might decrease 60% to 35%. Fluids squeezed out of shale will therefore
collect in the adjacent sandstone, which retains more of its original porosity.
Saying that water flows through formations does not mean that it flows in underground rivers. Flow
can mean movement of a few inches a year, which can add up to many miles in a geologically short
time. What causes water to flow is a difference in fluid potential (which in some cases coincides with
fluid pressure). Just as a difference in electrical potential causes electricity to flow from a high-voltage
region to one of lower voltage, a difference in fluid potential causes water to move from a region of
high fluid potential to one of lower potential.
On the surface, unconfined water moving from a high-potential to a low-potential zone simply flows
downhill. In a municipal water system, however, water flows down from a high water tower, travels
horizontally through a water main, and rises again into hilltop houses and the upper stories of high
buildings. As long as its outlet is below the level of the water tower, water will flow uphill or down.
Potentiometric Example
Water confined in a porous, permeable formation behaves much the same as water in a pipeline. In the
figure below, water enters the formation at point A and exits at point E. A line drawn between these
two points defines the potentiometric surface. (This is not the same as the water table, which is the
upper surface of the underground water). A well drilled into the aquifer at B will fill to point F on the
potentiometric surface; an artesian well drilled to D will seek level H above ground. Water flowing
from A to E is flowing uphill from B to C and from D to E. It is not always flowing from high-pressure
to low-pressure areas. Although it is doing so from B to C, the flow from C to D is toward greater
hydrostatic pressure. The rate and direction of flow are the result of the difference in elevation
between points A and E.
Suspended oil droplets and dissolved gas are carried along in the flowing water. As oil saturation
increases, however, small droplets coalesce into larger ones, and the accumulating oil begins to behave
differently. Because of their buoyancy, large oil droplets tend to rise through water, often against a
moderate flow, and accumulate at the top.
Although often closely related, permeability and effective porosity are not the same. A rock with few
isolated pore spaces may have a very high effective porosity and yet be nearly impermeable because of
the narrowness of the connections between pores. Differences in capillarity (the ability of fluid to cling
to the grains) may make the permeability of a given rock relatively high for gas, lower for water, and
near zero for viscous oils.
Permeability can vary with direction of flow. Pore connections may be less numerous, narrower, or
less well aligned in one direction than another. In rocks formed from well-sorted beach sands, grains
that are not spherical are often aligned perpendicular to the beach. Stream channel sands are aligned in
the direction of stream flow and often contain horizontal sheets or stringers of less permeable clay.
Fluids move more easily through such rocks parallel to grain alignment or clay stringers than across
them (see figure below).
HYDROCARBON ACCUMULATION
Like water in a puddle, oil collects in places it cannot readily flow out of. Its movement ceases upon
reaching a structural high point or a zone of reduced permeability. As it accumulates, the mixture of
hydrocarbons and water differentiates into distinct zones of gas, oil, and water.
Trapping
The permeability of the formation that seals off a petroleum reservoir is never absolutely zero, but just
low enough to reduce the flow rate effectively to zero under reservoir conditions. Given enough
pressure and fluidity (as opposed to viscosity), hydrocarbons may seep into a tight formation that
under less extreme conditions would totally exclude them.
Effective permeability is the rock's permeability to a given fluid when another fluid is also present.
Water has seven times the ability of oil to cling to the grains of porous rock, so it tends to fill small
pores and keep oil out. In a petroleum reservoir, interstitial water is nearly always present. Clinging to
Relative permeability is the ratio of effective to absolute permeability. A rock that contains oil but no
water has a relative permeability of 1.0 for oil. Relative permeability of 0.0 means that water has filled
enough of the pore space to keep the oil from flowing. Higher fluid pressure may overcome the water's
resistance to the passage of oil and may increase the effective permeability of the formation by opening
tiny fractures across and along bedding planes.
A tight formation may keep fluids from leaving an underlying reservoir bed by preventing their
vertical migration. However, fluids may still migrate horizontally beneath the seal. For an
accumulation to form, petroleum fluids must encounter a trap, a geologic combination of
impermeability and structure that stops any further migration. The basic mechanisms involved can be
illustrated using as an example the anticline, the type of trap from which petroleum was first produced
in commercial quantities and in which most of the world's presently known reserves are located.
IMPERMEABLE SHALE
In the figure above, interstitial water with a small concentration of oil droplets and dissolved
hydrocarbons courses slowly through an undeformed horizontal sandstone beneath a layer of relatively
impermeable shale. The oil droplets, although swept along by the movement of the water, tend to
concentrate in the upper levels of the sandstone because of their buoyancy.
Suppose tectonic forces tilt these horizontal layers. If the tilt is upward in the direction of flow, the
situation is little changed; oil tends to rise updip, the same direction in which the water flows.
However, if the water flows downdip, the oil tends to rise against the flow of water.
Differentiation
With few exceptions, petroleum reservoirs are water-wet - that is, the oil is not in contact with the rock
grains because they are coated with a film of water. Most oil fields have 50% to 80% maximum oil
saturation. Above 80% oil saturation, the oil can be produced with very little water mixed in; below
10%, the oil is not recoverable.
TYPES OF TRAPS
The basic requirements for a petroleum reservoir are a source of hydrocarbons, a porous and
permeable rock formation through which hydrocarbons can migrate, and something to arrest the
migration and cause an accumulation. Although most of the known reservoirs are anticlinal, many
other geologic situations can cause hydrocarbons to accumulate.
Petroleum geologists have, for convenience, lumped hydrocarbon traps into two major groups:
structural, in which the trap is primarily the result of deformation of the rock strata; and stratigraphic,
in which the trap is a direct consequence of depositional variations that affect the reservoir formation
itself. Some geologists also include a third type - hydrodynamic traps, in which the major trapping
mechanism is the force of moving water. Most reservoirs have characteristics of more than one type.
STRUCTURAL TRAPS
Anticlines
Anticlinal reservoirs are created by tectonic deformation of flat-lying and parallel rock strata. The
basic anticlinal trap has already been described, and the syncline is not a noteworthy type of trap
because only under rare circumstances does it cause petroleum to accumulate.
Great horizontal stresses, such as those caused by the collision of two continental masses, may be
relieved through overthrust faulting. Blocks of the crust are shoved horizontally, sometimes many
miles, atop their counterparts, creating a double thickness (or more, in complex cases) of sedimentary
strata. The resulting flexures and faults can trap hydrocarbons in several ways. The crest of an
overthrust anticline, sometimes called a drag fold, can become a reservoir, as can the sheared-off
permeable rocks bent upward against the lower side of the fault. The Rocky Mountain Overthrust Belt
contains many such reservoirs.
STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS
Compared to anticlines and faults, traps that are the result of lateral discontinuity or changes in
permeability are difficult to detect. For this reason, stratigraphic traps were not well represented or
studied until long after many of the world's most productive structural oil fields had been discovered.
The search for stratigraphic traps has intensified in recent decades, but they still account for only a
minor part of the world's known petroleum reserves.
Shoestring Sand
Beach sand
The linear zone of sediments marking a
former coastline may form a series of
sandstone reservoirs. Unlike river sandbars,
grain orientation and direction of maximum
permeability are across the trend.
Information on facies changes is especially
Barrier Island useful in locating this type of reservoir.
Knowing that limestone and shale usually
form some distance offshore, the geologist
Lagoon
can determine the direction in which the
sediments become coarser and more
permeable. The coarsest, best-sorted, most
permeable sand is found in the shoreline
zone that was affected by wave action. It is
the most likely place to find oil, both because
of its porosity and permeability and because,
if tectonically undeformed, it is structurally
the highest part of the stratigraphic unit.
Lens Traps
Bioherm
Another type of stratigraphic trap is the reef. A wave-resistant accumulation of coral or shells serves as
an anchor for calcareous debris that forms limestone. If deeply submerged faster than it can accrete it
may become buried beneath marine shales. Such an isolated reef is called a bioherm. It may be porous
enough to hold large accumulations of hydrocarbons, especially if it has been dolomitized. Limestone
is especially vulnerable to dissolution by groundwater, particularly if raised above the water table.
Leaching by weak solutions of atmospheric carbon dioxide may form vugs (small voids) or caverns
(large voids) capable of containing hydrocarbons. Overlying deposits may be laid down in such a way
as to form a draped anticline, or compaction anticline - a structural feature that may also trap oil and
gas. Atolls (rings of coral islands), coral pinnacles, and other reef features are prolific oil producers.
The Horseshoe Atoll, a buried shell reef system in West Texas, contains one of the world's largest and
most prolific oil reservoirs.
Pinchout
Traps
Permeability changes
Diagenetic changes can create traps within formerly permeable rocks or can create reservoir areas
within formerly impermeable rocks. Minerals crystallizing out of circulating water between the grains
of a porous sandstone may reduce local permeability enough to form a barrier to hydrocarbon
migration. Alternatively, circulating water may increase permeability by leaching out cement or by
enlarging fissures and vugs in limestone, thereby increasing the potential for hydrocarbon
accumulation.
Disconformity
An unconformity along which the layers above and below are parallel is called a disconformity. The
disconformity may be parallel to the layers, representing a period during which deposition simply
ceased; or it may be irregular, indicating an episode of erosion. In the former case, the disconformity
may be difficult or impossible to distinguish from an ordinary bedding plane. Unless revealed by
correlation with nearby strata, a gap of thousands or millions of years of deposition may go
undetected.
Angular Unconformity
In an angular unconformity, the upper layers are not parallel
with the lower ones. Older layers have been tilted or folded,
eroded, then submerged for further deposition. An angular
unconformity separates Precambrian sedimentary rocks from
Paleozoic strata in parts of the Grand Canyon.
Nonconformity
A nonconformity is an unconformity in which sediments were
deposited on an eroded surface of igneous or metamorphic rock.
In this situation, the fundamental difference in character of the
rocks above and below is obvious. However, if the formation
Granite below is of banded metamorphic rock, the nonconformity may
superficially resemble an angular unconformity.
Combination Traps
Many petroleum traps have both stratigraphic and structural features. Some, in which both types of
characteristics are essential in trapping petroleum, are difficult to classify as either primarily structural
or primarily stratigraphic. For instance, originally horizontal formations that now pinch out updip can
trap hydrocarbons that might not otherwise have accumulated. Secondary porosity in a shattered
(brecciated) fault zone or anticlinal crest is a stratigraphic trapping mechanism caused by structural
deformation. Most hydrodynamic trapping depends partly upon formation structural features and often
upon stratigraphic variations within the reservoir formation.
Many types of petroleum traps are thus formed: a multi-layered dome on top, cut by faults; upturned
drag folds that terminate against impermeable salt; upturned pinchouts where compression and other
diagenetic changes have reduced permeability; and faults along the flanks. Oil may also collect
beneath the impermeable caprock or beneath the overhanging salt. The multiple possibilities for traps
and the high likelihood of finding petroleum have made salt domes popular places to drill.
Dome
Faults
Upturned
Pinchout
Flank
Trap
Drag Fold
Combination Traps
As an example of how the amount and character of hydrocarbon accumulation may change over both
time and space, consider the stair-step sequence of anticlines below. Water, with entrained oil and gas,
flows from left to right. At TIME 1, oil and gas are trapped in anticline A while "cleaned" water
continues through B and C. As more oil and gas accumulate, the trap fills and some of the oil spills out
into trap B. The gas, however, continues to accumulate in A until at TIME 2 it has displaced all the oil.
The process continues, as at TIME 3. Thus, the range of fluids produced by a well in any of these
structures depends upon the stage in its history.
An old trap may contain new oil - that is, oil that originated long after the trap was formed.
Conversely, a new trap may contain oil that is older than itself. Suppose that anticline D forms
between TIME 2 and TIME 3. The "old" oil spilling from anticlines A, B, and C can then accumulate
in the new trap, D.
TIME 1
TIME 2
TIME 3
Whether or not an accumulation of hydrocarbons is preserved depends upon many factors. Fissuring
or a sealing formation under bending stress; changes in porosity and permeability of limestone due to
leaching or dolomitization; excessive heat and pressure imposed on a reservoir beneath accumulating
sediments - these are a few of the many circumstances in which petroleum that was generated through
most of the history of the planet has failed to survive to the present. The oil and gas produced today
are only remnants of a much greater resource, most of which has disappeared.
Spared the effects of excessive heat and pressure, bacterial decomposition, diagenetic destruction, and
uplift and erosion, a pool of petroleum may endure for many millions of years. Most of the world's
known oil reserves are found in Mesozoic formations (65 to 225 million years old); smaller amounts
are found in Paleozoic rocks (up to ~ 500 million years old) or Cenozoic rocks (less than 65 million
years old).
Conclusion
The petroleum geologist's job is finding oil and gas that can be produced for commercial profit. Most
of what he needs to know in the performance of his duties is hidden beneath the surface. But he has
access to powerful tools and techniques for revealing the secrets of the earth's crust, and special ways
of analyzing this information that enable him to find the best places to drill exploratory wells and to
help his company make risk decisions. To the geologist's trained eye and mind, the same rocks that
hide the resource also provide subtle clues about its location.
Spring 2002
Calgary
4/2002
4/2002
Vertical Wells
Inclination Below 3o
Degrees
4/2002
1
Directional Wells
Slant
Build and
Hold
S-Curve
Extended
Reach
Horizontal
4/2002
4/2002
Surveying Measurements to
Determine Borehole Location
Inclination
Azimuth
Gravity Toolface
Magnetic Toolface
4/2002
2
Surveying Measurements
4/2002
Surveying Measurements
Measures Local Gravity
Typically Tri-
Tri-axial Packaging
ACCELEROMETER
ACCELERATION
TORQUER COIL
CHEMICALLY MILLED
HINGE
QUARTZ PROOF
MASS
LEAD SUPPORT POSTS
LOWER MAGNET
4/2002
Surveying Measurements
Measures Local Magnetic Field
Typically Tri-
Tri-axial Packaging
4/2002
3
The Earth
Earths Gravitational Field
The gravitational field (G) is primarily a function of:
Latitude (main factor)
Depth/Altitude: referenced to mean sea level (MSL)
Regional fluctuations in the density of the Earth
Earths crust
Mathematically:
g = G x m x Me / r2
g = attractive force
G = Universal Gravitational Constant
m = mass
Me = mass of the Earth
r = radius between centers
4/2002
Magnetic Fields
The Earth is a
Magnet
Positive &
Negative Poles
4/2002
Magnetic Fields
4/2002
4
Magnetic Field Strength
1 gamma = 1 Nanotesla = 1 x 10-9 Tesla
1 gauss = 1 oersted
4/2002
Earth
Earths Magnetic Field
Total Magnetic Field
Horizontal
Vertical
Magnetic Dip Angle
4/2002
East Dec is +
West Dec is -
4/2002
5
Magnetic Declination Angle
Zero Declination
Central Meridians
4/2002
Azimuth References
UTM
State Plane
Grid North
Gn = Tn Convergence
4/2002
Grid Systems
4/2002
6
Geographic Datum
NAD
GRS
WGS
Clarke
4/2002
UTM
Most commonly
used
4/2002
Map Projections
Lambert
4/2002
7
UTM Grid Zone
4/2002
4/2002
4/2002
8
Magnetic Declination Corrections
Magnetic Declination
Corrects from Mn to
Tn
4/2002
Magnetic Declination
Magnetic North
continues to move
4/2002
4/2002
9
The Geomagnetic Field
4/2002
4/2002
4/2002
10
The Geomagnetic Field
4/2002
Global Models
4/2002
Geomagnetic Software
4/2002
11
Magnetic Pole Movement
4/2002
Surveying Devices
4/2002
4/2002
12
Average Angle Calculation Method
4/2002
4/2002
4/2002
13
Comparison of Accuracy
Minimum Curvature most commonly used
4/2002
Vertical Projection
KOP
Build
Section
TVD Locked in
Section
Tangent
Vertical
Section
4/2002
Horizontal Projection
N
Closure
Latitude
Proposal
Direction
E
Departure
Vertical
Section
Calculated
on Proposal
Direction
4/2002
14
Closure and Vertical Section
4/2002
15
This page intentionally left blank.
DIRECTIONAL SURVEYING FUNDAMENTALS
Introduction to Directional Well Profiles
In the early days of drilling, no one worried about hole deviation. The objective was to get the well
drilled down, completed and producing as quickly as possible. Many drilling personnel assumed the
wells were straight - others simply did not care.
Subsequently, wells were deliberately drilled in some unknown direction. This began as a remedial
operation to solve a drilling problem - usually a fish or junk left in the hole. Today, with the advent of
tighter legal spacing requirements, better reservoir engineering modelling and drilling of multiple
wells from a single surface location, it has become very important to both control the wellbore
position during drilling and to relate the position of existing wellbores to lease boundaries, other wells,
etc.
The development of the skills and equipment necessary to direct these wellbores is the science of
directional drilling. Directional Drilling is the science of directing a wellbore along a predetermined
path called a trajectory to intersect a previously designated sub-surface target. Implicit in this
definition is the fact that both the direction and the deviation from vertical are controlled by the
directional driller from the surface.
Vertical Wells
The term straight hole loosely describes a borehole that a
drilling contractor has drilled vertically, from top to
bottom. In reality, practically all wellbores deviate from
the vertical. It is virtually impossible to drill a perfectly
straight hole. Drilling contracts recognize this fact and
allow a variation from the strict term. A better
description of modern drilling practices is controlled
deviation drilling because industry now accepts a straight
hole as one that meets two qualifications:
The hole stays within the boundary of a cone, as
designated by the operator in the deviation
clause of the contract. The total hole angle is
therefore restricted.
The hole does not change direction rapidly,
usually no more than 3 degrees per 100 ft (30 m)
of hole. The rate of hole angle changes is
therefore restricted.
Staying within these allowable parameters, the
contractors main objective is to deliver a straight and
usable hole to the specified depth. The usable borehole
should be full gauge, smooth, free of doglegs, keyseats,
ledges, offsets, and spirals that permit completion and
production operations that are free of trouble.
Slant
Specialized drilling and completion rigs are used on these profiles. The well is spudded at an angle
greater than 0o and less than or equal to 45o. This profile is typically used on shallow wells when
trying to reach a target with a horizontal displacement that is 50% or more of the TVD. It is also used
on multiple well pad sites to drain a large area with several wells radiating out from a central site. The
most common pattern is the star-shaped layout, which allows for as many as 27 wells to be drilled
from one site. The savings on reduced lease requirements and production facilities can be quite
substantial.
S-Curve
The S-curve has a build, hold and drop section that may or may not drop the inclination down to 0
degrees. This shape is for the following reasons:
Mathematically:
g = G x m x Me / r2
g = attractive force
G = Universal Gravitational Constant
m = mass
Me = mass of the Earth
r = radius between centres
Some of the changes in the measured value of G over the Earth are attributed to the Earths rotation.
The rotation has given the Earth a slightly flattened shape. Therefore, the equatorial radius is larger
than the polar radius. The G value changes from 0.997 at 0 degree latitude (Equator) to approximately
1.003 at 90 degree latitude (a 0.006 change).
A decrease in G can also be seen with increasing hole depth. The rate of change is approximately
0.0005 per 10,000 feet. You would have to be at 20,000 feet to see 0.001. Regional fluctuations in the
density of the Earths crust are practically negligible.
The two poles of a magnet act oppositely but with equal pole strength. It is not possible to separate or
extract either of these poles. To break a magnet is to immediately create two new magnets, each with a
positive pole and a negative pole. For this reason, we commonly use the word dipole to describe a
magnet.
Metals that are strongly attracted by magnets are said to be ferromagnetic. Such materials have
magnetism induced in them when they are near a magnet. If a piece of iron is brought near the south
pole of a magnet, the part of the iron nearest the magnet has a north pole induced in it, and the part
farthest away has a south pole induced in it. Once the iron is removed from the vicinity of the magnet,
it loses most of the induced magnetism. Some ferromagnetic metals actually retain the magnetism
induce in them, that is they become permanent magnets. Regular magnets and compass needles are
made of such metals. Ferromagnetism is also the basis of magnetic tape recording.
It is useful to employ the concept of a field to represent the effect of a magnet on the space around it. A
magnetic field is produced by a magnet and acts as the agent of the magnetic force. The poles of a
second magnet experience forces when in the magnetic field: its north pole has a force in the same
direction as the magnetic field, while its south pole has a force in the opposite direction. A compass
can be though of as a magnetic field detector because its needle will align itself with a magnetic field.
The shape of the magnetic field produced by a magnet can be mapped by noting the orientation of a
compass at various places nearby. Magnetic field lines can be drawn to show the shape of the field.
The direction of a field line at a particular place is the direction that the North Pole of a compass
needle will point.
Theory #1: Rotation of the Earths solid exterior relative to its liquid iron core is believed to induce a
slow rotation of the core. A magnetic field results from the electrical currents generated by the relative
motion between the liquid core and the mantle.
In any event it appears that some mechanism is stirring up the core and causing fluid motion. These
motions combine in a particular pattern to give rise to the dipole field, which is observed at the earths
surface.
The total magnetic field is the sum of two fields of different origins:
The principal field which originates within the fluid nucleus of the Earth
And
The transitory field, which is generated outside the Earth. This field is caused by the rotation
of the Earth relative to the Sun and by the cycles of the Suns activity.
The Earths own magnetic field extends out to approximately 8 times the radius of the planet. Beyond
this prevails the Magneto Pause, a region in space where the Earths magnetic field contacts the solar
wind. On its sunward side, the Earths magnetosphere is compressed by high- energy particles from
the solar wind.
These particles collide with the Earths magnetic field at a speed of 640 miles per second and are
slowed down at the shock front to 400 miles per second. Variations in the solar wind produce changes
in the Earths magnetic field. Solar flare particles reach the Earth in approximately two days. The
shock wave preceding the cloud of plasma from the solar flare compresses the magnetosphere and
rapidly intensifies the geomagnetic field at ground level.
1 gauss = 1 oersted
The magnetic field intensity recorded at ground level is of a much smaller magnitude than that
prevailing around the Earths core. At the periphery of the core (approximately 3500 kilometers
outward from the centre of the Earth), the field strength reaches 800,000 gammas. Extreme total field
values at the surface which you are unlikely to see range from 63,000 gammas close to the North Pole
to 27,000 gammas near the equator (magnetic field intensity is greater at the North Pole then the
equator).
The total magnetic field intensity is the vector sum of its horizontal component and its vertical
component. The vertical component of the magnetic field points toward the ground and therefore
contributes nothing to the determination of the direction of magnetic north.
The horizontal component of the magnetic field strength can be calculated from the following
equation:
For Alaska:
MWD instruments measure the three components of the magnetic field vector, H. The expected value
can be obtained from a previous acceptable survey or from a Geomagnetic software program.
Differences observed between the measured magnetic field strength value and the value from the
Geomagnetic software program may be due to:
Magnetic declination can vary and the total magnetic field strength may vary greatly during extreme
sun spot activity. Also, the closer to the equator:
All survey systems/plots are measured relative to True North (geographic north). Survey tool
measurements are made relative to Magnetic North (necessary to adjust for magnetic declination).
When dealing with magnetic survey bearing or azimuth values expressed between 0 and 360 degrees,
the magnetic declination is always added since the East or West value for the declination will adjust
itself. For example survey reads 120o and the magnetic declination is 20o West, corrected bearing is
120 + (-20) = 100o.
The confusion arises primarily from the necessity to change from one system to another between the
well planning phase, where most maps are drawn with respect to a local Grid North, and the drilling
phase where surveying is performed with respect to a Magnetic or True North reference. The field
company representative is faced with a confusing array of possible conversions, including declination
corrections from Magnetic North to True North, True North to Grid North, Magnetic to Grid North, or
Grid to Magnetic North. Is the correction to be added or subtracted from the survey measurement? Is
the convergence magnitude and sign correct
for the grid system used?
This project was more closely supervised than a normal directional well, yet it serves as a classic
example of how easily the relative relationships between coordinate systems can be poorly
communicated and inappropriately applied. The remainder of this paper will examine methods to
reduce these azimuth convergence errors by utilizing field experience and suggested communication
procedures between all involved parties.
Azimuth References
Azimuth, (AZ) used in directional drilling, may be
defined as the direction of the wellbore (at a given
point) projected into the horizontal plane measured
in a clockwise direction from Magnetic North, True
North or Grid North after applying a North
Reference system.
True or Geographic North is the horizontal direction from a point on the earths surface to the
geographic North Pole, which lien on the earths axis of rotation. The direction is shown on a globe by
meridians of longitude. True North i.e. normally symbolized on maps by a star at the tip of the arrow
or the letters TN.
Grid North is a reference system devised by map markers in the complicated task of transferring the
curved surface of the earth onto a flat sheet. The meridians of longitude on a globe converge toward
the North Pole and therefore do not produce a rectangular grid system. A map can be drawn such that
right angles to lines of latitude and passing through the poles are known as meridians of longitude or
simply meridians. One meridian is designated as the prime meridian. The prime meridian accepted by
the majority of the world runs through Greenwich, England, and is known as the Greenwich meridian.
The degree is symbolized by (0), the minute by (), and the second by (). Starting with 0 at the
equator, the parallels of latitude are numbered to 90 both north and south. The extremities are the
North Pole at 90 north latitude and the South Pole at 90 south latitude. Latitude can have the same
numerical value north or south of the equator, so the direction N or S must always be given. It can also
be further defined as Geographic/Geodetic or Geocentric Latitude.
Geodetic is the angle that a line perpendicular to the surface of the earth makes with the plane of the
equator. It is slightly greater in magnitude than the Geocentric latitude, except at the equator and poles
where it is the same due to the earths ellipsoidal shape. The Geocentric latitude is the angle made by a
line to the center of the earth at the equatorial plane.
Starting with 0 at the prime meridian, longitude is measured both east and west around the world.
Lines east of the prime meridian are numbered to 0 to +180 and identified as east longitude: lines
west of the prime meridian are numbered to 0 to -180 and identified as west longitude. The direction
E (+) or W (-) must always be given. The line directly opposite the prime meridian, 180, may be
referred to as either east or west longitude.
Geographic Datum
For most atlas maps and any directional drilling map, the
earth may be considered a sphere. Actually it more nearly
resembles an oblate ellipsoid flattened by approximately
one part in three hundred at the poles due to rotation. On
small-scale maps this oblateness is negligible. However,
different ellipsoids will produce slightly different
coordinates for the same point on the earth and therefore
warrant a brief summary.
Some characteristics normally considered in choosing a particular projection are: true shape of
physical features, equal area, true scale and size, great circles as straight lines, rhomb (compass point)
lines as straight lines, and correct angular
relationships. A map of relatively small size,
such as a directional well path, will closely
achieve most or all of these characteristics with
any method of projection.
The UTM divides the world into 60 equal zones (6 wide) between
latitude 84N and latitude 80S. Polar regions are normally covered
by a separate planer projection system known as Universal Polar
Stereo-graphic. Each of the 60 zones has its own origin at the
intersection of its central meridian and the equator. The grid is
identified in all 60 zones. Each grid is numbered, beginning with
zone 1 at the 180th Meridian, International Date Line, with zone
numbers increasing to the east. Most of the North America is
included in Zones 10-19. Each zone is flattened and a square grid
superimposed upon it.
Any point in the zone may be referenced by citing its zone number, its distance in meters from the
equator (northing) and its distance in meters from a north-south reference line (easting). These
three components: the zone number, easting and northing make up the complete UTM Grid Reference
for any point, and distinguish it from any other point on earth. The Figure below shows a zone, its
shape somewhat exaggerated, with its most important features. Note that when drawn on a flat map, its
outer edges are curves, (since they follow meridian lines on the globe), which are farther apart at the
equator than at the poles.
UTM zones are sometimes further divided into grid sectors although this is not essential for point
identification. These sectors are bounded by quadrangles formed every 8 in latitude both north and
south and are designated by letters starting with C at 80 South to X at 72 North, excluding I and O.
Dallas for example is in grid zone 14s
covering a quadrangle from 96 to 102W
and from 32 to 40N. Sectors may be
further divided into grid Squares of
100,000 meters on a side with double
letter designations including partial
squares of 10,000 meters, 1,000 meters
and 100 meters designated by numbers
and letters.
Since along the equator at their widest points, the zones somewhat exceed 600,000 meters from west
to east, easting values range from approximately 200,000 meters to approximately 800,000 meters at
the equator, with no negative values. The range of possible casting values narrows as the zones narrow
toward the poles. Northings for points north of the equator are measured directly in meters, beginning
with a value of zero at the equator and increasing to the north. To avoid negative northing values for
points south of the equator, the equator is
arbitrarily assigned a value of 10 million
meters, and points are measured with
decreasing, but positive, northing values
heading southward. Some maps, particularly in
the U.S., have converted UTM coordinates from
meters to feet.
This projection was first described by Lambert in 1772, but received little use until the First World
War where France revived it for battle maps. The features of this conic projection include:
Since there is no distortion at the parallels, it is possible to change the standard parallels to another
pair by changing the scale applied to the existing map and recalculating standards to fit the new scale.
Each state or area has its own standard parallels, or sets of the same depending on its size, to reduce
distortion at the center. For example, Louisiana is divided into three zones as shown in the Table
below.
Long. Lat.
North 31 10* N 32 40t N 92 301 w 30 401 N
South 29 18 3C 42* 91 201 28 40
Offshore 26 10 27 501 91 201 25 40
The grid origins for most states are measured in feet, with the east-west axis starting at 2,000,000 feet
and the north-south axis set at 0 feet.
Local Grid systems. There are numerous local grid systems in use around the world today. These
systems all have different base line coordinates and projections, covering different sizes of surface
areas, but all serve the same basic purpose as outlined for UTM and Lambert. In the U.S. lease lines
often are used as a convenient grid reference, as well as other privately surveyed grids. Outside the
U.S., local grids are used in Holland, the U.K., Brunei, Australia, and other countries. Several
countries have also shifted the starting of the UTM grid zones to fall inside their own territory.
In some situations when using standard grid coordinates, the wells target location may lie in a
different zone from the surface location. In these cases creating a nonstandard zone normally produces
a special local grid. This is done by either extending the surface location zone by a few miles to
include the target, or shifting the zone center, as sometimes is done with UTM, 3 to the zone
boundary.
The computation of the grid correction angle or angle of convergence will require special
mathematical techniques depending on the type of projection of the curved earths surface on to the
flat grid. The directional software packages will at minimum handle UTM and Lambert conformal
conic convergence. The chosen sign convention displays Grid North as x number of degrees east or
west of True North. For example, when you convert the geographic coordinates latitude N 30 00 00
and longitude W 95 00 00 to UTM coordinates (using the Hayford Inter-national - 1924 Ellipsoid),
the computer will display the following results:
UTM Coordinates:
Hemisphere = North
Zone = 15
Northing = 3320517.348
Easting = 307077.096
Grid Convergence = W 1 0 0
System Conversions
Once accurate magnetic declination and grid convergence angles are acquired, all that is needed to
change reference systems is to add or subtract these angles from one another. While this seems a
simple task, misunderstandings surrounding the relationship between these references can cause a
target to be missed. To avoid this confusion, declination/grid conversion polar diagrams should be
drawn on all maps and clearly defined on all survey printouts. With this in mind, the following
procedure is suggested:
True North azimuth will equal 90; Magnetic azimuth will equal 90 plus/minus declination; Grid
azimuth will equal 90 plus/minus grid convergence. With these three references it is a simple matter
to determine whether declination and/or convergence need to be added or subtracted to switch from
one system to the other.
Communication
Accurate communication, both written and oral, is the key to avoiding convergence errors. This
function can generally be divided into two or three groups depending on the size of the organization
and the complexity of the project.
The initial group will normally consist of seismic crews, geophysical and geology departments, who
will be responsible for developing structure maps and choosing targets with respect to a common
coordinate system. The next group might be land/hydrographic survey crews, geology, drilling
engineering, and a directional service company who might be responsible for developing well plans to
the proposed targets from selected surface locations. At this point the grid convergence and magnetic
declination angle should be computed, cross checked, and documented on the well prognosis and
directional maps using a polar grid convergence diagram. All groups should be in agreement with
these values before release to operations. The final group might consist of drilling engineering,
operations drilling foremen, and directional drillers who will be responsible for drilling the well to
Magnetic Declination
Many people are surprised to learn that a magnetic compass does not normally point to true north. In
fact, over most of the Earth it points at some angle east or west of true (geographic) north. The
direction in which the compass needle points is referred to as magnetic north, and the angle between
magnetic north and the true north direction is called magnetic declination. You will often hear the
terms "variation", "magnetic variation", or "compass variation" used in place of magnetic declination,
especially by mariners.
The geomagnetic field can be quantified as total intensity, vertical intensity, horizontal intensity,
inclination (dip) and declination. The total intensity is the total magnetic field strength, which ranges
from about 23 microteslas (equivalent to 23000 nanoteslas or gammas, or 0.23 oersteds or gauss)
around Sao Paulo, Brazil to 67 microteslas near the south magnetic pole near Antarctica.
If the compass needle points west of true north, this offset is designated as west declination. The world
standard, including in the southern hemisphere, is in reference to the magnetic north (MN) declination.
In the context of astronomy or celestial navigation, declination has a different meaning. Along with
right ascension, it describes the celestial coordinates of a star, etc.
If unlike poles attract, then why doesn't the north tip of a compass point magnetic south?
Should we be calling the north magnetic pole, the southern magnetic pole of the Earth, or should we
be referring to the south magnetized needle of the compass as pointing magnetic north? Neither. A
compass needle is a magnet and the north pole of any magnet is defined as the side which points
magnetic north when the magnet is freely suspended; its correct title is "north seeking pole," but it has
unfortunately been shortened to "north pole." Maps label the magnetic pole in the northern hemisphere
as the "North Magnetic Pole".
The cardinal points were defined long before the discovery that freely suspended magnets align to
magnetic north. When some curious person placed lodestone (magnetite) on wood floating on water,
or floated it directly on mercury, it was observed to align in a consistent direction, roughly pointing
north. The side of the lodestone that pointed magnetic north was called, naturally, the "north pole". But
that was before it was realized that like poles of magnets repel. So we must now make the distinction
that the real north pole is the Earth's north magnetic pole, and the poles of all magnets that (roughly)
point to it are north seeking poles.
Since magnetic field models such as the WMM, IGRF and CGRF are approximations to observed
data, a value of declination computed using either of them is likely to differ somewhat from the "true"
value at that location. It is generally agreed that the WMM and IGRF achieves an overall accuracy of
better than 1 in declination; the accuracy is better than this in densely surveyed areas such as Europe
and North America, and worse in oceanic areas such as the south Pacific. The accuracy of the CGRF,
in southern Canada, is about 0.5. The accuracy of all models decreases in the Arctic near the North
Magnetic Pole.
Magnetic field models are used to calculate magnetic declination by means of computer programs
such as the Magnetic Information Retrieval Program (MIRP), a software package developed by the
Geomagnetism Program of the Geological Survey of Canada. The user inputs the year, latitude and
longitude and MIRP calculates the declination. MIRP is able to compute values for any location on the
Earth in the time period 1960 to 2000. For locations within Canada, MIRP computes values using the
CGRF. Outside Canada, values are calculated using the IGRF.
Below is an example of a Geomagnetic software package used to calculate many magnetic parameters.
Inputs required for this example are Latitude, Longitude, Elevation, Date and Model.
Output we would normally use are Magnetic Field Strength (Incident Field), Magnetic Dip angle (Dip)
and Magnetic Declination (Dec).
Local anomalies originating in the upper mantle, crust, or surface, distort the WMM or IGRF
predictions. Ferromagnetic ore deposits; geological features, particularly of volcanic origin, such as
faults and lava beds; topographical features such as ridges, trenches, seamounts, and mountains;
ground that has been hit by lightning; downhole features such as casing, stuck bottom hole assemblies,
drill string and bottom hole assemblies can induce errors of three to four degrees.
Anomalous declination is the difference between the declination caused by the Earth's outer core and
the declination at the surface. It is illustrated on 1:126,720 scale Canadian topographic maps published
in the 1950's, which included a small inset isogonic map. On this series, it is common to observe a
four-degree declination change over 10 kilometers (6 miles), clearly showing local anomalies. There
exist places on Earth, where the field is completely vertical; where a compass attempts to point
straight up or down. This is the case, by definition, at the magnetic dip poles, but there are other
locations where extreme anomalies create the same effect. Around such a place, the needle on a
standard compass will drag so badly on the top or the bottom of the capsule, that it can never be
steadied; it will drift slowly and stop on inconsistent bearings. While traveling though a severely
anomalous region, the needle will swing to various directions.
A few areas with magnetic anomalies (there are thousands more):
North of Kingston, Ontario; 90 of anomalous declination.
Kingston Harbor, Ontario; 16.3 W to 15.5 E of anomalous declination over two kilometers
(1.2 miles); magnetite and ilmenite deposits.
Near Timmins, Ontario, W of Porcupine.
Savoff, Ontario (50.0 N, 85.0 W). Over 60 of anomalous declination.
Michipicoten Island in Lake Superior (47.7 N, 85.8 W); iron deposits.
Near the summit of Mt. Hale, New Hampshire (4000-foot, near the Zealand Falls hut on the
Appalachian Trail) ; old AMC Guides to the White Mountains used to warn against it.
Around Georgian Bay of Lake Huron.
Ramapo Mountains, N. E. New Jersey; iron ore; compass rendered useless in some areas.
Grants, NM north of Gila Wilderness area; Malpais lava flows; compass rendered useless.
In 1994, the average location of the north magnetic dip pole was located in the field by the Geological
Survey of Canada. This surveyed north magnetic dip pole was at 78.3 N, 104.0 W, and takes local
anomalies into consideration. However; the DGRF-90 modeled magnetic dip pole for 1994 was at
78.7 N, 104.7 W. The 47-kilometer (29 mile) difference illustrates the extent of the anomalous
influence. In addition to surveyed dip poles and modeled dip poles, a simplification of the field yields
geomagnetic dipole poles, which are where the poles would be if the field was a simple Earth-centered
dipole. Solar-terrestrial and magnetospheric scientists use these. In reality, the field is the sum of
several dipoles, each with a different orientation and intensity.
Altitude
(Negligible to 2 degrees)
Diurnal change
(negligible to 9 degrees)
The stream of ionized particles and electrons emanating from the Sun, known as solar wind, distorts
Earth's magnetic field. As it rotates, any location will be subject alternately to the lee side, then the
windward side of this stream of charged particles. This has the effect of moving the magnetic poles
around an ellipse several tens of kilometers in diameter, even during periods of steady solar wind
without gusts. The Geological Survey of Canada shows a map of this daily wander or diurnal motion
in 1994.
The resulting diurnal change in declination is negligible at tropical and temperate latitudes. For
example, Ottawa is subject to plus or minus 0.1 degree of distortion. However; in Resolute, 500
kilometers (300 miles) from the north magnetic pole, the diurnal change cycles through at least plus or
minus nine degrees of declination error. This error could conceivably be corrected, but both the time of
day and the date would have to be considered, as this effect also varies with seasons.
The influence of solar magnetic activity on the compass can best be described as a probability. The
chance that the declination will be deflected by two degrees in southern Canada over the entire 11-year
cycle is 1% per day. This implies about four disturbed days per year, but in practice these days tend to
be clustered in years of solar maxima. These probabilities drop off rapidly at lower latitudes. During
severe magnetic storms, compass needles at high latitudes have been observed swinging wildly.
At enormous pressures and low temperatures (as at the bottom of the sea), water and gas molecules
form gas hydrates. These compounds resemble ice but, unlike ordinary ice, the water molecules form
cages that trap gas molecules such as methane. The solid hydrates retain their stability until conditions,
such as higher temperatures or lower pressures, cause them to decompose. The gas may remain
trapped under silt, until an earthquake triggers a release.
This phenomenon is not restricted to the "Bermuda Triangle". The insurance statistics at the Lloyds of
London have not revealed an unusual number of sunken ships in the triangle.
For example, the approximate mean declination 1969 on the Trout River, Newfoundland map was 28
33' west with annual change decreasing 3.0'. This implies a recent (1997) value of:
28 33' - ((1997-1969) * 3.0) = 27 93' but IGRF 1995 for 1997 yields 23 44', which is 3 25' less,
showing that the 28-year prediction was in significant error.
The problem with grid north is that is coincident with true north only at the center line of each UTM
zone, known as central meridians. The difference between grid north and true north can be over two
degrees. This might not be so bad if it were not for the different conventions with respect to
declination diagrams adopted by different countries. A declination diagram on a topographic Canadian
map or an Australian map shows magnetic north with respect to grid north, but a US map shows
magnetic north with respect to true north. Therefore, if you use declination from a
Canadian/Australian style declination diagram, be sure to take bearings to and from the map by
making the meridian lines on the compass parallel with the UTM grid (grid north). However, if you
use declination from a USGS style declination diagram or any of the other sources below, you must
make the meridian lines on the compass parallel with the edges of the map (true north). Canadian maps
show a blue fine-lined UTM grid, while some USGS 1:24,000 scale maps show black grid lines, but
the others only show blue grid tick marks on the map margins. The choice of grid lines or tick marks
on the US maps seems inconsistent by year or by region.
A Brunton 9020 compass included a 1995 isogonic chart of North America, on a sheet copyrighted in
1992
The 1:1,000,000 scale series of World Aeronautical Charts include isogonic lines.
The McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology (1992 edition) provides a small world
chart under "geomagnetism."
The best is the 1:39,000,000 Magnetic Variation chart of "The Earth's Magnetic Field" series published
by the Defense Mapping Agency (USA). The 11th edition is based on magnetic epoch 1995.0 and
includes lines of annual change and country borders. Ask for Geophysical Data Chart stock No. 42
(DMA stock No. WOBZC42) at a National (USA) Ocean Service navigation chart sales agent or order
from the NOS Distribution Division, about US$10. Size: 1.26 X 0.9 meters (50" X 35"). It covers from
84 N to 70 S. North and south polar areas are on Geophysical Data Chart stock No. 43 (DMA stock
No. WOBZC43).
A 1:48,000,000 world declination chart of "The Magnetic Field of Earth" series is published by the
United States Geological Survey's Earth Sciences Information Center. However; the most recent
edition is still based on magnetic epoch 1990.0. It does include lines of annual change and country
borders. Look it up at a university map library or order GP-1004-D from the United States Geological
Survey. Only US$4.00 (+ US$3.50 for shipping and handling). Size 1.22 X 0.86 meters (48" X 34").
Includes polar regions at 1:68,000,000 scale. A United States declination chart is also published. Scale
1:5,000,000 (Alaska and Hawaii 1:3,500,000), epoch 1990.0, GP-1002-D, US$4.00 + US$3.50 S&H,
1.14 X 0.8 meters (45" X 34"), includes over 100 magnetic anomalies.
Declinometer/Inclinometer
A declinometer/inclinometer is sophisticated instrument makes precision measurements of declination
and inclination. It is used to calibrate compasses or to periodically calibrate continuously recording
variometers in magnetic observatories. The angle at which its electronic fluxgate magnetometer reads
a minimum value, is compared to a sighting through its optical theodolite. True north is determined by
sighting a true north reference target mounted some distance away, or is derived from celestial
navigation calculations on a sighting of the sun or another star.
A MSS can also record the orientation of the tool face. When the well is kicked off using a jetting
assembly or a downhole motor, the assembly can be orientated in the correct direction by running a
MSS to see the tool face azimuth, then the drillstring can be turned at the surface to correctly align the
tool face.
The totco and MSS surveys are routinely used while drilling with rotary assemblies. There are also
survey tools that allow surveys to be taken in "real time" and display the data to the driller. These are
called measurement while drilling (MWD) survey tools.
From the magnetic sensors we can learn inclination, azimuth, and tool face angles. From the gravity
sensors we can learn inclination and tool face angle.
The inclination and azimuth of the well bore at specific depths can be determined by one type of
survey called the single shot survey, while multiple shot surveys are used to record several
individual readings at required depth intervals. These magnetic survey instruments must be run inside
non-magnetic drill collars or open hole.
The instruments consist of four basic units; 1) a power pack or battery tube; 2) a timing device or
sensor; 3) a camera unit and 4) a compass - inclinometer unit.
These four elements are assembled together and usually inserted into a carefully spaced protective
barrel (running gear) before being lowered or dropped, inside the drill pipe, to bottom. The protective
casing can be thermally insulated for wells where the downhole temperature exceeds the tolerance of
the photographic film used or battery.
Power Pack
The size and number of batteries required varies with the instrument, as does their polarity. Care
should be taken to identify the correct polarity prior to loading batteries into the battery tube. Failure
to do so can lead to a mis-run survey, causing lost time while the survey is re-run. The battery tube
may have a snubber for use with top landing running gear.
Timer or Sensor
The timing device is used to operate the camera at a predetermined time. The Surveyor must estimate
the time it will take for the instrument to fall to bottom, whether lowered on wire line or dropped (go
devilled). The timers available today are either mechanical, or electronic. In the past, mechanical
timers have been considered more robust, although less accurate than the electronic timers. With
modern solid state electronics this is no longer true and mechanical timers are now rarely used.
Electronic timers allow the operator to preset the time delay on the instrument before loading it into
the running gear.
Problems arise when using either type of timer and are not necessarily due to instrument malfunction.
The most common problem results from timer miscalculation. If the time delay expires before the
instrument has seated inside the non-magnetic drill collar, the resulting survey will be invalid, affected
by motion and magnetic interference from the drill string.
Since it is quite difficult to accurately predict the time involved in lowering the instrument to bottom,
and anticipate problems with wire-line units or other surface equipment, the usual solution to this
problem is for the operator to overestimate the time required, just to be safe. This then results in
time lost waiting for the timer to expire with the instrument in place, as well as unnecessary risk of
stuck pipe resulting from not moving the drill string. The benefit of the timer is that it can be used
For Magnetic single shot surveys taken on wireline, timing devices are being replaced with electronic
sensors which detect either the lack of movement as with a motion sensor or more commonly, the
presence of non magnetic materials, as with a monel sensor.
The motion sensor detects when all motion has stopped for a given time (usually about thirty seconds),
before activating the camera unit. This system has several drawbacks; if the descent of the survey
instrument is interrupted for any reason below surface, a wireline problem for example, the motion
sensor will detect the loss of movement and fire the camera resulting in a mis-run. The motion sensor
is to some extent mechanical: it employs a movable element to detect motion and this may stick or
lose sensitivity again resulting in a mis-run. From a floating rig, the downhole movement of the drill
pipe imparted by the heave of the ocean, may affect a motion sensor, particularly at shallow depths.
A monel, or non-magnetic collar sensor, is not subject to these limitations. It senses the change in
the surrounding magnetic field as it enters the non-magnetic drill collar. Most monel sensors must be
in a non-magnetic environment for a set time, as a safety factor, usually from thirty seconds to one
minute before firing the camera unit. This serves to ensure that the instrument is actually seated in the
non-magnetic collar and allows the compass card and inclinometer in the angle unit to settle before the
picture is taken.
Camera
The magnetic single shot camera has three main components: the film disk seat, the lens assembly, and
the lamp assembly. Unlike normal cameras, the single shot camera unit has no shutter mechanism, the
exposure of the film is controlled instead by the timing of the light illumination. In most instruments,
the lens assembly comes pre-focussed and no field adjustments are necessary.
Perhaps the simplest inclinometer is one which that is used for measuring very low inclinations, the
bubble inclinometer. Somewhat like a round carpenters level, it is very sensitive to low inclinations
and is often used to survey vertical holes such as those drilled for conductor pipe where absolute
verticality can be critical. Just as simple, and using the same principle, is the low ball type
inclinometer, used not to measure inclination, but to identify the low side of the hole with a small
metal ball enabling the gravity tool-face of a deflection tool, such as a mud motor, to be measured in
an environment where magnetic interference precludes the use of conventional angle units. These are
the simplest but least used inclinometers as they apply only to special cases. The more commonly used
angle units fall into three basic categories:
To protect the magnetic single shot instrument when lowered or dropped into the wellbore a protective
casing is used. This protective casing protects the instrument while being retrieved or lowered and it
also prevents drilling fluid from contaminating the tool.
Gyroscopes
The industry began developing what is now most commonly referred to as rate-gyro surveying
systems in the late 1970s. The goal of the overall development was to adapt modem aerospace
guidance techniques for oil industry applications with the following objectives:
1. Provide a significant enhancement in survey accuracy.
2. Provide a means of quality assurance.
The existing surveying methods could not provide a reliable means of quality assurance for the level
of accuracy wanted by the industry. Wellbore survey technology can be classified into four groups, as
follows:
1. Inclination Only Device (Totco)
2. Magnetic-Based (film-based / electronic, single I multi-shot, MWD, steering tools, dip-meter)
3. Free-Gyro Systems (film-based/electronic)
4. Rate-Gyro Systems
The classic example of a natural occurring gyroscope is the planet Earth - a spinning mass attempting
to hold a particular orientation in space established long ago. Even the Earth is not a perfect gyro. It
reacts to external forces with some movement, or drift, off its orientation. Fortunately, the drift is very
small.
The next step in basic gyro understanding is the two-degree-of-freedom gyroscope, the same kind used
in the oil. Free-gyros have been used in wellbore surveying since the 1930s.
The frames supporting the gyroscope, and allowing this freedom of rotation are referred to as Gimbals.
Because gyroscopes can be extremely complicated, we will look at simplified gyroscopes initially, in
order to understand the forces working upon them.
The gimbals isolate the gyro from the base so the spinning mass can attempt to maintain its original
orientation no matter how the bass moves. As the probe moves downhole through different directions
and inclinations, the gimballing allows the gyro to attempt to maintain a horizontal orientation in
space.
The Gimballing System which is the structure carrying the spin motor. The gimballing system isolates
the spinning rotor from the gyro-case if the gyro-case turns around the outer gimbal axis or if the gyro-
case turns around the inner gimbal axis.
the ball bearings (or gimbal bearings) between the gyro-case and the outer gimbal, and
between the outer gimbal and the inner gimbal;
the rotor bearings holding the spinning rotor in the inner gimbal.
an Angular Pick-off which senses relative angular displacements between the gyro gimbal and
the case.
a Torquer which enables compensation for certain types of errors and precessing the gyro at
desired rates.
DIRECTIONAL SENSORS
The Directional Sensor is made up of electronic printed circuit boards, a Tensor Tri-Axial
Magnetometer and a Tensor Tri-Axial Accelerometers, and Temperature sensor. These modules are
configured into a directional probe and are run in the field mounted in a nonmagnetic drill collar. The
Directional Sensor provides measurements which are used to determine the orientation of the drill
string at the location of the sensor assembly.
The Directional Sensor measures three orthogonal axis of magnetic bearing, three orthogonal axis of
inclination and instrument temperature. These measurements are processed and transmitted by the
pulser to the surface. The surface computer then uses this data to calculate parameters such as
inclination, azimuth, high-side toolface, and magnetic toolface.
The sensor axes are not perfectly orthogonal and are not perfectly aligned, therefore, compensation of
the measured values for known misalignments are required in order to provide perfectly orthogonal
values. The exact electronic sensitivity, scale factor and bias, for each sensor axis is uniquely a
function of the local sensor temperature. Therefore, the raw sensor outputs must be adjusted for
thermal effects on bias and scale factor. Orthogonal misalignment angles are used with the thermally
compensated bias and scale factors to determine the compensated sensor values required for
computation of precise directional parameters.
The microprocessor provides the control and timing to interface the logic circuit controls the analog
power switch. With the analog power switch off only the 5 volt circuits are active and the current drain
from the sub bus is approximately 8 milliamps. When the logic board switches on the analog power
switch, battery power is directed to the 12 volt regulator on the analog circuit. The current drain with
the analog power switch on and the sensors off is approximately 80 milliamps. With the
accelerometers powered up the current drain is approximately 120 milliamps. With the magnetometer
powered up the current drain is approximately 140 milliamps.
Analog Circuit
The Analog Circuit provides an interface with the inclinometer, magnetometer, and pressure
transducer sensors. The 16 channel multiplexer on the analog circuit takes input from various sensor
outputs and sends the data to the logic circuit for transmission. A sensor power switch takes power
from the 12 volt regulator and selectively powers up the accelerometers and magnetometers. A 5 volt
excitation supply from the 12 volt regulator is used to power the pressure transducer. The status
voltages appear on the surface probe test and are defined as follows:
Tensor Inclinometer
The TENSOR Tri-axial Accelerometer measures three orthogonal axes of inclination (A, B, and C)
and also includes a temperature sensor. The inclinometer has a 1g full scale output in survey mode.
The sensor operates within the following parameters:
The amount of current required to restore the proof mass to its original position is a function of the
amount of force applied to the accelerometer. Force is related to acceleration by F = ma. We measure
the acceleration of gravity in g's (gravity units) in three orthogonal directions relative to the
Directional Sensor probe. This allows us to calculate the inclination of the tool relative to vertical.
Tensor Magnetometer
The Tensor Tri-axial Magnetometer measures three orthogonal axes of magnetic bearing (Bx, By, and
Bz) as well as temperature. The Tensor Model 7002MK Magnetometer has an output operating range
of plus and minus 100,000 nanotesla (the earth's field is about 50,000 nanotesla) and operates within
these parameters:
The Tensor magnetometer is a saturable core device. It consists of two coils with a core between them
which has a certain magnetic permeability. A magnetic field produced by one coil travels through the
core and induces a current in the other coil. The core will only transmit a certain amount of magnetic
field, that is , when the level of magnetic flux gets to a certain point the core will become saturated and
In the tri-axial set of magnetometers, the three flux gate channels and temperature channel are supplied
power conditioned by a common pair of internal regulators. The individual magnetometer transducers
come in biaxial sets. The magnetometer package contains two biaxial magnetometers, of which only
three axes are used. The sub bus around the magnetometer requires particular attention because the
current through the sub bus is alternating current, any change in that current will produce a magnetic
field that can affect the magnetometer.
Gyroscopic Measurement
A gyroscopic compass is used when magnetic surveying instruments cannot be used because of the
magnetic interference of nearby casing or when a borehole with casing already set is being surveyed.
There are various kinds of gyroscopic instruments: single- and multishot gyroscopes, the surface-
recording gyroscope, the rate or north-seeking gyroscope, and the Ferranti tool (a highly precise,
inertial guidance tool similar to that used on modern commercial aircraft). Of the gyroscopic
instruments used for surveying cased bore- holes, the multishot is the most common.
In a complete gyroscope assembly, the upper part of the tool holds the batteries, camera assembly, and
multishot clock. The lower part of the tool contains the inclinometer, the Cardan-suspended gyroscope
motor, electronic components for the gyroscope, and the shock absorber.
The gyroscope compensates for the gravitational and frictional forces caused by the bearings by
rotating about its vertical axis in a direction commensurate with the right or left side of the downward
force on the horizontal gimbal axis. The amount of this rotation determines the accuracy of the
gyroscope. The tilt of the horizontal gimbal is corrected by a sensor that detects any departure of the
gyroscope from the horizontal axis and sends a signal to a servo motor. This corrects the gyroscope by
rotating the vertical axis until the horizontal axis is properly adjusted. The gyroscope is not as rugged
as the magnetic instrument and must be handled more carefully. Unlike the magnetic tools, the
gyroscope must be run on a wireline. When it is run, the survey stations usually are made going into
the hole with a few check shots coming out; this is done mainly to make accounting for drift easier .
Target Size
Small targets of 5m radius (15) can be very difficult to reach with single shot (SS) equipment
although many wells with targets of this size have been drilled with SS. The main concern lies within
the estimation of the PDMs reactive torque. An error made in this estimation can have a significant
affect on the azimuth of the well and result in missing the target to the left or right. When slide drilling
the tool face can change and unlike when drilling with MWD would not be known until the next
survey.
Well Depth
This is very are dependent but typically in Canada once the depth exceeds 1,000m (3,000) the ability
to adjust for reactive torque is too difficult.
Drilling Fluid
With underbalanced drilling operations the mud pulse survey equipment can not be used since they
depend upon accurate pressure pulses read at surface. The signal in two-phase fluids can not be read
due to the fluid compression and noise. This can be the same problem in aerated or poorly maintained
drilling fluids. Either the EM MWD or steering tools are used in these cases.
Rig Equipment
Sometimes the only rig available for the job has 3 or smaller drill pipe (sometimes completion rigs
are used). Although SS equipment has been used to drill directional wells with this limber of
equipment, it is important to have a very experienced SS directional hand (few around anymore) who
can accurately estimate the reactive torque. Duplex pumps can also create many signal detection
problems with the mud pulse MWD equipment due to pump noise.
Terminal Angle
As the inclination increases the time it takes to drop a SS survey increases. Typically with inclinations
greater than 40o it becomes more cost effective to look at MWD equipment. Typically for a well that is
at 40o and 300m (1,000) deep the survey time for SS is in excess of 30 to 45 minutes. This can have a
significant impact on the average ROP for the day.
Formations
In every geographical area of the world, there are certain problem formations that either dont build as
expected or will collapse if left open too long. These are not good places to use single shot equipment
due to higher potential for severe doglegs and the extra time taken for surveys with the drill string in a
static mode.
There are several methods that can be used to calculate the survey data, however, some are more
accurate than others. Some of the most common methods are:
Tangential
Balanced Tangential
Average Angle
Radius of Curvature and
Minimum Curvature
The tangential method is the least accurate with the radius of curvature and minimum curvature
methods being the most accurate. The industry typically uses minimum curvature for these
calculations but may use radius of curvature for planning.
Tangential
At one time the tangential method was the most widely used because it was the easiest. The equations
are relatively simple, and the calculations can be performed easily in the field. Unfortunately, the
tangential method is the least accurate method and results in errors greater than all the other methods.
The tangential method should not be used to calculate directional surveys. It is only presented here to
prove a point.
The tangential method assumes the wellbore course is tangential to the lower survey station, and the
wellbore course is a straight line. Because of the straight-line assumption, the tangential method yields
a larger value of horizontal departure and a smaller value of vertical displacement when the inclination
is increasing. This is graphically represented in the illustration of the Tangential Calculation Method
below. Line AI2 is the assumed wellbore course. The dashed line AB is the change in true vertical
depth and the dashed line BI2 is the departure in the horizontal direction. The opposite is true when the
inclination is decreasing. With the tangential method, the greater the build or drop rate, the greater the
error. Also, the distance between surveys has an effect on the quantity of the error. If survey intervals
were 10 feet or less, the error would be acceptable. The added expense of surveying every 10 feet
prohibits using the tangential method for calculating the wellbore course especially when more
accurate methods are available.
Tangential Equations
TVD = MD X CosI2
North = MD X SinI2 X CosA2
East = MD X SinI2 X SinA2
Both the upper and lower portions of the assumed wellbore course are in error, but the errors are
opposite and will nearly cancel each other. Therefore, the balanced tangential method is accurate
enough for field applications. The balanced tangential equations are more difficult to perform and are
more likely to result in an error because of mechanical mistakes while making the calculations.
The North-South, East-West coordinates are determined by assuming the horizontal departure of the
course length is in the same direction as the azimuth recorded at the lower survey station, but this
assumption is wrong. The actual wellbore course will be a function of the upper and lower survey
stations. Therefore, the tangential
method results in an additional
error because an error already
exists due to the method used to
calculate the horizontal departure.
The error is compounded when
the North-South, East-West
coordinates are calculated.
Average Angle
When using the average angle method, the inclination and azimuth at the lower and upper survey
stations are mathematically averaged, and then the wellbore course is assumed to be tangential to the
average inclination and azimuth. The calculations are very similar to the tangential method and the
results are as accurate as the balanced tangential method. Since the average angle method is both fairly
accurate and easy to calculate, it is the method that can be used in the field if a programmable
calculator or computer is not available. The error will be small and well within the accuracy needed in
the field provided the distance between surveys is not too great. The average angle method is
graphically illustrated in the following figure.
Radius of Curvature
The radius of curvature method is currently considered to be one of the most accurate methods
available. The method assumes the wellbore course is a smooth curve between the upper and lower
survey stations. The curvature of the arc is determined by the survey inclinations and azimuths at the
upper and lower survey stations as shown below. The length of the arc between I1 and I2 is the
measured depth between surveys. In the previous methods, the wellbore course was assumed to be one
or two straight lines between the upper and lower survey points. The curvature of the wellbore course
assumed by the radius of curvature method will more closely approximate the actual well; therefore, it
is more accurate. Unfortunately, the equations are complicated and are not easily calculated in the field
without a programmable calculator or computer.
A closer inspection of the radius of curvature equations show that if the inclination or azimuth are
equal for both survey points, a division by zero will result in an error. In this case, the minimum
curvature or average angle methods can be used to make the calculations. It is also possible to add a
small number (such as 1 x 10-4) to either survey point. The resulting error will be insignificant.
Generally, the radius of curvature calculations is used when planning a well. Using one of the three
previous methods to plan a well will result in substantial errors when calculating over long intervals
The balanced tangential calculations assume the wellbore course is along the line 11A + AI2. The
calculation of the ratio factor changes the wellbore course to I1B + BI2 which is the arc of the angle B.
This is mathematically equivalent to the radius of curvature for a change in inclination only.
So long as there are no changes in the wellbore azimuth, the radius of curvature and minimum
curvature equations will yield the same results. If there is a change in the azimuth, there can be a
difference in the calculations. The minimum curvature calculations assume a curvature that is the
shortest path for the wellbore to incorporate both surveys. At low inclinations with large changes in
azimuth, the shortest path may also involve dropping inclination as well as turning. The minimum
curvature equations do not treat the change in inclination and azimuth separately.
The tangential and average angle methods treat the inclination and azimuth separately. Therefore,
larger horizontal displacements will be calculated. The radius of curvature method assumes the well
must stay within the survey inclinations and will also yield a larger horizontal displacement though not
as large as the tangential and average angle.
The minimum curvature equations are more complex than the radius of curvature equations but are
more tolerant. Minimum curvature has no problem with the change in azimuth or inclination being
equal to zero. When the wellbore changes from the northeast quadrant to the northwest quadrant, no
adjustments have to be made. The radius of curvature method requires adjustments. If the previous
survey azimuth is 10o and the next survey is 355o, the well walked left 15o. The radius of curvature
equations assume the well walked right 345o which is not true. One of the two survey azimuths must
be changed. The lower survey can be changed from 355o to 5o, then the radius of curvature will
calculate the correct coordinates.
Table 1 shows survey data used to illustrate the difference in the calculation methods. Table 2 and 3 is
a summary of the results.
Target
The target, or objective, is the theoretical, subsurface point or points at which the wellbore is aimed. In
the majority of cases it will be defined by someone other than the directional driller. Usually this will
be a geologist, a reservoir engineer or a production engineer. They will often define the target in terms
Some care should be taken with target definition. Any target can be reached - given enough time,
money and effort but the economics of drilling dictate the use of as large a target as possible.
1. Circular
2. Bounded
A circular, square or rectangular shape with at least one side fixed by a physical constraint e.g.
a fault, a formation change (salt dome), legal boundary etc.
3. Angle at Depth
When targets are defined the directional driller must also know the true vertical depth at which the
target applies. In some cases this depth may not be available within several hundred meters and could
be specified as the wellbore intercept of a given formation top. This top of target would almost
certainly preclude the use of Build and Hold wells and require use of "S" shaped wellbores.
Target Displacement
Target displacement is defined as the horizontal distance from the surface location to centre of the
target in a straight line. This is also the directional summation of the departure (the due East or West
displacement) and the latitude (the due North or South displacement).
The target bearings are a measure of the direction in degrees, minutes and seconds (or decimals) and
typically expressed with reference to well centre.
Build Rate
The change in inclination per measured length drilled (typically o/100 or o/30 m). The build rate is
achieved through the use of a deflection tool (positive displacement motor with a built in adjustable
housing or purposefully designed stabilized bottomhole assembly).
Build Up Section
This is the part of the hole where the vertical angle is increased at a certain rate, depending on the
formations and drilling assembly used. During the Build Up the drift angle and direction are constantly
checked in order to see whether a course correction or change in build rate is required. This part of the
hole is the most critical to assure the desired wellpath is maintained and the final target is reached.
Tangent
This section, also called the Hold Section, is a straight portion of the hole drilled with the maximum
angle required to reach the target. Subtle course changes may be made in this section.
Many extended reach drilling projects have been successfully completed at inclinations up to 80o,
exposing much more reservoir surface area and reaching multiple targets. However, inclination angles
over 65o may result in excessive torque and drag on the drill string and present hole cleaning, logging,
casing, cementing and production problems. These problems can all be overcome with today's
technology, but should be avoided whenever there is an economic alternative.
Experience over the years has been that directional control problems are aggravated when the tangent
inclination is less than 15o. This is because there is more of a tendency for bit walk to occur, i.e.,
change in azimuth, so more time is spent keeping the well on course. To summarise, most run-of-the-
mill directional wells are still planned with inclinations in the range 15o - 60o whenever possible.
Drop Section
In S-type holes, the drop section is where the drift angle is dropped down to a lower inclination or in
some cases vertical at a defined rate. Once this is accomplished the well is rotary drilled to TD with
surveys taken every 50m (150).
The optimum drop rate is between 1o- 2 degree per 30m and is selected mainly with regard to the
ease of running casing and the avoidance of completion and production problems.
Course Length
This course length is the actual distance drilled by the well bore from one point to the next as
measured. The summation of all the course lengths is Measured Depth of the well. The term is usually
used as a distance reference between survey points.
Vertical Section
The Vertical Section of a well is dependent upon the bearing or azimuth of interest. It is the horizontal
displacement of the well path projected at 90o to the desired bearing.
Lead Angle
Since roller cone bits used with rotary assemblies tend to "walk to the right", the wells were generally
kicked off in a direction several degrees to the left of the target direction. In extreme cases the lead
angles could be as large as 40o.
The greatly increased use of steerable motors, changes in conventional rock bit design and the
widespread use of PDC bits for rotary drilling have drastically reduced the need for wells to be given a
"lead angle". Most wells today are deliberately kicked off with no lead angle, i.e., in the target
direction.
Doglegs
Doglegs or sudden changes in hole angle or hole direction were recognized as a major potential
problem by the pioneers of the drilling business. When it was possible to determine that a rapid change
in angle had occurred, their solution was automatic-plug back and start over. Perhaps it is well that
detection procedures were not highly defined or else a hole may never have reached total depth.
Modern surveying techniques indicate that no hole is perfectly vertical. Any hole has a tendency to
spiral. In fact, some holes surveyed made three complete circles in 30m (100 feet). Spiraling is
reduced as the deviation from vertical increases. The maximum spiraling occurs at angles less than 30o
from vertical. At angles greater than 50o from vertical, the hole may move in a wide arc, but spiraling
is almost non-existent.
Doglegs are a major factor in many of our more severe drilling problems. Doglegging should be
suspected when the following problems are encountered: (1) unable to log, (2) unable to run pipe, (3)
key seating, (4) excessive casing wear, (5) excessive wear on drill pipe and collars, (6) excessive drag,
(7) fatigue failures of drill pipe and collars, and or (8) excessive wear on production equipment.
Dogleg Severity
The previous sections have talked about some of the problems with doglegs but how do we define and
calculate the value. Dogleg is a measure of the amount of change in inclination, and/or azimuth of a
wellbore, usually expressed in degrees per 30m (or 100) of course length. All directional wells have
changes in the wellbore course and therefore have some doglegs. The dogleg severity is low if the
changes in inclination and/or azimuth are small or occur over a long interval of course length. The
severity is high when the inclination and/or azimuth changes quickly or occur over a short interval of
course length.
The effect on dogleg severity with a change in azimuth is not easy to understand or calculate. A 3o
change in azimuth over 30 meters will not yield a 3 o/30m dogleg severity unless the inclination is at
90o. At low inclinations a change in azimuth will have a small dogleg severity. As the inclination
increases, the dogleg severity for the small azimuth change will increase. The following equation is
used to calculate dogleg severity using both inclination and azimuth:
The following table compares the dogleg severity at different inclinations for similar changes in
azimuth:
1 100 15 100
2 130 15 123 6.0
1 100 45 100
2 130 45 123 16.0
When defining closure, the direction or azimuth must also be given. Without indicating direction, the
bottom hole location projected in a horizontal plane could be anywhere along the circumference of a
circle defined by a radius equal to the closure distance. The azimuth and closure distance accurately
specifies the bottom hole location relation to the surface location.
Spring 2002
Calgary
4/2002
4/2002
Gyro Errors
Drift Drift
Shock North Pole 360o 24/hrs
Bearing wear Equator - 0o 24/hrs
Temperature
Expansion of material
lntercardinal Tilt Error or
Gimbal Error
Angular motion vs. Actual
motion as Inclination
Increases
4/2002
1
Borehole Measurements
4/2002
Borehole Measurements
2 2 1/2
INC = ATAN ((Gx + Gy ) / Gz)
Gz) this does not work above 90o
4/2002
2 2 2 1/2
Btotal = (Bx + By +Bz )
(Bx * Gx)
Gx) + (By * Gy)Gy) + (Bz
(Bz * Gz)
Gz)
MDIP = ASIN {----------------------------------------------
{----------------------------------------------}}
Gtotal * Btotal
4/2002
2
Sources of Azimuth Errors
Inclination is incorrect
Highside Toolface is incorrect
Mathematical Error
Magnetic Interference
Sensor Accuracy
Geographic/Directional Small Horizontal
Magnetic Field
Wrong Declination
4/2002
4/2002
4/2002
3
Directional Sensor Package Spacing
Non-
Non-Mag Spacing is used to minimize Drillstring
Magnetic interference
4/2002
Fluctuations
Secular
Variations
Diurnal Solar
Variations
Magnetic Storms
4/2002
4/2002
4
Solar Activity
4/2002
-5.00
250 dBz (nT) error
Degrees Azimuth Error
-4.00 Bt = 59000
Dip = 75
-3.00
-2.00
-1.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Inclination (10 - 90 Degrees)
4/2002
-5.00
500 dBz (nT) error
Degrees Azimuth Error
-4.00 Bt = 59000
Dip = 75
-3.00
-2.00
-1.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Inclination (10 - 90 Degrees)
4/2002
5
Azimuth Error - Magnetic
-5.00
1000 dBz (nT) error
Degrees Azimuth Error
-4.00 Bt = 59000
Dip = 75
-3.00
-2.00
-1.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Inclination (10 - 90 Degrees)
4/2002
-5.00
2000 dBz (nT) error
Degrees Azimuth Error
-4.00 Bt = 59000
Dip = 75
-3.00
-2.00
-1.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Inclination (10 - 90 Degrees)
4/2002
Bt (total
450 nT in 2 hours Field)
Dip
0.70 Dip in 2 hours (Inc)
30.00
29.00
28.00 Declination
from True
2.65 degrees in 2 North
hours
4/2002
6
SURVEY ACCURACY AND QUALITY CONTROL
To achieve a high range of accuracy and devise a means of assuring it, is a significant, difficult, and
expensive task. For simplicitys sake, lets say the accuracy goal is one foot per 1,000 feet of hole.
This means that in a 10,000 foot wellbore survey, the operator is to be assured of bottom-hole location
by plus or minus 10 feet.
Although other survey technologies (magnetic and free-gyro) may achieve this range of accuracy some
percentage of the time, they have no available means of quality control to assure it. In the case of
magnetics, although the technology has seen much improvement, error variables such as magnetic
interference, declination corrections, northern latitudes, even sun spot activity pose difficult quality
control problems. The free-gyros major error sources are surface orientation, gyro drift and tool
misalignment.
No film-based survey device has an opportunity to achieve this level of accuracy with assurance
because the film cannot be read to the accuracy required. To get in the range of one foot per l,000 feet
requires azimuth and inclination accuracys in the range of 0.1 and 0.05 degrees, respectively. Very
often, the terms accuracy and resolution of readings are confused. A survey system may be able to read
survey data to 0.1 degree - thats resolution, but providing that level of precision is a completely
different matter.
Modern aerospace guidance techniques employing rate-gyros and accelerometers provide the only
current means of both providing this range of survey accuracy and qualifying the information. These
systems can accomplish this through extensive quality control procedures because rate-gyros and
accelerometers can be calibrated for a level of performance and monitored and checked for data
quality.
However, the accuracy of available systems varies. Reviewing a service companys procedures for
quality control and data verification is important to assigning a specification to a particular system.
Rate-gyro and accelerometer quality also varies in its ability to achieve accuracy, and running
procedures can also degrade survey quality. For example, if a survey probe is misaligned in the well,
accurate readings degrade in the overall survey calculation. Rate-gyro system accuracys can also vary
according to inclination and latitude. Some systems degrade, for example, above 75 degrees of latitude
because the Earth and gravity vectors become smaller and more difficult to resolve.
GYRO ERRORS
External Forces
In the case of a free-gyro survey system, forces causing the gyro to drift off its surface orientation lead
to azimuth error. Typical causes for drift include system shocks, bearing wear and the one inescapable
force - Earth rotation. During a free-gyro survey, attempts are made to monitor drift and correct for it.
Drift
The apparent drift of a gyro is caused by the influence of the Earths rotation. If a perfectly balanced
gyro were located at the North Pole in a horizontal position, so that its axis of rotation would be at
right angles to the earth axis, the rotation of the earth would indicate an apparent 360o turn of the axis
in 24 hours, or an apparent drift of 15o per hour. At the South Pole, the same would be observed but in
reversed direction.
Temperature
Warming of the gyro can cause slight dislocations of the centre of gravity due to the varying expansion
coefficients of the different materials, such as copper and steel. Possible errors caused by rising
temperature are compensated by a piece of bimetal which is mounted on the inner gimbal frame and
offsets sufficiently the unbalance caused by temperature through a bending effect.
In order to minimize such errors, when the surface orientation is carried out, the spin rotor axis should
eventually be positioned in a plane parallel to the overall well direction anticipated, so as to result in a
difference as little as possible.
SURVEY ACCURACY
The first paper that successfully dealt with this subject was prepared by Wolf and de Wardt, Borehole
Position Uncertainty Analysis of Measuring Methods and Derivation of Systematic Error Model.
The latest paper released is a summary of work completed by a small joint-industry group and a
steering committee on wellbore survey accuracy Accuracy Prediction for Directional MWD, SPE
#56702. This section summaries some of the main points from these papers on sources of error with
examples.
The photographic single shot instrument is the least accurate tool. The inclination error can be as great
as 0.5 degrees and 2.0 degrees in azimuth and is very susceptible to human reading error. The
electronic single shots have essentially the same accuracy as all other MWD equipment 0.2 degrees on
inclination and 1.0 to 1.5 degrees in azimuth. The gyro tools have a significantly improved azimuth
error of approximately 0.2 degrees but similar accuracy for inclination.
When considering survey accuracy for MWD tools there are several sources of error. In general all
directional sensor packages have the same resolution but their accuracy is dependent upon their
calibration and shift between calibrations. We have already discussed magnetic interference from BHA
components or local area interference. Tool misalignment is the error caused by the tool being out-of-
parallel with the wellbore axis. The value assumed for magnetic declination affects the computed
azimuth, which comes from estimates on the magnetic dip and field strength. The last main source of
error is drill pipe depth measurements.
Case 1:
Horizontal well
TVD of 500m (1,600)
Measured Depth to Casing Point of 700m (2,300)
Case 2:
Horizontal well
TVD of 1,450m (4,750)
Measured depth to casing point of 1537m (5,000)
Obviously errors of this magnitude can have pronounced effects on wellbore positioning.
Potential sources of survey errors. It is important to understand the potential errors that can arise in the
various surveying instruments and methods of surveying. The main sources of error are summarized
below.
1. Long intervals between surveys. The calculations give some sort of averaging between surveys
and so if the interval is long, the aver- aged path may be significantly different from the actual
path. The more the wellbore path may have changed during the interval, the more significant
the potential error. A deviated well would give rise to more inaccuracy than a vertical well for
the same depth interval between surveys.
2. Inaccurate measured depths for the survey locations. This error can arise from a drillstring
tally mistake, faulty depth counters on wire- line units, or a simple error in writing down the
information.
3. Reading errors. When surveys are recorded on photographic film (single and multi-shot
surveys), there is always the chance that the surveyor may make a mistake. It is good practice
for two people to independently read the film and compare their readings.
4. Instrument calibration errors. All measuring instruments should be calibrated regularly and a
record made of the calibration date and results. The drilling program could include a
cautionary note to check the calibration certificate, which should be kept with the tool. If the
tool has not been recently calibrated or if the data is not available, the tool should be replaced.
Magnetic Interference
There are two types of magnetic interference; drill string and external magnetic interference which can
include; 1) interference from a fish left in the hole; 2) nearby casing; 3) a magnetic hot spot in the
drill collar; 4) fluctuation in the Earths magnetic field; and 5) certain formations (iron pyrite, hematite
and possibly hematite mud).
Any deviation from the expected magnetic field value can indicate magnetic interference. External
magnetic interference can occur as the drill string moves away from the casing shoe or from the casing
window. It can also occur as another cased hole is approached. All surveying instruments using
magnetometers will be affected in accuracy by any magnetic interference. In such a case, gyroscopic
(gyro) measurements will have to be used. There are certain instances where a gyro survey may need
to be used if the well requires steering out of casing or if a possible collision exists with another well.
There are also cases where magnetic interference may be corrected or at least taken into account until
a different BHA is used.
Drill string magnetism can be a source of error in calculations made from the supplied magnetometer
data. This may happen as the angle builds from vertical (Figure 5-4) or as the azimuth moves away
from a north/south axis. Also, changing the composition of the BHA between runs may change the
effects of the drill string. Correction programs for magnetism of the drill string exist.
It is because of drill string magnetism that non-magnetic drill collars are needed. Non-magnetic drill
collars are used to position the compass or direction sensors out of the magnetic influence of the drill
string. The magnetometers are measuring the resultant vector of the Earths magnetic field and the drill
string. Since this is in effect one long dipole magnet with its flux lines parallel to the drill string, only
the Z-axis of the magnetometer package (Z-axis is usually the axis of the surveying tool) is affected,
normally creating a greater magnetic field effect along this axis. The magnitude of this error is
dependant on the pole strength of the magnetized drill string components and their distance from the
MWD tool. The error will normally appear in the calculated survey as an increased total HFH value
(higher total field strength than the Earth alone). This increase is due to the larger value of the Z-axis
magnetometer. The total H value should remain constant regardless of the tool face orientation or
depth as long as the hole inclination, azimuth and BHA remain relatively constant.
When drill string magnetism is causing an error on the Z-axis magnetometer, only the horizontal
component of that error can interfere with the measurement of the Earths magnetic field (see
Magnetic Field Strength section). The horizontal component of the Z-axis error is equal to the Z-axis
error multiplied by the sine of the hole deviation. This is why experience has shown that the magnetic
survey accuracy worsens as the hole angle increases (especially with drill string magnetic
interference). Since the horizontal component of the Earths magnetic field is smaller on the Alaskan
Slope, the error from a magnetized drill string is relatively greater than that experienced in lower
latitudes. Thus, a 50 gammas error has a larger affect on a smaller horizontal component, 0.53% error
in Alaska compared to only 0.20% in the Gulf of Mexico.
Minimizing Errors
One way to minimize the error caused by the drill string is to eliminate as much of the magnetism as
possible. This is done by isolating the magnetometer package with as many non-magnetic drill collars
as possible. The length of the non-magnetic collars implies a uniform and non-interrupted non-
magnetic environment. This, however, is not true in practice. Each connection in a drill string, whether
magnetic or not, is magnetic due to the effects of the mechanical torque of the pin in the box. This
mechanical stress causes the local metal around the connection to change its magnetic properties and
can actually cause a survey azimuth reading error in the tens of degrees in some cases. Therefore,
never space within 2 feet of a connection. Additionally, do not space exactly in the centre of a non-
magnetic collar. When a collar has been bored from both ends, there is a very slight ridge at the point
where the two bores come together. This becomes magnetically hot due to the cyclic rotation stresses
to which the collar is subjected during rotary drilling. Usually, this effect can be removed by
trepanning the collar bore. As much as 40o of azimuth error has been seen due to this effect.
Obviously the presence of a steel stabilizer or steel component between two non-magnetic collars
results on a pinching of the lines of force (Figure 5-5). This is detrimental to the accuracy of the
survey. A steel stabilizer may be satisfactory on the Equator, but not as far north as Alaska. In Alaska
all stabilizers used in the BHA are non-magnetic, since a conventional steel stabilizer located between
two non-magnetic collars results in an interfering field which may reach 250 gammas.
Even non-magnetic stabilizers are actually magnetic near the blades. At a minimum, hard metal facing
and matrix used on stabilizers can be very magnetic. Never space inside a non-magnetic stabilizer.
The following are circumstances where more non-magnetic drill collars are necessary to counter drill
string magnetism effects. These are also examples in which the azimuth accuracy will likely decrease.
Note that even with 40m (120 feet) of non-magnetic material above the magnetometer package the
effects of drill string magnetism in places like Alaska may still be seen.
Special Notes
lf magnetic interference is encountered from the drill string, the total H value should remain
constant regardless of tool face orientation or depth as long as the hole inclination, azimuth
and BHA remain fairly constant.
The horizontal component of the Z-axis error is equal to (Z-axis error) x Sin(I). This is why a
magnetic survey declines as the hole angle increases (especially with drill string magnetic
interference).
Drill string interference is more pronounced in areas of high dip angle.
Do not mistakenly interpret change in total H value as a failed magnetometer sensor. It may be
caused by magnetic interference.
Do not mistakenly interpret a change in a survey with a failed magnetometer or inclinometer;
it may be due to a tool face dependency.
The following formula can be used to accurately predict errors in azimuth due to magnetic interference
from the drilling assembly.
Non-magnetic directional DC
IF = 770 + LP - LP
(14 + X)2 (y + b)2 (y + b + c)2
This formula is relatively easy to use and interpret. The absolute value of the predicted azimuth error
(AE) should be less than 0.5 degrees. If it is not, continue adding lengths of non-magnetic drill collars
both above and below the MWD collar until the AE value is below 0.5 degrees. Other equations have
been prepared by other directional companies.
For horizontal drilling, and especially for well paths with a medium radius of curvature, it may be
impractical to achieve a predicted azimuth error of less than 0.5 degree. Some operators may prefer to
drill with a predicted error of one degree during the build up phase of the well and then correct for it
later. If a mud motor is used to correct the well azimuth (on a slant hole) and a change in the magnetic
field is observed, due to magnetic interference from the motor, the change may not be problem as long
as the operator and directional driller are aware of the change and take it into account. A simple way
would be to re-survey the corrected path with a different spacing or a different BHA.
Spring 2002
Calgary
4/2002
4/2002
Directional Wells
Slant
Build and
Hold
S-Curve
Extended
Reach
Horizontal
4/2002
1
Applications of Directional Drilling
Multiple wells from offshore structure
Relief wells
Controlling vertical wells
4/2002
4/2002
4/2002
2
Directional Drilling Tools
Steerable motors
Instrumented motors for geosteering applications
Drilling tools
Surveying/orientation services
Surface logging systems
At-
At-bit inclination
4/2002
Sidetracking
Inaccessible locations
4/2002
4/2002
3
Applications of Directional Drilling
Drilling underbalanced
4/2002
4/2002
4/2002
4
Whipstock Operations
4/2002
Jetting
4/2002
4/2002
5
Effect of Increased Bit Weight
Decrease Inclination -
Decrease Weight on Bit
4/2002
4/2002
Stabilizer Forces
4/2002
6
Directional Control
BHA types Design principles
4/2002
Building Assemblies
4/2002
Building Assemblies
4/2002
7
Dropping Assemblies
To increase drop rate:
increase tangency length
increase stiffness
increase drill collar weight
decrease weight on bit
increase rotary speed
Common TL:
30 ft
45 ft
60 ft
90 ft
4/2002
Dropping Assemblies
4/2002
Holding Assemblies
Designed to minimize side force and decrease
sensitivity to axial load
4/2002
8
Stabilization Principle
Stabilizers are placed at specified points to control
the drill string and to minimize downhole
deviation
4/2002
Special BHAs
Tandem Stabilizers
Provides greater directional control
Could be trouble in High Doglegs
Roller Reamers
Help keep gauged holes in hard formations
Tendency to drop angle
4/2002
4/2002
9
Steerable Assemblies
Build
Drop
Hold
4/2002
Mud Motors
Turbine PDM
4/2002
4/2002
10
Motor Selection
These are the three common motor configurations
which provide a broad range of bit speeds and
torque outputs required satisfying a multitude of
drilling applications
High Speed / Low Torque - 1/2 Lobe
Medium Speed / Medium Torque - 4/5 Lobe
Low Speed / High Torque - 7/8 Lobe
4/2002
4/2002
4/2002
11
Dump Sub
4/2002
Motor Section
Positive
Displacement Motor
( PDM )
Lobe Configurations
Stages
Performance
Characteristics
4/2002
Motor Section
Positive Displacement Motor
PDM
4/2002
12
Universal Joint Assembly
Converts Eccentric Rotor Rotation
in to Concentric Rotation
Universal Joint
Flex Rod
4/2002
Adjustable Assembly
Two Degree and Three
Degree
Field Adjustable in
Varying Increments to
the Maximum Bend
Angle
Used in Conjunction
with Universal Joint
Assembly
o
H = 1.962
4/2002
Bearing Assembly
4/2002
13
Motor Specifications
Motor Specifications
Dimensional Data
Ultimate Load Factors
Performance Charts
4/2002
Motor Specifications
4/2002
Motor Specifications
4/2002
14
Performance Charts
4/2002
Operational Constraints
Servicing
- Hours
Drilling Fluid
-Percentage Sands - 0.5 %
- Percentage Solids - 5 %
Circulation Rate
Full Load ( Differential Pressure)
4/2002
4/2002
15
Disadvantages of PDM
4/2002
Operational Features
Stabilization
Off - set Pad
Rotor Bypass
4/2002
Stabilization
Improves Well - bore Straightness and
Control
Screw - on Stabilizer
Integral Blade Stabilizers
4/2002
16
Offset - Set Pad
Adjustable PAD Located Below Adjustable
Bend
Oriented with Center of Pad on Low Side of
Bend
Provides Lower Point on Drilling Motor to
Increase Build Rate Capacity
4/2002
Rotor Bypass
Used to Increase the Flow Rate Through the
Drilling Motor Beyond the Capacity of the Power
Section
All Multi - lobe Motors from 3 3/8 and
Larger Use Ported Rotors
May be Field Installed if Required
4/2002
Trouble Shooting
Pressure Increases
Pressure Losses
Lack of Penetration
4/2002
17
Pressure Increases
Bearing Pack Seized
Motor or Bit Plugged
Tight Hole
4/2002
Pressure Losses
Twist - off
Dump Sub Inoperable
Stater Worn Out
Washhing
4/2002
Lack of Penetration
Bit Wear
Stator Wear (Weak Motor)
Internal Motor Damage
Incorrect WOB
Formation Change
Stabilizer Hanging Up
4/2002
18
Motor Performance Test
4/2002
Motor History
4/2002
4/2002
19
Planning a Directional Well
Geology
Completion and Production
Drilling Constraints
4/2002
Geology
Lithology being drilled through
Geological structures that will be drilled
Type of target the geologist is expecting
Location of water or gas top
Type of Well
4/2002
4/2002
20
Drilling
Selection of surface location and well layout
Previous area drilling knowledge and identifies
particular problematic areas
4/2002
Drilling
4/2002
Planning
Build rates
Build and hold profiles should be
at least 50m
Drop rate for S-
S-curve wells is
preferably planned at 1.5 o/30m
KOP as deep as possible to
reduce costs and rod/casing wear
In build sections of horizontal
wells, plan a soft landing section
4/2002
21
Planning
4/2002
Planning
4/2002
22
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING FUNDAMENTALS
Introduction to Directional Drilling
When preparing to drill a vertical or directional well, all operational components of the process are
reviewed, optimized and included in a drilling program. The surface location is scouted to determine
the best site that will allow for any natural drift, provide suitable access for drilling rig, service rig,
production facilities and can be constructed for a reasonable cost. A casing program is prepared to
provide 1) adequate well control, 2) prevent water table contamination, 3) maintain wellbore integrity,
4) plan for varying formation fracture gradients, and 5) provide hydraulic isolation of various
producing zones.
Mud programs are developed to provide good wellbore cleaning, reasonable filter cake development
and minimal formation damage. Cement programs are required to provide good hydraulic isolation
and casing support given the bottom hole temperature and pressure.
Since the highest possible rate of penetration possible is desired, considerable time is spent preparing
an effective bit program to optimally drill the well. Previous wells drilled in the area are reviewed, to
determine any potential drilling problems. Finally a proper BHA and drill string design is prepared to
provide sufficient design safety parameters.
A directional drilling company will review most of these same components or ask the operator what he
is selecting and apply it to the well profile and equipment limitations. For example the drilling fluid
needs to be compatible with the Measurement While Drilling (MWD) equipment and motors. With
their area knowledge it will also be reviewed for hole cleaning capability for high inclination wells. A
drilling motor is selected that will provide optimum performance for the planned hydraulics or
modifications are recommended.
A bottom hole assembly (BHA) and drill string design is suggested that will allow the best ROP for the
different drilling conditions (rotating versus orient or slide drilling). In some cases the desired well
path cannot be optimally drilled with the drill string currently available on the rig and changes are
recommended.
Bit selection for a standard vertical well may not be suitable for the planned directional well path.
Although a particular PDC bit provides the best ROP for the area, it may not provide the directional
control needed. Also special drilling motors may be required to provide sufficient horsepower. If the
project involves sidetracking of the horizontal legs special diamond sidetrack bits may be required.
Area formation integrity knowledge while it is being directional drilled through (sloughing, loss of
inclination, inability to control direction, potential for differential sticking to name a few) is extremely
important to minimize drilling time or potential problems. Lets assume a directional plan with a very
tight target size is prepared that kicks off very low in a formation that has a history of erratic build
rates. Several things could happen in this scenario:
When permitted, a directional company also reviews the well pad layout and provides their
recommendations to reduce directional costs for multiple well pads. When they are involved with a
project from the start and are aware of future re-entries, multi-laterals, sidetracks and production
requirements a more optimally tuned well path can be designed.
In a conventional development, the wells cannot be drilled until the platform has been constructed and
installed in position. This may mean a delay of 2 - 5 years before production can begin. Pre-drilling
some of the wells through a subsea template while the platform is being constructed can considerably
reduce this delay. These wells are directionally drilled from an offshore rig, usually a semi-
submersible, and tied back to the platform once it has been installed.
Relief Wells
Inaccessible Locations
Other Applications
Directional wells are also drilled to avoid drilling a vertical well through a steeply inclined fault plane,
which could slip and shear the casing.
Potential
Shear Point
Reservoir Optimization
As directional drilling technologies continue to develop, new applications will emerge. Although oil
and gas drilling applications will continue to dominate the future of the directional industry,
environmental and economic considerations will force other industries to consider directional drilling
alternatives to conventional technologies.
Additional weight is applied to shear the pin that holds the drill collars to the wedge; then rotation can
begin. Forcing the bit to cut sideways as well as forward, the wedge deflects the bit in an arc set by the
curvature of the whipstock. When the bit reaches the end of the wedge, it ordinarily continues in the
arc set by the wedge. Drilling continues until the top of the whipstock assembly reaches the stop.
The whipstock is then retrieved and the hole is opened with a pilot bit and a hole-opener. The wellbore
is enlarged to the original hole size, and the assembly is pulled again. A full gauge directional BHA is
then run and standard drilling is resumed.
Jetting
The jet bit method of deflecting a well was, at one time, the most common method used in soft
formations. Jetting has been successfully used to depths of 8,000 feet (2,400m); however the
economics of this method and the availability of other directional drilling tools limit its use.
Even though shales may be soft, they are not good candidates for jetting. Most medium-strength rock
is too well cemented to jet with conventional drilling rig pumps, so it limits the depth to which jetting
can be applied. Higher pressures and more hydraulic energy can extend the depth to which jetting is
practical.
A major drawback to jetting is that the formation must be favorable at a shallow depth or in the desired
kickoff interval; otherwise, the technique is no better than the use of a mud motor with a deflecting
device. Another problem is that if jetting is continued too long without conventional drilling being
resumed, large doglegs can be created.
There are special bits made for jetting including those with two
Large cones and an elongated jet nozzle replacing the third cone. The
TFA elongated nozzle provides the means to jet the formation while
Nozzle
the two cones provide the mechanism for drilling. Other tri-cone
deflection bits are available with an enlarged fluid entrance to
one of the jets. This allows a greater amount of fluid to be
pumped through one of the jets during jetting operations.
To deflect a well using the jet method, the assembly is run to the
bottom of the hole, and the large jet is oriented in the desired
direction. The kelly should be high to allow rotary drilling after
the deflection is started. The center of the large nozzle represents
the toolface and is oriented in the desired direction. Maximum
circulation rate is used while jetting. Jet velocity for jetting
should be 150 m/sec (500 ft/sec).
Jetting Bit
The drill string is set on bottom and if the formation is sufficiently soft, the WOB drills off. A pocket is
washed into the formation opposite the large nozzle. The bit and near-bit stabilizer work their way into
the pocket (path of least resistance). Enough hole should be jetted to bury the near-bit stabilizer. If
required, the bit can be pulled off bottom and the pocket spudded. The technique is to lift the string
about 1.5m (5) off bottom and then let it fall, catching it with the brake so that the stretch of the string
(rather than the full weight of the string) causes it to spud on bottom. Spudding can be severe on a
drillstring, drilling line and derrick and should be kept to a minimum. Another technique that may help
is to rock the rotary table a little (15o) right and left of the orientation mark while jetting.
To clean the hole prior to connection/survey, the jet should be oriented in the direction of deviation.
After surveying, this orientation setting (toolface setting) is adjusted as required, depending on the
results achieved with the previous setting. Dogleg severity has to be watched carefully and reaming
performed as required.
The operation is repeated as often as is necessary until sufficient inclination has been achieved and the
well is heading in the desired direction. The hole inclination can then be built up to maximum angle
using 100% rotary drilling and an appropriate angle build assemble.
Before the invention of measurement while drilling (MWD) tools and steerable motors, rotary
bottomhole assemblies (BHA) were used to deflect wellbore. A bottomhole assembly is the
arrangement of the bit, stabilizer, reamers, drill collars, subs and special tools used at the bottom of the
drill string. Anything that is run in the hole to drill, ream or circulate is a bottomhole assembly. The
simplest assembly is a bit, collars and drill pipe and is often termed a slick assembly. The use of this
In order to understand why an assembly will deviate a hole, lets consider the slick assembly, which is
the simplest and easiest to understand. The deviation tendency in this assembly is a result of the
flexibility of the drill collars and the forces acting on the assembly causing the collars to bend. Even
though drill collars seem to be very rigid, they will bend enough to cause deviation.
The point at which the collars contact the low side of the hole is called the tangency point. The
distance L from the bit to the tangency point is dependent upon collar size, hole size, applied bit
weight, hole inclination, and hole curvature. Generally, the distance L is less than 50m (150 feet).
Above the tangency point of the slick assembly, the remainder of the drill string generally has no
effect on deviation. As weight is applied to the bit, the tangency point will move closer to the bit.
Because of the bending of the drill collars, the resultant force applied to the formation is not in the
direction of the hole axis but is in the direction of the drill collar axis. As bit weight is applied, the
tangency point moves toward the bit increasing the angle. It can readily be seen that an increase in bit
weight leads to an increase in deviation tendency.
Unfortunately, the direction of the resultant force is not the only force involved. The resultant force
can be broken up into its components. The primary force would be the drilling force in line with the
axis of the borehole. The bit side force is caused by the bending of the collars and is perpendicular to
the axis of the borehole. The force due to gravity (acting on the unsupported section of drill collars) is
in the opposite direction and counteracts the side force. The net deviation force is then equal to the
summation of the bit side force and the force due to gravity. If the force due to gravity is greater than
the bit side force the angle will drop.
Changing the weight on bit can control the deviation tendency. Increasing the bit weight will lower the
tangency point increasing the angle. Since resultant force is proportional to the sine of angle, an
increase in bit weight increases the bit side force and ultimately the deviation tendency. Of course, a
decrease in bit weight will decrease the deviation tendency.
The addition of a stabilizer above the bit significantly affects the deviation tendency of a bottomhole
assembly. The stabilizer acts as a fulcrum around which the unsupported section of the bottomhole
assembly reacts. The addition of the moment arm between the bit and stabilizer increases the bit side
force. In fact, the single stabilizer assembly is a very strong building assembly.
The side cutting ability of a bit is proportional to the side force exerted at the bit. Under static
conditions, the side force on the bit can be calculated using a computer program. When the entire
bottomhole assembly is considered, it can also be shown the stabilizers in the assembly exert a side
force. The stabilizers have a side-cutting ability too. One would think the deviation tendency could
then be calculated. Unfortunately, the side forces will change under dynamic conditions. Both the bit
and the stabilizers cut sideways reducing the side force on each until equilibrium is reached.
Stabilizer Forces
The magnitude and direction of the formation deviation tendency will depend upon bed dip. Generally,
the bit will walk up dip when beds are dipping 0o to 45o and down dip when beds are dipping 65o to
90o. Bed dips between 45o and 65o can cause either an up dip or down dip walk. Bed strike can cause
the bit to walk left or right.
Building Assemblies
As previously stated, the building assembly uses a stabilizer acting as a fulcrum to apply side forces to
the bit. The magnitude of that force is a function of the distance from the bit to the tangency point. An
increase in bit weight and/or decrease in drill collar stiffness will increase the side force at the bit
increasing the rate of build.
The strongest building assembly consists of one stabilizer placed 3 to 6 feet above the bit face with
drill collars and drill pipe above the stabilizer. This assembly will build under the majority of
conditions. Of course, the rate of build will be controlled by formation tendencies, bit and stabilizer
types, lithology, bit weights, drill collar stiffness, Drillstring RPMs, penetration rate, and hole
geometry.
Building Assemblies
Another strong to moderate building assembly consists of a bottomhole stabilizer placed 3 to 6 feet
from the bit face, 60 feet of drill collars, stabilizer, collars, and drill pipe. This is the most common
assembly used to build angle. The second stabilizer tends to dampen the building tendency. This
assembly can be used when the previous assembly builds at an excessive rate. Other building
assemblies can be seen above.
An increase in the length of the bottomhole assembly (the length below the tangency point) results in
an increase in the weight. Since the force is determined by that weight, the force is also increased
exceeding the force due to bending. The net result is a side force on the bit causing the hole to drop
angle.
Additional bit weight will decrease the dropping tendency of this assembly because it increases the
force due to bending. Should enough bit weight be applied to the assembly to cause the collars to
contact the borehole wall (between the stabilizer and the bit), the assembly will act as a slick assembly.
Only the section of the assembly below the tangency point affects the bit side force.
If an increase in dropping tendency is required, larger diameter or denser collars should be used below
the stabilizer. This increases the weight of the assembly, which results in an increase in dropping
tendency. As an example, suppose a dropping assembly with 7 (178mm) drill collars was being used
in a 12 (311mm) hole. By substituting 9 (229mm) collars for the 7 collars, an increase in
dropping tendency can be achieved.
Dropping assemblies will have a higher rate of drop as hole inclination increases.
Dropping Assemblies
Holding Assemblies
When selecting a hold assembly, research the well records in the area to find out which assembly
works best for the types of formations being drilled. If no formation is available, use a medium
strength assembly and adjust it as necessary.
These build and drop assemblies are still used on directional wells but generally limited to slant hole
drilling. The hold assemblies are very commonly used on deep vertical wells to minimize the amount
of directional drilling required.
SPECIAL BHAS
Tandem Stabilizers
Its fairly common to run a string stabilizer directly above the near-bit stabilizer. This is normally for
directional control purposes. An alternative is to run a near-bit with a longer gauge area for greater
wall contact. High rotary torque may result in either case. It is dangerous to run tandem stabilizers
directly after a more limber BHA due to the reaming required and potential sticking.
The most common steerable assembly consists of a Positive Displacement Motor (PDM) that
incorporates a fixed or adjustable bent housing on top of the bearing housing below the stator. With the
smaller displacement of the bit as compared to using a bent sub, the motor can be safely rotated at
RPMs up to 50 depending upon the bend setting and formation. The motor housing may also
incorporate an 3mm (1/8) undergauge stabilizer. With the bent housing, the stabilizer is not required
but the hold tendency of the assembly in the rotary mode is improved.
The steerable system operates in two modes; sliding and rotary drilling. In the slide mode, the motor
acts like a typical motor run. The motor is oriented in the desired direction (tool face), and drilling
progresses without drill pipe rotation. The change in inclination and or direction is derived from the bit
tilt from the bent housing and the side force created from the stabilizer or the wall contact with the
motor.
In the rotary drilling mode, the assembly is rotated per normal but at lower values (30 to 50 RPM) and
the side force is cancelled by this rotary action. In some formations the assembly will change
inclination/direction even in the rotary mode. Because of the bit offset or the side force associated with
a steerable system, the assembly will drill an overgauge hole in the rotary mode.
Advances in downhole motor reliability have made the steerable system economical in many
applications. Typically, the mean time between failures is in excess of 2000 hours for the motor and
excess of 800 hours for the measurement while drilling equipment thereby exceeding the life of a tri-
cone bit. Where feasible, the tri-cone bit has been replaced with a PDC or diamond bit. When properly
matched to the formation and motor torque output, a PDC bit can last much longer than a tri-cone bit;
however, a PDC bit cannot always be used. They are applicable to soft and medium hardness
formations with consistent lithology. In areas where formation hardness changes a lot, PDC bits do not
perform as well as tri-cone bits. Also the ability or ease of controlling build and turn rates of a PDC
vary considerably.
In some cases, the penetration rate of a steerable system will out perform that of a rotary assembly.
The majority of the time, it is used in soft formations. As formation hardness increases, rotary
assemblies will drill faster than a steerable system unless special high torque performance motors are
used. Harder formations are less sensitive to rotary speed, and bit weight is the predominant drilling
parameter. In hard formations, the penetration rate for a motor can be half that of a rotary assembly. In
soft to medium hard formations, the penetration rate for a downhole motor has been twice that of a
rotary assembly.
The directional plan can be followed much more closely with a steerable system. Since trips are not
required, corrections in the slide mode are made much more frequently. The frequent corrections will
keep the wellbore closer to the planned path. In the hold section, the directional driller will often rotate
for a portion of a connection and slide for the remainder of the connection. He must first get a feel for
how much the assembly is walking and building or dropping while in the rotary mode. Once he gets a
feel for that then he can determine how much he needs to slide per connection and what the tool face
orientation must be.
This does not mean that the dogleg severity is very low. It only means that the changes are small and
frequent. Surveys at 20m to 30m intervals will not pick up the actual dogleg severity in the well,
whereas with rotary assemblies and motor corrections, the dogleg severity is picked up by the surveys.
Frequent motor corrections (short dogleg intervals) will minimize problems associated with keyseats.
The doglegs are not long enough for keyseats to form easily.
The steerable system should be designed to generate a dogleg severity 25 percent greater than that
required to accomplish the objectives of the directional plan (a more aggressive bent housing setting).
Formation tendencies can cause the dogleg severity of a steerable system to change. If it decreases the
dogleg severity generated by the system, then a trip may be require to pick up a more aggressive
assembly. However if the assembly is designed to be more aggressive, then the assembly will still be
able to produce a dogleg severity sufficient to keep the wellbore on course and less slide drilling is
required resulting in a higher average ROP. Reducing the dogleg severity of a steerable system is not a
problem. Alternately sliding and rotating the assembly will reduce the overall dogleg severity.
The most significant advantage of the steerable system is that a trip does not have to be made in order
to make a course correction. When a correction is required, the motor is oriented and drilling continues
in the slide mode until the correction is complete. Then drilling in the rotary mode continues until the
next correction is required. If a steerable system is not used, a trip would be required to pick up a
motor assembly before making the correction. After the correction is made, another trip would be
required to pick up the rotary assembly.
Another advantage of the steerable system is that it provides the ability to hit smaller targets at a
reasonable cost. Because a trip is not required to make a course correction, the steerable system can hit
a smaller target with less cost. Its not that a small target can not be hit using rotary assemblies and
motor corrections; its that the costs increase significantly as the target gets smaller.
Steerable systems are typically used in drilling multi-target directional and horizontal wells. Drilling
through a cluster of wells is another good application for a steerable system. Drilling out from under a
crowded platform may require building, dropping and turning at various rates over a relatively short
distance in order to avoid other wellbores. A steerable system is capable of making all the corrections
without tripping. In an environment where the daily operating costs are high, the steerable system can
result in significant savings.
Just because the industry has the capability to hit smaller targets does not mean that the targets should
be unduly restricted. The smaller the target, the more expensive it can be to hit. With a steerable
system, the cost differential isnt as high as it would be using rotary assemblies and making motor
corrections.
Motor Selection
Four configurations of drilling motors provide the broad range of bit speeds and torque outputs
required satisfying a multitude of drilling applications. These configurations include:
The high speed drilling motor utilizes a 1:2 lobe power section to produce high speeds and low torque
outputs. They are popular choices when drilling with a diamond bit, tri-cone bit drilling in soft
formations and directional applications where single shot orientations are being used.
The medium speed drilling motor typically utilizes a 4:5 lobe power section to produce medium
speeds and medium torque outputs. They are commonly used in most conventional directional and
horizontal wells, in diamond bit and coring applications, as well as sidetracking.
The low speed drilling motor typically utilizes a 7:8 lobe power section to produce low speeds and
high torque outputs. They are used in directional and horizontal wells, medium to hard formation
drilling, and PDC bit drilling applications.
The gear reduced drilling motor combines a patented gear reduction system with a 1:2 lobe high speed
power section. This system reduces the output speed of the 1:2 lobe power section by a factor of three,
and increases the output torque by a factor of three. The result is a drilling motor with similar
Some other motor selections are also available including a tandem and modified motor. These
variations are described below.
Tandem Drilling Motor - The drilling motor utilizes two linked power sections for increased torque
capacity.
Modified Drilling Motor - The bearing section of the drilling motor has been modified to provide
different drilling characteristics (ie. change bit to bend distance, etc.).
Motor Components
All drilling motors consist of five major assemblies:
The gear reduced drilling motor contains an additional section, the gear reducer assembly located
within the sealed bearing section. Some other motor manufacturers have bearing sections that are
lubricated by the drilling fluid.
In the event that the dump sub assembly is not required, such as in underbalanced drilling using
nitrogen gas or air, its effect can be negated by simply replacing the discharge plugs with blank plugs.
This allows the motor to be adjusted as necessary, even in the field. Drilling motors 95 mm (3 3/4)
and smaller require the dump sub assembly to be replaced with a special blank sub.
Power Section
The drilling motor power section is an adaptation of the Moineau type positive displacement hydraulic
pump in a reversed application. It essentially converts hydraulic power from the drilling fluid into
mechanical power to drive the bit.
The power section is comprised of two components; the stator and the rotor. The stator consists of a
steel tube that contains a bonded elastomer insert with a lobed, helical pattern bore through the center.
It is the pattern of the lobes and the length of the helix that dictate what output characteristics will be
developed by the power section. By the nature of the design, the stator always has one more lobe than
the rotor. The illustrations in Figure 7-2 show a 1:2 lobe cross-section, a 4:5 lobe cross-section and a
7:8 lobe cross-section. Generally, as the lobe ratio is increased, the speed of rotation is decreased.
As mentioned above, these two design characteristics can be used to control the output characteristics
of any size power section. This allows for the modular design of drilling motors making it possible to
simply replace power sections when different output characteristics are required.
In addition, the variation of dimensions and materials will allow for specialized drilling conditions.
With increased temperatures, or certain drilling fluids, the stator elastomer will expand and form a
tighter seal onto the rotor and create more of an interference fit, which may result in stator elastomer
damage. Special stator materials or interference fit can be requested for these conditions.
Drive Assembly
Due to the design nature of the power section, there is an eccentric rotation of the rotor inside of the
stator. To compensate for this eccentric motion and convert it to a purely concentric rotation drilling
motors utilize a high strength jointed drive assembly. The drive assembly consists of a drive shaft with
a sealed and lubricated drive joint located at each end. The drive joints are designed to withstand the
high torque values delivered by the power section while creating minimal stress through the drive
Adjustable Assembly
Most drilling motors today are supplied with a surface adjustable assembly. The adjustable assembly
can be set from zero to three degrees in varying increments in the field. This durable design results in
wide range of potential build rates used in directional, horizontal and re-entry wells. Also, to minimize
the wear to the adjustable components, wear pads are normally located directly above and below the
adjustable bend.
Kick Pads
Most drilling motors can incorporate wear pads directly above and below the adjustable bend for
improved wear resistance. Eccentric kick pads can also be used on most motors ranging from 121 mm
(4 3/4) to 245 mm (9 5/8) in size. This kick pad is adjustable to match the low side of the motor to
increase build rate capabilities. It will also allow lower adjustable settings for similar build rates,
thereby reducing radial stresses applied to the bearing assembly, and permit safer rotation of the motor.
They can be installed in the field by screwing them onto specially adapted bearing housings.
Stabilization
Bearing housings are also available with two stabilization styles, integral blade and screw-on. The
integral blade style is built directly onto the bearing housing and thus cannot be removed in the field.
The screw-on style provides the option of installing a threaded stabilizer sleeve onto the drilling motor
on the rig floor in a matter of minutes. The drilling motor has a thread on the bottom end that is
covered with a thread protector sleeve when not required. Both of these styles are optional to a
standard bladed bearing housing.
Only apply rig tongs on the identified areas of the drilling motor. All connections marked NO
TONGS of the drilling motor are torqued in the service shop. Further make-up on the rig
floor is not necessary, and if attempted may cause damage.
Remove the thread protector from the bit box and inspect the threads for damage.
Lower the drilling motor until the dump sub ports are below the rotary table, yet still visible.
CAUTION: The dump sub valve will remain open until there is enough fluid pressure to close
it. Therefore, the drilling motor should be lowered until the ports are below the rotary table.
This will prevent the initial flow of drilling fluid from spraying on the rig floor.
Slowly start the pumps and ensure drilling fluid is flowing out of the dump sub ports. Increase
the flow rate until the dump sub ports close, and drilling fluid stops flowing out. Make note of
the circulation rate and standpipe pressure. CAUTION: Do not exceed the maximum
recommended flow rate for this test.
Lift the drilling motor until the bit box becomes visible. It should be rotating at a slow,
constant speed. Listen to the bearing section of the drilling motor for excessive bearing noise,
especially if the tool has been used previously without being serviced.
Before stopping the pumps, the drilling motor should be lowered below the rotary table.
Ensure that drilling fluid flows out of the dump sub ports after shutting down the pumps. It is
possible that the dump sub valve remains closed after this test due to a pressure lock. If this
occurs, no drilling fluid will flow out of the ports. To remove the pressure lock, bleed off some
stand pipe pressure and the valve will open. The surface check should be as short as possible;
since it is merely to ensure that the drilling motor is rotating.
After this surface check, the bit should be attached to the motor using a bit-breaker, while
holding the bit box stationary with a rotary tong. Be sure to avoid contacting the end cap
directly above the bit box with the tong dies. It is recommended that you never hold the bit
box stationary and rotate the drilling motor counter-clockwise, or hold the drilling motor
stationary and rotate the bit box clockwise. This could possibly cause the internal drilling
motor connections to back off and damage it. Although rotating in the opposite direction will
result in drilling fluid to be pushed out the top end, the internal connections will not be at risk
of disconnecting.
If the drilling motor has been used previously, an overall inspection should be completed.
Inspect for seal integrity by cleaning the area above the bit box and visually checking for
Tripping In Hole
Generally, a drill string with a drilling motor can be run into the hole like a standard bottom hole
assembly. The drilling motor is rugged, but care should be taken to control travel speed while tripping
into the hole. The drill string should be tripped with the blocks unlocked and special care must be
taken when passing the B.O.P., casing shoe, liner hanger, bridges and nearing bottom. Tight spots
should be traversed by starting the pumps and slowly reaming the drilling motor through them. When
reaming, the drill string should be periodically rotated to prevent sidetracking. Great care should be
taken during these operations.
When tripping to extreme depths, or when hole temperatures are high, periodic stops are
recommended to break circulation. This prevents bit plugging and aids in cooling the drilling motor,
preventing high temperature damage.
Fluid should not be circulated through a drilling motor inside casing if a PDC or diamond bit is being
used, as this may damage the bit cutters.
If a dump sub assembly is not used and the pipe is not being filled while tripping in, the back pressure
on the power section will cause the rotor to turn in reverse. This could cause internal connections of
the drilling motor to unscrew. Stop and break circulation before putting drilling motor on-bottom.
Failure to do so could plug jets and/or damage the drilling motor.
Drilling
After the assembly has been tripped to the bottom of the hole, drilling motors should be operated in
the following manner:
With the bit 1-2 meters (3-6 feet) off bottom, start the pumps and slowly increase the flow rate
to that desired for drilling. Do not exceed the maximum rated flow rate for the drilling motor.
Make a note of the flow rate and the total pump pressure. Note that the pressure may exceed
the calculated off bottom pressure due to some side load effects between the bit and the hole
diameter.
After a short cleaning interval, lower the bit carefully to bottom and slowly increase the
weight. Torque can be affected by a dirty, uncirculated hole and the hole should be adequately
cleaned prior to orienting the tool. Fill maybe cleaned out of the wellbore by slowly rotating
the drilling motor or by staging the drilling motor full circle 30o to 45o at a time. This prevents
ledge buildup and side tracking.
Orient the drill string as desired and slowly apply further weight onto the bit. Pump pressure
will rise as the weight on bit is increased. Record the change in system pressure between the
off bottom and on bottom values. This will be the differential pressure. Try to drill with steady
pump pressure by keeping a steady flow rate and constant weight on bit.
Reactive Torque
Drilling motors drive the bit with a right-hand (clockwise) rotation. As weight is added to the bit,
reactive torque acting on the drilling motor housing is developed. This left-hand (counter-clockwise)
torque is transferred to the drill string and may cause the joints above the motor to tighten. Reactions
of this type increase with larger weight on bit values and reach a maximum when the motor stalls. This
reactive torque also affects the orientation of the motor when it is used in directional drilling
applications. Therefore, this reactive torque must be taken into account when orienting the drilling
motor from the surface in the desired direction. As a rule-of-thumb 4 drill pipe will turn 10o for
every 300m (1,000).
The high oscillation factor combined with the inherent friction of the rotor contacting the
stator results in excessive heat generation in the stator molding. Oscillations above 1000
cycles per minute may result in temperatures sufficient to cause hysteretic failure of the stator
molding (elastomer doesnt return to original shape).
Vibration frequencies are introduced by the high oscillation rates that can contribute to
mechanical failures in motor components other than the rotor and stator. It is not known if
these vibrations are harmonic or random however, it is logical to assume that some degree of
resonance would be present in the frequency.
The centrifugal force of the rotor in an over-speed condition combined with the diminished
compressive strength of a stator in hysteretic failure, accentuate the eccentric motion (run out)
of the rotor. The result is an expontenial increase in the degenerative effects of the condition.
When stalling occurs, corrective action must be taken immediately. Any rotary application should be
stopped and built up drill string torque released. Then the weight on bit can be reduced allowing the
drill bit to come loose and the drilling motor to turn freely. If the pump pressure is still high, the
pumps should then be turned off. Once again, failure to do this will result in the stator eroding until the
drilling motor is inoperable.
Other conditions can be occurring downhole that indicate the motor is stalling. On underbalanced
wells when the motor is being supplied with too low a combined equivalent flow rate will not drill (see
later discussion on two-phase flow tests). Under gauge bits or a badly worn heel row of cutters on the
bit can also make the motor stall.
Bit Conditions
The bit speeds developed when drilling with a drilling motor are normally higher than in conventional
rotary drilling. This application tends to accelerate bit wear. When drilling with a drilling motor and
simultaneously rotating the drill string, it is important to avoid locking up the bit and over running the
drilling motor with the rotary table. A locked bit will impart a sudden torque increase in the drilling
motor which can be detected by a sudden, sharp increase in standpipe pressure. Small pressure
fluctuations can also indicate the onset of bit failure.
It is also recommended that the speed of rotation not exceed 50 RPM. If this value is exceeded,
excessive cyclic loads would occur to the drilling motor housings and possibly causing pre-mature
fatigue problems.
The tripping out procedures for a drilling motor is basically the same as those for tripping in. Taking
care when pulling the drilling motor through tight spots, liner hangers, casing, casing shoes, and the
B.O.P. is necessary to minimize possible damage to both the drilling motor and the wellhead
components. Rotating may also be done to assist with the removal of the drill string. The dump sub
valve will allow the drill string to be emptied automatically when tripping.
Although the drill string will drain when tripping out, the drilling motor itself may not. Once the
drilling motor is at surface, rotating the bit box in a counter-clockwise direction will naturally drain the
drilling motor through the top. This is recommended before laying down the motor since aggressive
drilling fluids can deteriorate the elastomer stator and seals. When possibly, fresh water should also be
flushed through to ensure thorough cleaning of the drilling motor. Also, clean the bit box area with
clean water and install a thread protector into the box connection.
Rotating the bit box in a clockwise direction will naturally drain the drilling motor through the bottom,
but one of the internal connections could break and unscrew. For this reason, it is not recommended to
rotate it in this manner.
Drilling Fluids
Most drilling motors are designed to operate effectively with practically all types of drilling fluids. In
fact, the stator or power-section of most PDMs are supplied by the same one or two manufacturers
with the same general elastomer type. Successful runs have been achieved with fresh or salt water, oil
based fluids, fluids with additives for viscosity control or lost circulation, and with nitrogen gas.
However, some consideration should be taken when selecting a drilling fluid, as elastomer components
of the drilling motor are susceptible to pre-mature wear when exposed to certain fluids especially
under higher temperatures.
Hydrocarbon based drilling fluids can be very harmful to elastomers. A measure of this aggressiveness
is called the Aniline Point. The Aniline Point is the temperature at which equal amounts of the
hydrocarbon and aniline become miscible. This temperature is an indication of the percent of light
ends (aromatics) present in the hydrocarbon. It is recommended that the aniline point of any drilling
fluid not be lower than 70 to 94.5o C (158 to 200o F), depending upon stator manufacturer. The lower
the aniline point the higher the percentage of elastomer damaging high-ends in the hydrocarbon
fluid. Also, the operating temperature of the drilling fluid should be lower than the aniline point.
Operating outside these parameters tends to excessively swell elastomers and cause premature wear,
thus reducing the performance of the motor. In cases where hydrocarbon based fluids are used it is
recommended that stators material or designs that account for the elastomer swelling be used (HSN or
changed interference of stator/rotor.
Lost circulation materials can be used safely with drilling motors but care must be taken to add the
material slowly to avoid plugging the system. (Good rule of thumb is no more than 2.5 lbs/barrel). If
coarse lost circulation material is required a circulating sub should be installed above the motor
assembly to by-pass the motor.
The percentage of solids should be kept to a minimum. Large amounts of abrasive solids in the drilling
fluid will dramatically increase the wear on a stator. It is recommended that the sand content be kept
below 2% for an acceptable operational life. A solids content greater than 5% will shorten rotor and
stator life considerably.
For the above reasons, it is extremely important to flush the drilling motor with fresh water before
laying it down, especially when working with the types of drilling fluids described above. Failure to
do so will allow the drilling fluid to further seriously deteriorate components to the drilling motor long
after it has been operated. The solids can also settle out in the motor and in the worse case lock the
motor up.
Temperature Limits
The temperature limits of drilling motors again depend on the effect of different fluids and
temperatures on the components made of elastomers. Generally, standard drilling motors are rated for
temperatures up to 105o C (219o F). At temperatures above this, the performance characteristics of
elastomers are changed, resulting in reduced life expectancy. When exposed to higher temperatures,
the elastomers swell, creating more interference than desired, wearing the parts out prematurely. The
strength of the elastomers is also affected. When drilling in wells with temperatures greater than 121o
C (250o F) it is important to maintain circulation to minimize the temperature the stator liner is
subjected to.
To compensate for these elastomer changes, special materials and special sizes of components are
used. This results in drilling motors that are specifically assembled for high temperatures. These
special order drilling motors may be operated in temperatures up to 150o C (300o F) and higher. The
rubber in the stator is specially selected for more clearance at higher temperatures to minimize
interference. Therefore, at lower temperatures, the stator elastomer will not seal adequately on the
rotor and fluid bypass will occur. Therefore, it is important that the drilling motor be used in the
conditions it is designed for in order to operate as required.
Hydraulics
The use of a PDM in the drill string changes the hydraulic calculations and should be considered.
Various factors have to be taken into account. These are:
1.) Range of flow rates allowable: Each size and type of PDM is designed to take a certain
range of volumes of fluid.
2.) No-load Pressure Loss: When mud is pumped through a mud motor which is turning
freely off-bottom (i.e. doing no work) a certain pressure loss is needed to overcome the
rotor/stator friction forces and cause the motor to turn. This pressure loss and motor RPM
Studies have shown that the power output curve is a parabola and not a smooth upward curve, as
originally thought. If the PDM is operated at 50%-60% of the maximum allowable motor differential
pressure, the same performance should be achieved as when operating at 90% of differential. The
former situation is much better however, there is a much larger cushion available before stall-out.
This should result in significantly longer motor life.
The greater the wear on the motor bearings, the easier it is to stall-out the motor. It is useful to
deliberately stall out the PDM briefly on reaching bottom. It tells the directional driller what the stall-
out pressure is. He may want to operate the motor at about 50% of stall-out differential pressure. In
any case, he must stay within the PDM design specifications.
It is obvious that, if the pump pressure while drilling normally with a mud motor is close to the rigs
maximum, stalling of the PDM may lead to tripping of the pop-off valve. This should be taken into
account in designing the hydraulics program.
Rotor Nozzle: Most multi-lobe motors have a hollow rotor. This can be blanked off or jetted with a jet
nozzle. When the standard performance range for the motor matches the drilling requirements, a
blanking plug is normally fitted.
The selection of the rotor nozzle is critical. Excessive bypass will lead to a substantial drop in motor
performance and, consequently, drilling efficiency. If a rotor nozzle is used at lower flow rates, the
power of the motor will be greatly reduced.
From the above, it is clear that careful planning of the PDM hydraulics program is required.
Geology
Interaction with the geologists is of prime importance to understand any limitations in the particular
zone of interest. Although all information collected is important to the drilling operation
communication at this stage can be the make or break point of the well.
Location of surface facilities or ability to move existing when infill drilling on an existing pad
Type of completion required (frac, pump rods)
May specify maximum inclination and dogleg limits based upon log and production
requirements
Enhanced recovery completion requirements
Wellbore positioning requirements for future drainage/production plans
Downhole temperature and pressure
Drilling
This group usually has control over the main operation and tries to pull all parties together. The overall
cost estimation and economic feasibility may also rest in their hands. Consequently, the directional
representative usually spends most of their time consulting with the members in this group. Even
though the other groups have just as important information, the drilling group typically controls how
the well is drilled and will make the final decision on any operational issues that occur.
Selection of surface location and well center(s) layout
Casing size and depths
Hole size
Required drilling fluid
Drilling rig equipment and capability
Length of time directional services are utilized
Influences the type of survey equipment and wellpath
Previous area drilling knowledge and identifies particular problematic areas
Anyone can plan a well to be drilled from point A to B but it requires operational knowledge to plan
a profile that can physically be drilled without unnecessary trips to change assemblies given the hole
size and area. The following are few of the general rules-of-thumb when well paths are being
prepared:
Build rates kept at 2 to 3 o/30m for pumping oil wells. In fact most oil wells are planned at this
rate unless the horizontal displacement requires higher build rates to reach the target. Typically
most operators prefer to keep the actual doglegs less than 8 or 9 o/30m, therefore the plan
should be less than 7 o/30m to allow for operational variances.
The hold portion for build and hold profiles should be at least 50m (150) to allow for
operational adjustments should they have trouble achieving build rates.
The drop rate for S-curve wells is preferably planned at 1.5 o/30m but can go as high as 2.5. A
key-seat or differential sticking risk could occur with aggressive drop rates in softer
formations. Also a minimum 30m (100) tangent section should be planned in the middle of an
S-curve profile to allow for drilling problems or changes in target depths.
Keep the KOP as low as possible to reduce directional costs and on pumping oil wells to
reduce potential rod/casing wear. KOP must be selected in a competent formation.
Pick a KOP that has a competent enough formation that will allow the planned build rate to be
achieved.
On long or extended reach well profiles keep the KOP low to provide a larger vertical portion
for applying weight on bit but also keep the build rate low (less than 4 o/30m).
When planning a well that will use single shot survey equipment make sure at least two thirds
of the build section is completed before drilling into any problem zone. If it cannot be
accomplished use higher build rates or place KOP as low as possible in the problem zone an
insure a sufficient hold section after terminal angle is reached (100m).
In build sections of horizontal wells, plan a soft landing section (lower build rate) for casing
point if the required motor setting is greater than 1.8o or severe geological uncertainty exists
(target TVD changes greater than 2m).
Plan for a terminal angle of a minimum 15o since it is easier to hold inclination and direction.
Avoid high inclinations through severely faulted, dipping or sloughing formations.
On horizontal wells be sure to clearly identify any gas or water contact points and keep
sufficient clearance below or above to prevent breakthrough.
Turn rates in the lateral sections of horizontal wells should be kept at less than 8 o/30m,
especially if the proposed lateral length is long.
T= -W Sin + WCos
T= -W Sin - WCos
The friction coefficient depends upon the type of drilling fluid in the wellbore and the roughness of the
wellbore walls. Cased hole should have a lower friction coefficient than open hole. Untreated water
based muds will have a higher friction coefficient than oil based muds. Friction coefficients have been
reported to range from 0.1 to 0.3 for oil based muds and 0.2 to 0.4 for water based muds. When hole
curvature is considered, an additional force is added to the normal force. Pipe placed in a curved
wellbore under tension will exert a force proportional to the tension and rate of curvature change.
Buckling of the drill string while tripping into the wellbore causes an additional drag force. The
critical buckling load is a function of the inclination, pipe size and radial clearance. Once the
compressive forces in the drill string exceed the critical buckling load, an additional normal force is
imposed on the drill string increasing the drag force in sections of the wellbore.
The torque in the drill string is determined by the normal force times the friction coefficient and is the
force resisting rotation of the drill string. The torque and drag will increase as the tension and dogleg
severity increases. In normal directional wells, the drag is the main concern but as depth, inclination,
build rate and length of hold section increase the torque can become a major concern. Torque will also
limit the tension capability of drill pipe when combined with tensile loads.
There are three main ways to reduce the drag in the well; 1) change friction coefficient by changing
mud system, 2) change the directional profile or 3) change the string weight or tension. Since the drag
is proportional to the coefficient of friction, finding a way to reduce this value by half will halve the
drag.
Changing the directional profile can have significant benefits but if youve already drilled a good
portion of the profile, wiper/reamer trips to smooth out any ledges or doglegs in the build section can
have significant benefit.
Replacing drill collars with hevi-weight or regular drill pipe can have a significant effect on reducing
the tension and normal forces thus drag.
There are excellent torque and drag models in the market that very accurately predict values for a
chosen wellpath. It must be remembered this is just a model and one of its better design uses is for
comparison of different profiles with all other factors the same. Another very helpful place to utilize
this tool, is while drilling horizontal wells. Large changes between predicted and actual drag values
can indicate the hole is not cleaning. These models are also used to effectively design the drill string
from the bottom of the well to surface.
Spring 2002
Calgary
4/2002
4/2002
4/2002
1
Hydraulic Considerations
Keep the pump rate as high as possible for the
required flow rates
Mud pump pressure pulses at increased frequency
are filtered out by MWD surface gear
Make sure the pump liners are in good condition
Keep the pulsation dampeners fully charged
Maintain as constant weight on bit as possible,
particularly when drilling with mud motors
Mud additives should be mixed as uniformly as
possible
Avoid duplex mud pumps if possible
4/2002
Electromagnetic MWD
4/2002
4/2002
2
Tool Face
4/2002
3
This page intentionally left blank.
OPTIONAL TOPICS
Measurement While Drilling (MWD)
Most commercial MWD Systems use mud pulse or electromagnetic telemetry to transmit survey data
during tool operation. In Mud Pulse the mud pressure in the drill string is modulated to carry
information in digital form. Pressure pulses are converted to electric voltages by a transducer installed
in the pump discharge circuit (standpipe). Then this information is decoded by the surface equipment.
Tool measurements (toolface, inclination, azimuth etc.) are digitized downhole and then the measured
values are transmitted to the surface as a series of zeroes and ones. The surface pulse decoders
recognize these as representations of tool measurements. Many variations on the signal decoding exist
and manufacturer should be contacted to determine their method, although this can be proprietary
information. The electromagnetic system is more complicated and will be discussed later but it
essentially it measures the voltage potential difference at surface, that is generated by the
electromagnetic waves sent from the tool through the formation to surface, into zeros and ones as well.
With mud pulse telemetry there are generally three main systems in common use today. The positive
pulse telemetry uses a flow restrictor which when activated increases the stand pipe pressure.
Negative pulse tools have a diverter valve that vents a small amount of mudflow to the annulus when
energized. This decreases standpipe pressure momentarily. The third method is by standing (or
continuous) wave pulsers that use baffled plates, which temporarily interrupt mud flow creating a
pressure wave in the standpipe. Changes in relative rotation speed of the plates changes the wave
phasing. These phase changes are identified aat surface and decoded.
Positive pulse telemetry creates pressure pulses with a poppet type flow restrictor or a rotatlng valve.
Unlike the negative system, flow is never interrupted. The system is much more tolerant of LCM and
mud solids than either of the others, making its downhole reliability very good. It is also the least
affected by pump and mud motor noise. The tool can have its valve gap modified if pulse heights are
insufficient, or if too much pressure drop occurs in the tool during valve closure. Because of the large
pulse amplitudes, positive pulse is generally thought to be the most reliable for decoding.
All of these systems use surface transducers to record standpipe pressure. It is recommended to
provide a mounting device to allow the transducer to be vertically mounted above the mud flow
(threads down) to avoid mud solids settling out on the transducer element. This condition would
create decoding problems by reducing transducer efficiency.
HYDRAULIC CONSIDERATIONS
The drilling fluid system introduces noise during pump operation which can make MWD surface
equipment struggle to decode the tool signal from down-hole. MWD performance can be improved by
careful attention to the mud system.
Keep the pump rate as high as possible for the required flow rates. Mud pump pressure pulses at
increased pump frequency are filtered out by MWD surface gear. This reduces the effect of pump
noise on the MWD signal.
Make sure the pump liners are in good condition. Damaged liners cause so much noise they may
even have an identifiable signature on the surface pressure record. If the MWD engineer mentions
a bad liner signature - at least check it out.
Keep the pulsation dampeners fully charged. The ideal mud flow would be at constant pressure,
the only changes in system pressure being those of the MWD pulser. Properly charged dampeners
go a long way towards this ideal condition.
Maintain as constant weight on bit as possible, particularly when drilling with mud motors.
Changes in motor torque will themselves cause changes in standpipe pressure. By keeping these
to a minimum, reliability of signal decoding will be improved.
Mud additives should be mixed as uniformly as possible. Changes in viscosity and suspended
solids concentration can attenuate the MWD signal more than usual. Slugged additives can also
clog the tools.
Avoid duplex mud pumps if possible. Their noise is particularly difficult to filter.
The mud column is the mud pulse MWD tool communication line to the surface. Keeping this system
clean, uniform and as free as possible of induced noise can materially improve the quality of the
MWD job.
Geoservices began research into electromagnetic type transmission in 1982 with the first successful
field test achieved in 1983. Commercial operations commenced in 1984 when the technology was
applied to a pressure and temperature gauge and this was followed in 1987 by an MWD tool.
The electromagnetic wave travels (radially) through the formation to surface, guided along the
electrically conductive drill string. The electromagnetic low-voltage signal is then detected, amplified
and decoded at surface. The low frequency of the electromagnetic wave is chosen to optimize the data
transmission rate while minimizing signal attenuation and to give the longest possible transmission
range. Dry air or gas drilling provides results that are similar to a non conductive mud. Nitrogen, air,
or methane are excellent insulators therefore adding a mist or foam to these gases will improve
transmission efficiency.
One important consideration, when using the EM MWD, is the operational depth. The average depth
of operations today is 2315 m (7600 feet) TVD. The standard tool has been successfully run to 3750
m (12,300 feet) TVD, utilizing a single point of transmission. An extended cable and the latest
extended range EM MWD tools have extended this operational depth limit.
Since the dependence on drilling fluid properties is minimal all hydraulic concerns or pump issues can
be ignored with EM systems. They also have no moving parts which increases their reliability over
mud pulse systems.
Y axis in a plane perpendicular to the tool axis and used as reference for angular tool face
measurements. Usually passing through the scribe mark of the collar (reference for angular tool face).
Both set of orthogonal axes for inclinometers and magnetometers are aligned between each others at
manufacturing and assembling. Nevertheless, these mechanical alignments are not 100% accurate and
a calibration (in town) of the sensor package must be performed by the MWD vendor. All sensors are
subject to drift, both in temperature and due to possible internal magnetic interference. All drill collar
materials must be non-magnetic to avoid drill string magnetism interference with magnetometer
measurements. The calibration process is best achieved in a controlled magnetic environment and
using roll test procedures which output correction coefficients which are entered into the software
for computation of inclination, azimuth and tool face. Incorrect entry of these coefficients have caused
large errors in surveying and could have catastrophic consequences. The same applies for local
magnetic declination entering to the surface system.
TOOL FACE
Tool face (TF) is an angular measurement of the orientation of the BHA versus the top of the hole
(gravity tool face) or magnetic north (magnetic tool face). Reference for tool face is usually the
Scribe mark on the non-magnetic drill collar. Computation for tool face angles are made from
magnetometers. Accuracy requirement for tool face (typically +/- 1 to 2 degrees is not at all the same
as the one for Azimuth (typically +1- 0.5 degrees).
None of the directional sensors in common use have any moving parts other than the pulser system
and they are all very reliable. Several vendors have retrievable systems which can be replaced without
pulling the drill pipe by using slickline.
All MWD sensors must be calibrated in special facilities free of magnetic interference. Correction
coefficients are entered by software in surface processing.
The grid correction is a survey error caused by differences in map orientation. Most maps are drafted
to have true north be vertical. Because the maps are on rectangular coordinates and the earth is
spherical, errors occur at various surface locations. These errors are not added to the raw data display
on MWD or any other type of survey, but are used in map plotting of the survey.
Finally, MWD tools have an internal correction caused by misalignment of the sensor with the drill
collar during assembly. It only affects toolface readings and is added in by the MWD engineer during
display set up. While the correction does not affect the drillers operation, be aware that it exists and is
a possible source of survey error if entered incorrectly.
POWER SUPPLIES
Tool power is supplied by battery, a downhole alternator or both. Batteries allow tool operation
without mud flow. However their energy is limited. This means that the operating time is limited, and
the sensor power output is limited. While not normally a problem on directional - only services, with
the addition of formation evaluation sensors, the problem becomes more obvious. In addition,
batteries have limitations in temperature. Alternators solve the energy limit problem but introduce
some of their own. Mud pumps must be above a drop-out minimum rate for them to work, the
turbines necessary to drive them can clog, and they limit the flow rate range in which an individual
tool can operate.
Alternator tools must be tailored for the pumping system in use on the rig. Turbine stages are
configured for the expected mud flow rates. Expected flow rates are important information to set up
the job with alternator tools. The drilling engineer should be sure the MWD vendor has this
information well before the job is to begin. The alternator tools have an internal over-voltage
protection device which stops the tools should the alternator output exceed its limit.
TRANSMISSION TRIGGER
All MWD tools have a signal mechanism to tell the tool to begin data transmission. In this way the
surface equipment will be synchronized with the downhole tools data pulses allowing decoding.
The drillers dial, or rig floor display, has indicators for azimuth and inclination. They also have a
display for toolface orientation.
Tools often detect rotation by measuring the x and y (normal to tool axis) magnetic fields. If change
exceeds 240 degrees over a 10 second period, the tool switches to rotating mode. Rotating mode data
will be sent uphole if the tool is programmed to do so.
Synchronization of data bits is important! If the surface equipment loses communication with the
downhole tool for even a short time, whole timing sequences of data will be lost, as the surface
equipment cannot re-establish which bits represent which downhole data. A program has been written
into the tool logic to recognize these events and produce warning error codes.
Sometimes the existing rig hydraulics and necessary drilling program makes detection at higher data
rates difficult. Several of the MWD tools can be reprogrammed to transmit at lower speeds. While
this will increase the time between surface readings, it certainly is better than no surface readout at all!
MWD INFORMATION
In addition to the directional information todays MWD equipment also provides other information
depending upon the tool type and sophistication. New generation logging equipment is being
developed as we speak to reduce or eliminate the need for open hole logging. Although the cost of this
service can may be double the directional package the ability to get information quicker reducing the
time the hole is unsupported with casing can be invaluable. Unfortunately with this extra cost also
comes the increased lost-in-hole charges should the tools become stuck down hole.
Recently two variations in this tool have been made available to the industry. One type is called
focussed gamma ray and the other is called dynamic oriented gamma ray and both are used to help
reduce geological uncertainty. The focussed tool uses a shielded gamma probe with a known
orientation to the high side of the motor. If the vendor is smart, the shield is oriented directly to high
side of the motor. The data can only be interpreted into high side or low side readings if the tool is not
rotating. By positioning the motor high side, a gamma reading of the high side of the hole can be
obtained. The tool is generally oriented and then dragged backwards to provide a section view of the
high side gamma readings. Unfortunately the drill string typically turns while being dragged
backwards so true high side readings may not be obtained. Using this information the geologist can
compare the gamma readings to other vertical logs and determine if he is still in the sand.
The dynamic oriented gamma ray tool has an accelerometer tied into the shield orientation so every
time a gamma count is taken the tool face is also recorded to determine what portion of the hole the
reading came from. This data is then stored into separate banks of high side and low side data that is
sent to surface so the changes in gamma counts on the high side and low side of the hole are known
while rotating. Static checks can be made similar to the focussed gamma ray tool. It is important to
remember that if you are slide drilling this data is only being collected from the high side of the motor
and not necessarily from the high side of the wellbore. The oriented gamma ray tool had excellent
success in horizontal wells and reduced the number of sidetracks required since they were able to stay
in the zone better. One project recorded an average of 2 sidetracks per lateral without the tool and
one sidetrack per 50 wells with the tool.
TEMPERATURE SURVEYS
Temperature surveys are also taken from the inside of the drill string to monitor downhole circulating
temperatures. This is important to protect the MWD tools that have lower temperature limitations.
The main risk with high temperatures besides damaging the probes is a dangerous battery explosion
potential when the tools are brought back to surface.
OTHER SENSORS
Currently a limited number of logging while drilling tools (resistivity, density, neutron porosity and
acoustic porosity) are readily available. Also vibration, bending moment, torque, bit RPM and weight
on bit sensors are available on some products. Limited quantity and sizes are currently available for
these sensors and many are sensitive to the dogleg severity they are either slide or rotated through. In
this decade look for some remarkable changes in the available sensors of MWD and LWD equipment.
The standard system provides drill string orientation and temperature information as measured
downhole by the SAM. The SAM is initially programmed through the CID at surface to operate in a
user specified mode downhole. This mode determines how and in what order the data will be acquired
from its own sensors and from other sub-assemblies (gamma ray).
The SAM is cued by a mud flow sensor to begin a transmission sequence; this consists of a
synchronization pulse followed by frames of data. The typical frame pattern consists of a long frame
containing survey data (typically 120 sec) followed by repeated short update frames (12 sec) of one or
more critical data items. All data is transmitted using a patented encryption algorithm which ensures
data integrity. The data transmission will shut down when the mud flow stops, or earlier, depending
on the mode of operation. Typical modes include survey, steering, raw, calculated etc.
The data can be plotted on screen or on the plotter on an ongoing basis during MWD transmission.
The software also evaluates the data transmission to aid the operator for troubleshooting.
Rig sensors are easily installed and connect to one cable on the rig floor. This cable transmits sensor
information from the hazardous location to the interface display in the operations wellsite shack.
Additional readouts can be connected to provide data to other locations around the rig.
The gamma ray sensor is a digital acquisition system utilizing a scintillation detector. It is field
programmable for sample time and rates (typically every 24 seconds) and stored in non-volatile
memory. As previously discussed a focused or dynamic oriented gamma ray options area available.
PROGRAMMABILITY
The operator can program the tool (on surface) for the parameters needed for a specific well. Some
programmable features include:
1. Data rate
2. Order in which data is sent to surface
3. Length of time in which sensors are sampled for acquiring data.
4. Angle at which tool changes from magnetic updates to gravitational updates
5. Type of data sent to surface (raw or calculated)
6. Threshold at which the magnetic anomaly or vibration flag is set
7. Which integrity checks are sent to surface after transmission of data
8. Resolution of rapid tool-face updates (normally 2.0 degree every 12 seconds)
9. Threshold for rotary mode. Tool-faces are not sent during rotary mode to conserve power
consumption
update
update
update
update
139 sec
232 sec
TF
TF
TF
TF
Directional Pressure up Calculated
TF update
TF update
TF update
TF update
TF update
calc data delay 45 sec survey
12 sec
12 sec
12 sec
12 sec
12 sec
Angle,
153 sec azimuth
48 sec
Directional Pressure up Static survey TF update TF update
and delay 45 sec Temp, angle, azimuth, TF gamma ray gamma
gamma 139 sec reading ray
raw data 24 sec reading
232 sec
24 sec
Directional Pressure up Calculated TF update TF update
and delay 45 sec survey gamma ray gamma ray
gamma Angle, reading reading
calc data azimuth 24 sec 24 sec
141 sec
48 sec
During the static survey continuous temperature, drift angle, azimuth and tool face updates are
provided by the tool.