International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 64 (2018) 340353

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and

Geoinformation
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jag

Comparison of lithological mapping results from airborne

hyperspectral VNIR-SWIR, LWIR and combined data
Jilu Feng a , Derek Rogge b , Benoit Rivard a,
a
1-26 Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, T6G2E3, Canada
b
German Remote Sensing Data Center, DLR, Munchnerstr. 20, D-82234, Germany, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study investigates using the Airborne Hyperspectral Imaging Systems (AISA) visible and short-
Received 31 October 2016 wave infrared (SWIR) and Spatially Enhanced Broadband Array Spectrograph System (SEBASS) longwave
Received in revised form 6 March 2017 infrared (LWIR) (2 and 4 m spatial resolution, respectively) imagery independently and in combination
Accepted 10 March 2017
to produce detailed lithologic maps in a subarctic region (Cape Smith Belt, Nunavik, Canada) where
Available online 23 March 2017
regionally metamorphosed lower greenschist mac, ultramac and sedimentary rocks are exposed in
the presence of lichen coatings. We make use of continuous wavelet analysis (CWA) to improve the
Keywords:
radiometric quality of the imagery through the minimization of random noise and the enhancement of
Short wave infrared
Long wave infrared
spectral features, the minimization of residual errors in the ISAC radiometric correction and target tem-
Wavelet analysis perature estimation in the case of the LWIR data, the minimization of line to line residual calibration
Airborne hyperspectral effects that lead to inconsistencies in data mosaics, and the reduction in variability of the spectral con-
Geological mapping tinuum introduced by variable illumination and topography. The use of CWA also provides a platform to
directly combine the wavelet scale spectral proles of the SWIR and LWIR after applying a scalar correc-
tion factor to the LWIR such that the dynamic range of two data sets have equal weight. This is possible
using CWA as the datasets are normalized to a zero mean allowing spectra from different spectral regions
to be adjoined.
Lithologic maps are generated using an iterative spectral unmixing approach with image spectral end-
members extracted from the SWIR and LWIR imagery based on locations dened from previous work of
the study area and eld mapping information. Unmixing results of the independent SWIR and LWIR data,
and the combined data show clear benets to using the CWA combined imagery. The analysis showed
SWIR and LWIR imagery highlight similar regions and spatial distributions for the three ultramac units
(dunite, peridotite, pyroxenite). However, signicant differences are observed for quartz-rich sediments,
with the SWIR overestimating the distribution of these rocks whereas the LWIR provided more consis-
tent results compared with existing maps. Both SWIR and LWIR imagery were impacted by the pervasive
lichen coatings on the mac rocks (basalts and gabbros), although the SWIR provided better results than
the LWIR. Limitations observed for the independent data sets were removed using the combined spec-
tral data resulting in all geologically meaningful units mapped correctly in comparison with existing
geological maps.
2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Regional lithological mapping in Northern regions is costly and
challenging owing to poor accessibility and a short working sea-
son. Remote sensing is particularly suited to assist in mapping of
expansive regions, such as northern Canada. Satellite and airborne
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: jfeng@ualberta.ca (J. Feng), derek.rogge@dlr.de (D. Rogge),
benoit.rivard@ualberta.ca (B. Rivard).
imaging systems are becoming more readily available and can
be used in support of regional mapping and mineral exploration.
This study makes use of a unique data set that comprises visible
(VIS), short wave infrared (SWIR) and long wave infrared (LWIR)
airborne hyperspectral imagery to assess improved mapping capa-
bilities over a geologically interesting and economically important
sub arctic region in Nunavik, Canada. Mapping the distribution and
compositional diversity of the lithologies in the region, specically
the ultramac rocks (e.g. dunite, peridotite, olivine pyroxenite, and
pyroxenite) which are host to Nickel-Copper-Platinum Group Ele-

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2017.03.003
0303-2434/ 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 64 (2018) 340353
ments (PGE) mineralization, has great value to facilitate regional
eld mapping and support exploration activities.
In a few case studies over northern Canada, reectance
spectroscopy data over the wavelength range of approximately
0.42.5 m (VIS to SWIR; hereforth referred to as SWIR) has been
used for mineral identication and mapping lithology. For example,
Harris et al. (2005) and Rogge et al. (2009) used airborne Probe-1
hyperspectral data to map carbonates, semipelites, ultramac and
felsic intrusive rocks on southern Bafn Island. Airborne Hyper-
spectral Imaging Systems (AISA) airborne SWIR data and simulated
satellite Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP)
data (Rogge et al., 2014) were used to map the distribution of mac
and ultramac units in the Cape Smith Belt. Leverington (2010)
demonstrated the merits of using SWIR Hyperion hyperspectral
satellite data over Melville Island for the lithologic discrimination of
sedimentary rocks. SWIR airborne hyperspectral data has become
readily available with many sensors on the market. However, the
use and availability of LWIR (7.514.0 m) airborne hyperspec-
tral systems has been less common, although in recent years this
has improved with the availability of sensors such as Spatially
Enhanced Broadband Array Spectrograph System (SEBASS), the
Telops Hypercam, the AISA OWL system of Specim and the TASI
system of ITRES Research.
SWIR and LWIR data are typically used independently to map
geology and/or assess the advantages of each wavelength range.
Recently, the integrated analysis of SWIR and LWIR data for geolog-
ical and mineral mapping has been studied. For example, Notesco
et al. (2016) used SWIR and LWIR to map minerals in an arid region
of Israel with sparse vegetation. Analysis was pursued for each data
set and outputs were combined to generate an integrated result
that was in agreement with the geological map of the area and
the importance of integrating SWIR and LWIR data to map all key
minerals was highlighted. Kruse (2015) conducted studies on the
synergistic analysis of mapping results from SWIR and LWIR data
for geological mapping over regions with well exposed outcrops in
arid terranes such as Cuprite, Nevada. Their approach for combining
SWIR and LWIR was to directly link the atmospherically corrected
SWIR reectance spectra with LWIR emissivity. This was followed
by an MNF transformation of the combined data, endmember
extraction and partial unmixing to map geology. In their work
an additional approach made use of logical operators to combine
information from specic spectral ranges to subdivide minerals.
McDowell and Kruse (2015) used a similar integrated approach to
map geology in another arid region along the California-Nevada
border. Both studies showed improved geological mapping from
the integrated data sets.
Remote sensing geology in northern regions, compared with
the arid regions noted above, presents specic challenges on the
retrieval of useful information from spectra. One such challenge
is the impact of rock-encrusting lichens, which are symbiotic
organisms particularly well adapted to extreme environmental
conditions and they are pervasive on bedrock in northern terranes.
They can be highly variable in type and coverage depending on
local micro climatic conditions and the underlying rock type (Harris
et al., 2005; Rogge et al., 2009). A number of studies have inves-
tigated the spectral characteristics of lichens revealing that they
prevent transmission of SWIR and LWIR light to the underlying
rock effectively masking the mineral substrate (Ager and Milton,
1987; Bechtel et al., 2002; Feng et al., 2013). Spectral features of
lichen from 0.41.3 m can be quite variable owing to differences
in pigments, but in the 1.72.5 m range lichens are generally sim-
ilar (Bechtel et al., 2002; Rogge et al., 2014). In the LWIR lichens
display low reectance (<1.6%) and spectral contrast and approach
a blackbody behavior. Detailed observations reveal that lichens dis-
play three features that can be attributed to organic compounds in
lichens (Feng et al., 2013). Spectral mixing of lichens and their rock
341
substrate can occur at the scale of single crystals. This mixing can
cause confusion in the identication of mineralogy owing to shifts
in absorption features (e.g. Zhang et al., 2005; Laakso et al., 2015).
Another challenge for spectral sensing in northern terranes
relates to the high latitude where low solar illumination angles
result in high variability in illumination, especially when the ter-
rane is not at. Additionally, there is often a dearth of high
resolution digital elevation data in these regions to support the
atmospheric correction of SWIR and LWIR imagery. Regionally
extensive airborne surveys are normally conducted over the course
of many days and contain across ight-line calibration issues, given
that ground calibration targets are not present within each ight
line. As such, theoretical illumination and models of atmospheric
conditions are applied to the radiometric calibration of data from
multiple areas/days. Thus, continuous lithologic mapping from
reectance data across multiple ight lines acquired over multiple
days becomes a challenge. Furthermore, for LWIR imagery, chang-
ing surface temperatures will modulate the spectral signatures of
targets and residual effects of the temperature estimation during
radiometric calibration subsequently impacting the uniformity of
mapping products.
Continuous wavelet analysis (CWA) as a methodology has been
shown to enhance useful spectral signatures embedded in airborne
SWIR and LWIR data, minimize non-compositional effects, and
reduce sensor related issues caused by variable illumination. CWA
has been used to analyse point measurement eld/laboratory spec-
tra (Rivard et al., 2008) and for hyperspectral images acquired in a
laboratory setting (Feng et al., 2011; Speta et al., 2015) under con-
trolled conditions of uniform illumination and target orientation
(e.g. cut drill core). However, to our knowledge the use of CWA has
not yet been tested in the analysis of mosaics of airborne imagery
or spaceborne hyperspectral data that inherently display variable
illumination and topography. In such settings, the method has also
not been evaluated in combination with quantitative mapping tools
such spectral unmixing for mapping geological materials.
The SWIR and LWIR hyperspectral data sets available for this
study are at similar spatial resolution (2 and 4 m, respectively),
allowing for a separate (SWIR and LWIR only) and a combined
assessment of these data for geological mapping capabilities in a
northern terrane. The objectives of this study are multi-fold: 1) rst
to make use of CWA to improve the radiometric quality of imagery
within and across ightlines; 2) then to make use of the inherent
ability of CWA to enhance compositional rock features from air-
borne SWIR and LWIR hyperspectral data; 3) then use CWA as a
methodology to combine SWIR and LWIR hyperspectral data into
one dataset; 4) to explore if spectral unmixing can be used read-
ily in the wavelet domain for mapping; and lastly, 5) to assess the
ability of SWIR, LWIR and the combined hyperspectral dataset for
mapping lithological units in a northern terrane characterized by
a high degree of lichen and rock mixing. Comparing the mapping
capability of these two datasets individually and in combination
for an extensive airborne survey will provide valuable knowledge
towards the planning of airborne surveys.
2. Study site and geology
The study area is located in the eastern part of the Cape Smith
Belt (nominally 62 latitude, 73 longitude), located in the Ungava
peninsula (Fig. 1), Quebec, Canada. The 1.9 Ga Proterozoic belt is
a 325 km long by 60 km wide fold and thrust belt that consti-
tutes the Ungava segment of the Trans-Hudson orogen (Parrish,
1989). The Belt evolved between 2.038 and 1.829 Ga (Machado
et al., 1993) during a series of divergent and convergent tec-
tonic phases, and consists of ve distinct Early Proterozoic tectonic
units (Parent/Spartan, Povungnituk, Chukotat, Watts), separating
342 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 64 (2018) 340353
Fig. 1. Regional geology of Nunavik, Quebec and study area location.
Source: modied from Rogge et al. (2014).
the Archean gneisses of the Superior Province in the south from
the Churchill Province gneisses to the north (Narsajuaq) (Modeland
et al., 2003). Only sparse vegetation comprising grasses, mosses and
shrubs occur in the region, with rock encrusting lichens predomi-
nant on bedrock surfaces. For geological mapping this is particularly
challenging for packages of rocks with similar mineralogy (e.g.
mac to ultramac).
The Cape Smith Belt is the fourth largest magmatic Ni-Cu-
platinum group element (PGE) resource in Canada (Lydon, 2007)
where deposits are associated with regionally metamorphosed
lower greenschist ultramac sills and intrusions (50200 m) that
outcrop discontinuously (dunite, peridotite, pyroxenite, gabbro)
within the study area (Fig. 2a). The geology of the Cape Smith belt
is well established owing to the long-standing economic interest,
which started with the rst showings in 1898 located in the west-
ern part of the belt (Lesher, 2007) and continues today. However,
in many parts exploration and development is at an early stage
which has led to the deployment of a large scale SWIR and LWIR
hyperspectral surveys that is used in this study.
3. Data acquisition and preprocessing
3.1. Airborne data
Two airborne surveys were conducted from late July to early
September, 2008, that comprised SWIR data collected with the
Specim AISA system and LWIR data acquired by the SEBASS sen-
sor. For the AISA data 20 ight-lines were used, each approximately
20 km long and 650 m in width having an average overlap of 30%.
The data was atmospherically corrected using ATCOR4 (Richter and
Schlapfer, 2002) and the resulting at surface reectance data con-
tains 178 bands (0.402.45 m) at a spectral resolution of 10 nm
and a spatial resolution of 2 m. A total of 128 bands were retained for
further analysis with bands having atmospheric effects and poorer
signal to noise (1.371.52 and 1.802.01 m) or anomalous fea-
tures (1.01.015 m) being removed. Pre-processing steps that
included dark pixel masking and steps for generation of the AISA
mosaic including geocorrection, cross-track illumination correc-
tion, and spectral line levelling are detailed in a previous study
(Rogge et al., 2014). For the LWIR analysis, ten ight lines of SEBASS
data (30% overlap) were selected. The SEBASS data has a spatial
resolution of 4 m, comprises 128 bands within the 7.6513.55 m
range. The in scene atmospheric compensation method (ISAC,
Young et al., 2002; Johnson, 1998) was used for a rst order cor-
rection of atmospheric effects and to convert the data to at-surface
emissivity before mosaicking. A total of 82 contiguous bands from
8.08 to 12.05 m were retained for further analysis owing to the
fact that this spectral region contains diagnostic spectral features
related to the lithological units of interest. Bands outside this region
had poor signal to noise. A spatial region approximately 5.5 km
by 3.5 km where the SWIR and LWIR image mosaics overlap was
retained as the study area and includes various ultramac, mac
and sedimentary lithological units (Fig. 2b).
3.2. Field samples and XRD data
In 2009 and 2010 over 500 eld sites were characterized with
respect to rock type and lichen cover, which included the collec-
tion of 52 rock samples for laboratory spectral measurements and
mineralogical determination with X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis.
Rogge et al. (2014) provides a description of the sample data set,
XRD results and collection of spectral data and resulting spectral
libraries. In brief, the sample suite is dominated by four rock types
namely basalt, gabbro, pyroxenite, and peridotite, but also includes
a number of representative sedimentary rocks. Samples comprised
natural weathered surfaces (larger than 20 20 cm) to allow com-
parison between laboratory spectra and spectra extracted from
the airborne imagery. Previous research (Rogge et al., 2014) on
these samples indicates that the weathered surfaces of the varied
ultramac and mac rocks are comprised of similar mineralogy,
but the rock units differ in the relative abundance of dominant
minerals, which complicates their discrimination and mapping.
For example the peridotites are comprised primarily of antigorite,
diopside, clinochlore, and magnetite, whereas pyroxenites are
comprised of antigorite, talc, clinochlore, Fe-amphibole, and mag-
netite. The gabbros and basalts have Ca-amphibole (actinolite),
clinochlore, phlogopite, epidote, and albite/orthoclase. Mapping
the occurrence and abundance of specic minerals (e.g. antig-
orite, actinolite and clinochlore) was crucial for mapping variability
within mac/ultramac units. Sedimentary rocks included a variety
of siliceous and calcareous types. XRD analysis was not conducted
on these samples as the original research was focused on the dis-
crimination of mac and ultramac rocks of relevance to mineral
exploration.
3.3. Laboratory spectral collection
SWIR spectral measurements of the sample natural weathered
surfaces were collected on multiple random spots (411spots, 2 cm
diameter per spot) using a ASD FieldSpec Pro spectrometer, which
has 2151 bands ranging from 0.35 to 2.5 m with a 2 nm spectral
resolution. Each spectrum was the results 25 co-adds. The spectra
of the measured spots of each sample were averaged to obtain a
representative spectrum of the exposed surface. LWIR reectance
spectra (bidirectional) were then collected over the same spots
using an MB100 Fourier transform InfraRed (FTIR) spectrometer.
Each spectrum is the outcome of 32 co-adds and has 2 cm1 reso-
lution from 1.7 to 14.0 m. The laboratory SWIR and LWIR spectra
were rst used to label spectral features based on minerals deter-
mined from XRD analysis. The spectra were then used to assess if
these spectral features could be detected from airborne AISA and
SEBASS data and then to label the image endmembers used for
regional mapping.
4. Spectral analysis methodology
In order to test the usefulness of CWA applied to SWIR, LWIR
and combined spectral imagery for geological mapping a single
processing chain was implemented (Fig. 3). This also allows for
 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 64 (2018) 340353
Fig. 2. (A) Geological Survey of Canada map (GSC) (1:50,000) showing the main lithological units in the study area (St-Onge and Lucas, 1993). Region names are overlain
on the map for later reference. (B) True colour (Red641, Green546, Blue463 nm) reectance image of the study area with locations for known lithological units used in
subsequent analysis of the SWIR, LWIR and combined wavelet imagery.
Fig. 3. Key algorithms and processing chain for mapping with SWIR, LWIR and
combined spectral imagery.
a direct comparison between each image data set. This process-
ing chain comprises CWA, endmember selection, spectral unmixing
and thematic map generation.
343
4.1. Continuous wavelet spectral analysis
In this paper we made use of a previously published spectral
pre-processing methodology, namely continuous spectral wavelet
analysis (CWA) (Rivard et al., 2008; Lyder et al., 2010; Cheng et al.,
2011; Feng et al., 2011, 2012, 2013). The general principle behind
this technique is that a reectance spectrum can be represented as a
sum of wave-like functions (wavelets) (Torrence and Compo, 1998).
Using CWA we can represent an original reectance spectrum as
a suite of wavelets, each capturing spectral features of different
widths, here referred to as scales. The rst step was to compute
the mean of the reectance spectrum for the entire spectral range
which was then subtracted from each band. This ensures that the
wavelets are comparable between scales and also that the wavelets
from different spectra are comparable at the same scale. The shape
of the wavelet base was chosen as the 2nd order derivative of Gaus-
sian commonly abbreviated as DOG (Muraki, 1995). In prior studies
(Rivard et al., 2008; Feng et al., 2011, 2013) we established that
this wavelet base is effective in isolating spectral features from
their continuum and in minimizing non-compositional effects (e.g.
mineral grain size, illumination, etc.). Wavelet power spectra were
calculated for 10 scales, each capturing spectral features of differ-
ent widths from the original reectance (or emissivity) spectra. The
scales of lower value (e.g. 1,2) capture the small-scale structure
of the reectance spectra (e.g. random noise) while the scales of
higher value (e.g. 9,10) capture the large-scale structure (e.g. the
baseline, spectral continuum).
For the SWIR and LWIR data, scales 25 were summed in
this study. Removing the rst and high scales minimizes random
noise and provides a continuum-removed representation of spec-
tra. In the case of the LWIR imagery removal of higher scales also
minimizes systematic calibration errors (e.g. temperature effects).
Spectra of samples were used to determine the unique spectral fea-
tures of rock units and guide the selection of the wavelet scales that
were summed to retain lithological features.
4.2. Combining SWIR and LWIR data
In order to compare mapping outcomes from the analysis of
SWIR, LWIR, and the combination of SWIR and LWIR data, a com-
bined dataset needed to be assembled. Prior to this step both
datasets had to be spatially co-registered. Here we make use of
a standard co-registration approach that uses 33 ground control
points (GCP). Delaunay triangulation with nearest neighbor resam-
344 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 64 (2018) 340353
pling is used with resulting residual errors calculated as 3.49 pixels
for the SWIR data, which is less than one pixel for the LWIR imagery.
Then the lower spatial resolution LWIR data (4 m/pixel) were re-
sampled to the SWIR data (2 m/pixel). At this stage one could pursue
a comparative analysis of SWIR and LWIR data using the analy-
sis described in the following section, but the combined data still
had to be assembled. The SWIR and LWIR dataset were combined
following their transformation using CWA (Fig. 3). The CWA nor-
malizes each spectrum to a zero mean that allows spectral data
from different spectral regions to be adjoined independent of their
representation (e.g. reectance or emissivity). In this study, the 108
band LWIR emissivity data was adjoined to the 128 band SWIR
reectance data by applying a multiplicative scale factor. This fac-
tor was determined by considering the dynamic range (minimum
to maximum) of the LWIR in comparison with the SWIR data. From
this comparison a factor of 10 was calculated and applied to the
LWIR data to render it comparable to that of the SWIR data. This
insured equal weight of both spectral ranges in downstream anal-
ysis.
4.3. Endmember selection
The identication of surface materials and image classication
using remote sensing imagery is made difcult as few image pixels
display pure spectra (Settle and Drake, 1993). Spectral mixture
analysis has been shown to be an effective approach to classify
remote sensing images with its ability to deconvolve mixed pixel
spectrum into fractional abundances of its surface components or
endmember spectra (Adams et al., 1993). This approach requires a
set of input endmembers that represent pure spectra of the rep-
resentative materials in a given scene, where these endmembers
can be extracted directly from the imagery, such that all relevant
materials are included that represent true surfaces and are under
the same viewing and illumination conditions as all spectra in the
scene. Classication of the imagery using endmembers and spectral
mixture analysis was chosen over other hard classier approaches
owing to the natural mixing characteristics within the scene at
the given spectral resolutions, specically between the lithological
materials of interest and non-geological materials such as vegeta-
tion. This approach has been shown to work successfully in similar
terrains and methodology is well understood by the authors.
In this study representative image endmember spectra were
derived for regions of interest (ROIs) dened primarily from pre-
vious work (Rogge et al., 2014), from eld mapping completed in
2009 and 2010, and from existing geological maps (e.g. St-Onge
and Lucas, 1993). Regions of interest (ROIs) were selected for key
lithological units and for non-lithological materials (snow, water
and vegetation). In total 27 lithological ROIs were selected (refer
to Fig. 2a for locations) with an additional 8 selected for snow (2
ROIs), water (2 ROIs) and vegetation (4 ROIs). The lithological ROIs
include ultramac, mac, sedimentary and gossans rocks for a total
of 9 classes (Table 1). Each ROI is used to generate a spectral end-
member, which is the average of all pixels within the given ROI.
As such, each class has multiple endmembers (excluding class M3
which has only 1 ROI), which captures intra-class variability that
can be used in the unmixing process to improve results (Van der
Meer and Jia, 2012). Lithological class labels given in Table 1 are
based on eld and mapping knowledge, and from XRD results and
spectral analysis of samples collected in the eld. These ROIs were
used in both SWIR, LWIR and combined imagery to provide equiv-
alent endmember data sets for direct comparison of the mapping
results.
4.4. Spectral unmixing and resulting thematic maps
In order to map the spatial distribution of the selected image
endmembers derived from the ROIs, spectral unmixing was used
to process the SWIR, LWIR and combined data. In this study we
made use of the iterative spectral mixture analysis (ISMA) (Rogge
et al., 2006), which has been shown to be effective in optimiz-
ing the endmembers relevant to each pixel being processed (e.g.
per pixel endmember set) prior to unmixing. The ISMA approach
assumes a linear mixing model and makes use of a RMS (root-
mean-square) error prole to determine the optimized per pixel
endmember set. This optimization approach allows ISMA to make
use of multiple endmembers per class. It is a heuristic approach for
spectral unmixing and has been used effectively in previous stud-
ies to analyse airborne reectance data with signal-to-noise ratio
better than 50:1 (Rogge et al., 2009, 2014). This requirement is not
an issue for the AISA and SEBASS data, particularly when applied to
the wavelet representation of these data given the value of CWA for
noise minimization. For unmixing the multiple endmembers for the
9 lithological classes (27 total spectra) and the 3 non-lithological
classes (8 total spectra) are input into ISMA. The resulting endmem-
ber abundance maps are subsequently summed together for each
of the 9 lithological (Table 1) and 3 non-lithological classes.
The summed class abundance maps are then used to gener-
ate thematic maps showing the distribution of the 9 lithological
classes, a product consistent with traditional geological maps. A
median 3 3 lter is then applied to each summed class abundance
map to reduce pixel to pixel abundance variance before the gener-
ation of the thematic map. For the thematic map, each pixel class
assignment is based on the lithological class with the highest frac-
tional abundance for the given pixel. No class assignment is given
to pixels with a maximum class fraction below 25%, thus regions
of rock mixtures with snow, water or high vegetation cover are not
classied.
5. Results
5.1. Merits of the wavelet representation of the SWIR and LWIR
imagery
Continuous wavelet analysis was applied to airborne data to
improve the detection of spectral features. By analyzing the wavelet
power spectra of a limited number of scales (sum of scales 25
in this case), the random noise commonly seen in SEBASS data
was minimized and captured in scale 1, a scale not retained. This
merit can be visualized from a comparison of a three band com-
posite (Fig. 4) shown in emissivity and in wavelet representation.
In addition residual errors in the ISAC radiometric correction and
target temperature estimation inuence the emissivity estimation
and impact the spectral continuum. These effects reside in scales
>5 and are thus minimized in our CWA results (Fig. 4b). Spectral
features that are 432 bands in width include features of silicate
minerals in the Restrahlen region and are retained in the scale 25
summation. This benet can be illustrated in Fig. 5 comparing ISAC
corrected emissivity spectra for single pixels at two locations of well
exposed outcrops (A = quartz-rich sediments, B = ultramac rock,
locations on Fig. 4) with equivalent CWA emissivity spectra. The
quartz doublet feature near 89 m can be seen in the ISAC cor-
rected emissivity (Fig. 5a), but the spectrum is impacted by noise
due to residual atmospheric features and the continuum is tilted.
The wavelet power spectra (Fig. 5b) provide a clearer representa-
tion of mineral features as the spectra are less noisy and readily
comparable in spectral shape and feature locations to laboratory
reectance spectra collected from samples (Fig. 5c). As seen in Fig. 4,
the CWA method is also capable of minimizing line to line resid-
 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 64 (2018) 340353 345

Table 1
Nine lithological endmember classes and number of ROIs per class.

Class UM1 UM2 UM3 M1 M2 M3 S1 S2 G

Lithology Ultramac Ultramac Ultramac Mac Mac Mac Sediment Sediment Gossan
(Class Label) (Dunite) (Peridotite) (Pyroxenite) (Gabbro) (Gabbro/Basalt) (Basalt) (Quartz- (Quartz +
rich) mica/clay)
No. of ROIs 3 4 3 5 2 1 3 3 3

Fig. 4. Color composites (red = 8.79 m, green = 10.05 m, blue = 11.08 m) of a mosaic of 10 SEBASS ight lines encompassing the study area. (a) ISAC corrected emissivity,
(b) sum of wavelet scales 25. Points A and B mark the location of spectra shown on Fig. 5.

ual calibration effects that lead to inconsistencies in data mosaics.
CWA minimizes disparities in spectral baseline (e.g. continuum)
between pixels, and thus mosaics are improved facilitating consis-
tent mapping of targets across different areas and across multiple
ight lines.
The same rock units appear more spatially continuous across
multiple ight lines on the mosaic of the wavelet data. However, a
couple of ight lines in the south east portion of the LWIR data
show additional distortions that cannot be corrected for, which
subsequently impact the unmixing results.
Similarly, CWA was benecial for minimizing random noise and
enhancing spectral features in the SWIR data (Fig. 6). In the SWIR
region, non-compositional effects such as variable illumination that
modulate the spectral continuum can also be minimized. This prop-
erty contributes to minimizing radiometric discrepancies among
multiple ight lines and improves the spatial continuity of rock
units seen in mosaics of SWIR data. Fig. 6 shows spectra from two
pixels located on different ight lines and labelled as peridotite on
the geological map (Fig. 2). The reectance spectra of these pixels
(Fig. 6a) are similar in terms of overall spectral shape but differ in
the amplitude of reectance. In the wavelet representation (Fig. 6b)
amplitude differences, which may be caused by illumination vari-
ability, are removed and spectral features that relate to composition
are retained.
The enlarged portion of Fig. 6a suggests that the spectral position
and strength of absorption features centered near 2.302.32 m
(marked with arrows on Fig. 6a) can be affected by noise in
reectance spectra. The wavelet representation reveals a single
absorption with a minor displacement in center position and dif-
ferences in the feature strength. This displacement may be related
346 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 64 (2018) 340353
Fig. 5. LWIR emissivity spectra of a quartz-rich sediment labelled A and ultramac
rock labelled B at the center of locations A & B shown on Fig. 4: (a) ISAC corrected
emissivity spectra. The dash-dotted lines approximate the uncorrected spectral con-
tinuum of the two spectra, (b) Wavelet power spectra (sum of scales 25) of the
same pixels, (c) Average laboratory emissivity spectra of natural surfaces of samples
collected in the eld from similar rock units.
Fig. 6. SWIR spectra of two pixels from the same map unit (peridotite) on different
ight lines: (a) Reectance spectra, with arrows pointing to subtle features that
differ in band position and depth. (b) Wavelet power spectra (sum of scales 25) of
the same pixels. Grey bars mark the spectral regions of the enlarged portions.
to subtle differences in the modal mineralogy of antigorite or acti-
nolite in the two spatially separated peridodite rock units. As seen
below, such differences proved important (by high spectral reso-
lution laboratory spectra) for the determination and mapping of
sub-categories of ultramac rocks.
5.2. Spectral features seen in endmembers
Laboratory spectral measurements of samples and XRD analysis
were used to identify spectral features observed in the spectra of
image endmembers listed in Table 1. This procedure took advan-
tage of the enhanced spectral resolution of the laboratory data in
comparison to that of image endmembers obtained from the air-
borne data. Key mineral features were observed in both datasets
and Fig. 7 displays the results of this analysis for a selection of class
endmembers spanning the suite of lithologic types.
In the SWIR region (Fig. 7a), we note the presence of ve fea-
tures: absorptions at 0.594 m and 0.685 m seen in gossans and
1.730 m attributed to lichens, a reectance peak at 2.213 m and
absorptions near 2.3152.325 m whose center is displaced as a
function of the relative presence of antigorite or actinolite. The
same endmembers observed in the LWIR spectra (Fig. 7b) display
greater contrast than in the SWIR showcasing broader absorption
features that span a broader range of unique wavelength locations.
 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 64 (2018) 340353
Fig. 7. Average ROI spectra for ve of the endmembers encompassing the range of
lithological types in the study area: (a) SWIR data, (b) LWIR data. See Table 1 for
lithological types.
When one observes the spectrum of individual endmembers, the
mac representative (M1) displays the least contrast (e.g. low-
est amplitude of features) consistent with eld observations of
uniformly high lichen cover for mac rocks. The effect of rock
encrusting lichens in rock-lichen spectral mixtures is to decrease
spectral contrast (Feng et al., 2013).
LWIR spectral features (Fig. 7b) can be observed for the follow-
ing minerals: antigorite (9.54 m, 9.20 m, 10.20 m), actinolite
(8.72 m, 9.27 m, 10.03 m), clinochlore (9.27 m, 9.67 m,
10.38 m) and augite (8.85 m, 11.52 m). The presence of these
features in endmember spectra of mac and ultramac units (e.g.
UM1, UM2, M1) is consistent with XRD results that conrm the
presence of these minerals in samples of such lithologies. Changes
in the relative strength of these features from endmember to end-
member (especially for antigorite, actinolite and clinochlore) are
responsible for the shift in the main absorptions as a function
of spectral mixing. This indicates that the relative abundance of
these minerals is crucial to the differentiation of ultramac litholo-
gies. Metasediments (e.g endmember S1) display a doublet feature
at 8.209.00 m attribute to quartz and the endmember spectra
of gossans displays a characteristic feature centered at 9.18 m
attributed to amorphous silica. When the SWIR and LWIR data are
combined, spectral information described above from both spectral
regions are integrated into a single spectrum. The analysis of such
data is expected to improve mapping results.
347
5.3. Comparison of SWIR and LWIR fractional abundances
For unmxing we used the same ISMA input parameters as used
in Rogge et al. (2014), with the maximum number of endmem-
bers per pixel set to 5 and the stopping criteria for the number of
optimized endmembers (delta RMS) set to 0.1 (10%) change. The
resulting average number of endmembers per pixel were 3.01 for
the combined, 2.96 for the SWIR and 2.85 for the LWIR.
The fractional abundance maps derived from SWIR and LWIR
imagery are rst compared to highlight key differences in the map-
ping of ultramac, mac, sediments + gossans and non-lithological
components. These differences are shown using RGB composites of
each of the above four groups (Fig. 8) with a white background to
improve visualization. The histogram of each fractional abundance
map was assigned to a colour and contrast optimized for clarity.
For the three ultramac units, both the SWIR and LWIR map out-
puts highlight similar regions and spatial distributions that appear
as a single unit (peridotite/olivine-pyroxenite) in the GSC map
(Fig. 2a). For UM1 (dunite) the distribution in the LWIR imagery is
primarily restricted to the upper part of the eastern dome structure,
with minor occurrences highlighted along the southeastern edge of
the eastern dome. UM2 (peridotite) forms the main fold structure
and UM3 (pyroxenite) occurs primarily along contacts between
UM1 and the mac rocks. This distribution of the ultramacs is con-
sistent with zoning characteristics of the ultramac rocks observed
and mapped in the eld. For the SWIR numerous additional scat-
tered occurrences of UM1 occur in the main fold structures and
along river beds in the eastern part of the study area. There may be
confusion between rock surfaces that are oxidized from weathering
(e.g. along river beds) that results in Fe features at 0.594 m and
0.685 m that are also seen in spectra of Fe rich ultramac oxidized
rock surfaces. LWIR data maps the distribution of UM2 (peridotite)
more continuously than the SWIR data for both the main fold and
eastern areas, but the overall occurrence of the UM2 (peridotite)
unit is also well dened in the SWIR map and correlates well with
the main peridotite/olivine-pyroxenite unit shown in the GSC map
(Fig. 2a). UM3 (pyroxenite) is also consistent between both outputs,
but the SWIR highlights additional small occurrences within the
northern limb, along the boundary between the central fold and
core structure and exposed rocks along river beds in the eastern
part of the study area. The cause for this may also be related to con-
fusion with Fe-oxidized surfaces. The SWIR data tends to map pixels
of UM1, 2 and 3 scattered within rock units that are mapped as mac
and sediments in the GSC map (Fig. 2a). These are likely incorrectly
mapped and caused by confusion with similar and partially over-
lapping mineral features of actinolite/clinochore/phologopite seen
in spectra of mac and sedimentary rocks. The LWIR also maps
some scattered pixels that align with sensor/ight-line stripping
(see Fig. 4a and b).
Discrimination and mapping of the three mac units is expected
to be difcult given that the gabbro and basalts in the region
share very similar mineralogy and are mainly discriminated based
on geological texture (e.g. grain size) which may impact the way
lichens grow on the rocks. For the three mac units the SWIR and
LWIR results both show the difculty in mapping these units, which
can be attributed to the high level of rock encrusting lichens that
preferentially grow on the felsic minerals (e.g. potassium feldspar)
on these rocks. For the LWIR data the lichens subdue partially the
actinolite/clinochore/phologopite mineral features. Consequently
some spatial context in lithological continuity is visible, but it is
severely impacted by image stripping that is not random. For the
SWIR data the actinolite/clinochore/phologopite features appear
better dened and can be discriminated from the antigorite feature
resulting in improved mapping, including M3 (basalt) showing up
in the southern portion of the study area which is dominated by
basalts in the GSC map (Fig. 2a). It is also likely that the lichen-rock
348 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 64 (2018) 340353

Fig. 8. RGB composites highlighting key differences between abundance maps generated from the SWIR and LWIR wavelet imagery using the same input endmembers.

assemblages for the mac rocks play a role in mapping in the SWIR,
as discussed in Rogge et al. (2014).
The third RGB composite (sediments + gossan) shows signicant
differences between the SWIR and LWIR map outputs. In the LWIR
the extent of S1 (quartz-rich sediment) is consistent with that of the
semipelites that lie between the mac and ultramac fold struc-
tures as conveyed in the GSC map (Fig. 2b). However, in the SWIR
it is clear that the distribution of S1 is overestimated encompass-
ing large portions of background units. The LWIR S1 endmember
spectrum has a strong and distinctive quartz feature. In contrast the
SWIR endmember represents a mixture of rock and lichens which
is more prone to mapping errors. S2 (quartz + mica/clay) includes a
mica spectral feature, likely white mica, evident in both the SWIR
and LWIR endmembers. The mapping outputs for the two data sets
 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 64 (2018) 340353
display similar patterns primarily associated with stream and river
beds comprising loosely mixed rock types. The third unit consists
of gossan and/or heavily oxidized surfaces (G). In the SWIR this
includes known gossan occurrences in the west-central part of the
central fold structure, but also shoreline exposures of loose rocks
that commonly have a thin lm of iron-oxides minerals. The LWIR
also maps the main gossans, though the shorelines are not mapped
as gossans. As with the previous RGB composites the LWIR includes
some background noise that can be attributed to image stripping.
The non-lithological components water, snow and vegetation
were also given consideration as these endmembers are used in the
unmixing process and must include spectral features that distin-
guish them from the lithological units in order to provide realistic
abundance fractions. In the case of the LWIR wavelet data, water,
snow and vegetation lack strong diagnostic spectral features. Thus,
the LWIR data quality (e.g stripping) will impact the map out-
puts of these classes to a greater degree. For vegetation, there is a
good correlation with the SWIR results, albeit the impact of ight-
line noise is notably visible. For the SWIR the resulting abundance
maps provide well-dened spatial regions for water and snow.
For vegetation, both the spatially extensive vegetative regions and
the smaller pockets of vegetation within the main rock outcrops
are well mapped. Water and snow likely have little impact in the
unmixing procedure as they are well dened regions. On the other
hand, vegetation commonly occurs intermixed with rock outcrops
and may impact the LWIR results owing to a less dened spectral
separation between some rocks and vegetation (e.g. mac units).
The RGB composites in Fig. 8 show that for the materials of inter-
est there are benets to both the SWIR and LWIR wavelet data. Some
units are better dened in a particular data set and other units show
very good overall correlation. The reasons for these differences can
be attributed to four factors: mineral spectroscopy in the SWIR and
LWIR, the extent and distribution of rock encrusting lichens on spe-
cic minerals, the sensor related characteristics of the two data sets,
and the different spatial resolutions and geometric corrections.
5.4. Comparison with combined SWIR and TIR thematic
lithological map
ISMA was applied to the combined SWIR and LWIR wavelet
image data with the resulting fractional abundance images used to
generate thematic lithological maps (Figs. 9 and 10). As seen above
from Fig. 9, the thematic maps derived from the SWIR and LWIR
data are most similar for ultramac units that appear as a single unit
(peridotite/olivine-pyroxenite) in the GSC map (Fig. 2). Mapping of
the mac rocks is signicantly improved through the combination
of SWIR and LWIR (Fig. 10). Most of the ight-line noise evident
in LWIR thematic map is removed. The key issue in mapping the
mac rocks is the similarity in mineralogy between the rocks (e.g.
gabbro vs basalt). Basalt (M3), which dominates the northern and
southern mac elds shown in Fig. 2a, is not well dened in the
thematic map. M3 shows up as small spatial clusters in the south-
ern mac eld but is entirely missing from the northern part. M2
(gabbro/basalt) appears to be mixed with M1 (gabbro) within the
fold structures, but also maps a large area in the northern mac eld
and an area east of the eastern dome structure highlighted in Fig. 2a.
Again given that the three mac units have similar mineralogy, one
can argue that the spatial patterns do reect subtle difference in
the mac rocks. However, further eld work would have to be com-
pleted to verify this assumption and better determine their relation
with the gabbro, basalt and olivine-phyric basalt/gabbros in the GSC
map.
Sedimentary rocks in the GSC map represent a large semi-
continuous region that lls in the fold structures of the mac and
ultramac rocks. Much of these areas are not exposed and covered
by thick overburden and vegetation, as seen in the RGB image in
349
Fig. 2b. Even so, the S1 unit (Fig. 10) correlates well with the distri-
bution of the semipelite, schist, slate and sandstones shown in the
GSC map. S2 is mainly conned to riverbed or till, but also occurs
adjacent to S1 occurrences.
6. Discussion
6.1. Use of CWA to improve imagery information
Removing lower and higher wavelet scales from the analysis
has resulted in higher quality spectral data with respect to a num-
ber of key factors. First, there is a reduction of random noise in
the spectral data. Second, the spatial stripping observed in the
ISAC corrected SEBASS imagery was also notably reduced using
wavelet spectra. Further, through CWA there is a reduction in the
disparity of the spectral continuum introduced by variable illumi-
nation and topography for both SWIR and LWIR imagery. For the
LWIR data, there is also a minimization of the remnant inuences
of atmospheric and target temperature effects. These advantages
are particularly important in that for adjacent ight lines there is
improved radiometric consistency across ight-lines, most notably
for the LWIR imagery, providing more continuous mapping of the
geology units found in the study area. Additionally, the improve-
ments in radiometric quality result in better separability of spectral
features related to subtle mineralogical changes or modal abun-
dance of those minerals.
Mixing with rock-encrusting lichens highlights the need to have
high quality data to extract subtle, yet spectrally signicant infor-
mation that may otherwise be lost in signal noise. Preprocessing of
the LWIR with CWA was particularly important to exploit the full
potential of the data. Some inconsistencies across ight-lines were
observed which subsequently impacted the endmember abun-
dance maps and the thematic maps.
6.2. Use of CWA as a methodology to combine SWIR and LWIR
A limited number of studies have combined directly SWIR and
LWIR data to provide a continuous hyperspectral prole (Kruse,
2015; Notesco et al., 2016). In this work a novel approach using
CWA to combine both data sets is demonstrated. However, a num-
ber of issues must be considered when combining the different data
sets. The rst issue is related to the resampling of the LWIR (4 m)
to match the SWIR (2 m) imagery. In cases where mixing between
different materials occurs below the resolution of the LWIR data
(the coarser resolution of the two datasets), the combination of the
two datasets can generate articial spectra of mixed materials. For
example, a spatial contact between pyroxenite and clay-rich sedi-
ment can result in a spectrum with pyroxenite features in the SWIR,
but mixed pyroxenite and clay-rich sediment feature in the LWIR.
When using methods such as unmixing, nding a linear combina-
tion from a set of endmembers that are continuous across the SWIR
and LWIR will result in fractional errors in these cases. This problem
is further enhanced if there is poor co-registration between the two
data sets, where materials between the two images do not match.
The former issue is a product of the original data and cannot be
corrected. However, in the later case care was taken to provide the
best co-registration (given the quality of the original geocorrection
provided) between the two data sets to minimize the potential for
articial spectra of mixed materials. The resulting maps do indi-
cate that residual errors caused by resampling or co-registration
are low (less than 1 LWIR pixel). However, greater errors are pos-
sible in local areas where poor geometric correction in the original
data owing to such factors as topography, particularly in the lowest
and highest elevations.
350 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 64 (2018) 340353

Fig. 9. Thematic lithological maps generated using the same input endmembers for SWIR and LWIR wavelet imagery.

Under the assumption that resampling and co-registration
effects are negligible, the next step in combining the data is a spec-
tral consideration. This was done by directly joining the SWIR and
LWIR wavelet power spectra. The main issue at this step is estab-
lishing a weighting factor between the two data sets, such that the
two provide equal weight in analysis. During CWA both SWIR and
LWIR datasets are normalized to a zero mean that allows spec-
tra from different spectral regions to be adjoined independent of
their representation (e.g. reectance or emissivity). However, the
dynamic range between the SWIR and LWIR wavelet power spectra
are not equal. In this study a multiplicative scale factor of 10 was
applied to the LWIR data to provide an equal weighting with the
SWIR data. Despite this procedure the number of bands of the SWIR
data exceeds that of the LWIR data in the combined dataset imply-
ing more weight from the SWIR data. Optimizing and automating
the scaling factor and the band set via band selection is the focus
of future study.
6.3. Endmember selection
As each of the SWIR and LWIR data set can provides unique infor-
mation for specic materials, an automated endmember selection
method could be used to assess the potential for improved end-
member quality, or the potential for additional material detection.
However, in this study we chose to focus on comparing the map-
ping capabilities of the sensors separately and in combination. As
such, it was necessary to derive a set of consistent endmembers
for both SWIR and LWIR data sets that would allow for a direct
comparison of mapping results. Assessing improved endmember
quality, or the potential for additional material detection using the
 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 64 (2018) 340353
Fig. 10. Thematic lithological map generated for the combined SWIR-LWIR wavelet imagery.
two sensors separately or in combination is left for future studies.
The selected endmembers used in this study were derived from
previous work (Rogge et al., 2014), from eld mapping completed
in 2009 and 2010, and from existing geological maps. To minimize
co-registration errors the ROIs selected were chosen to insure that
the same pixels were chosen in both SWIR and LWIR data sets.
Additionally, ROIs were taken from larger homogeneous outcrops
to reduce effects caused by resampling of the LWIR. The nal set of
endmember spectra were thus considered to be consistent for the
SWIR and LWIR.
6.4. Mapping results
This study illustrates the benets of combining SWIR and LWIR
spectra of the same pixel as a single full wavelet power spectrum
for thematic mapping. Combining the data takes advantage of the
fact that some materials only include features in specic wave-
length ranges. For example, in the SWIR region felsic minerals (e.g.
feldspars and quartz) have no diagnostic spectral features, whereas
strong features are observed in the LWIR region. A practical exam-
ple was observed in the fractional maps for the sediments where the
quartz-rich sediments were poorly mapped using the SWIR data,
but well mapped using the LWIR data. On the other hand, rock-
encrusting lichens, which are prevalent across many rocks types
in the area, are almost featureless in the LWIR and their presence
can signicantly subdue the spectral contrast of minerals in which
case sensor noise becomes quite visible. This was observed for the
poor results from the LWIR fractional maps for mac rocks that
commonly have extensive lichen cover. Although lichens and veg-
etation are not typically of primary interest for geological mapping,
having unique spectral features that clearly discriminate them from
geological materials is important when using spectral unmixing
methods such as to reduce false positives.
For many geological materials SWIR and LWIR data both con-
tain spectral features that can be used to discriminate them. For
example, the clay-rich sedimentary unit was similarity mapped in
both the SWIR and LWIR data as both contain notable clay mineral
absorption features. The ultramac rocks (dunite, peridotite and
351
pyroxenite) also include minerals that show spectral features in
both spectral ranges. However, the usefulness of these features to
discriminate geological materials is not necessarily equivalent in all
spectral regions. This is observed in the abundance results where
both SWIR and LWIR data provide similar, but not identical dis-
tributions of the three ultramatic rock units. Some differences can
be explained by the difference in data spatial resolution where the
SWIR data can lead to the mapping of smaller outcrops, whereas in
the LWIR data these units appear more spatially continuous. Other
differences may be explained by the relative strength of a feature
compared to background materials. The mac and lichen exam-
ple is one such case where for the SWIR data the relative strength
between features that separate lichen and mac rocks is greater
than in the LWIR. For the gossans we also observe a notable differ-
ence where in the SWIR fractional maps the distribution includes
the main gossan outcrops, but also the shore lines of some lakes
that have thin coatings of iron oxides/hydroxides minerals on the
surfaces of the rocks. In the LWIR, the gossans are restricted to the
known outcrops.
In combining the SWIR and LWIR data, we achieved an overall
improved mapping capability and generated a clean and continu-
ous map for all 9 geologically meaningful units. The nal combined
thematic map illustrates the value of applying spectral unmixing
methods on the combined wavelet power spectral imagery.
6.5. Comparison with integrated approaches
The presented method has notable similarities and differences
with the approach that was presented by Kruse (2015). In Kruse
(2015) reectance and emissivity were joined directly, whereas
here the derived wavelet space (CWA) is combined. As noted in
Section 6.1 the use of CWA has many advantages with regard to
reducing noise, improving radiometric quality, reducing variable
illumination, atmospheric and temperature effects. This is partic-
ularly useful when combine data comprising multiple ight-lines
acquired at different times which was the case for this study. Kruse
(2015) used an MNF reduction to reduce the total number of bands
used, whereas here we retain the full wavelength information.
352 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 64 (2018) 340353
The use of MNF is useful in reducing the total data size, but has
the potential of missing subtle spectral features depending on the
number of eigenvectors retained. Here we retain all spectral infor-
mation and use CWA across a range of wavelet scales, keeping scales
that highlight key spectral absorption features, whereas remov-
ing scales to minimize noise and continuum effects. One approach
that was not used here was the use of logical operators applied to
independent modal analysis of multiple spectral ranges. The use
of logical operators on specic wavelength ranges demonstrated
advantages for separating specic minerals based on characteristic
features in those spectral ranges.
Overall the method presented here and that of Kruse (2015) are
to some extent complimentary and highlight different advantages
to combining directly SWIR and LWIR data. The two methods have
been applied to rather unique geological terrains with differences
in mixing and surface weather characteristics, with both methods
showing the advantages of combining SWIR and LWIR. In particu-
lar in this study it was shown that even though feldspar minerals
have strong spectral features in the LWIR, pervasive rock encrust-
ing lichens that grow preferentially on feldspars in these regions
subdue the spectral features. This highlights the potential need for
different strategies when combining SWIR and LWIR in different
terrains. Further work on band selection and weighting between
SWIR and LWIR (e.g. number of bands, dynamic range) was noted
in this study and combining that with logical operators presented
by Kruse (2015) could provide a powerful SWIR-LWIR combination
approach. Such an approach could be used to improve the mapping
of gossans in this study where one spectral range may be better
suited to highlight a specic material (e.g. true gossan outcrops
that exclude shoreline oxidized surfaces).
7. Conclusions
This study demonstrates the use of continuous wavelet analysis
to facilitate the analysis of airborne SWIR and LWIR hyperspectral
data. A number of specic benets can be listed from the use of
spectral data in the wavelet domain as represented here from a
limited number of wavelet scales (sum of scales 25 in this case).
These benets include the minimization of random noise and the
enhancement of spectral features, the minimization of residual
errors in the ISAC radiometric correction and target temperature
estimation in the case of the LWIR data, the minimization of line
to line residual calibration effects that lead to inconsistencies in
data mosaics, and the reduction in variability of the spectral con-
tinuum introduced by variable illumination and topography. These
benets provide consistency within and across ight lines which is
necessary for continuous mapping across the study area.
This study also assessed the value of SWIR and LWIR hyperspec-
tral data and the combination of these dataset for mapping a suite of
lithological units including ultramac rocks that display low spec-
tral contrast. The combination of SWIR and LWIR hyperspectral data
can overcome mapping limitations imposed by materials that only
display distinct spectral features in a specic wavelength range.
CWA provides a method to directly combine both spectral ranges
as each dataset is normalized to a zero mean. However, the dynamic
range is not equal for the SWIR and LWIR outputs. Thus, a key con-
sideration for the combined analysis of SWIR and LWIR data is to
establish a weighting factor between the two data sets, such that
the two provide equal weight in analysis. In this study a factor of
10 was applied to the LWIR data.
Lithologic maps generated from the analysis of SWIR and LWIR
imagery highlight similar regions and spatial distributions for the
three ultramac units (dunite, peridotite, pyroxenite). However,
signicant differences are observed for sedimentary units. In the
LWIR the extent of quartz-rich sediments (unit S1) is consistent
with that of the semipelites as conveyed in the GSC map, whereas
in the SWIR their distribution is overestimated reecting the impor-
tance of LWIR spectral features from quartz in delineating this unit.
This limitation is removed when using the combined spectral data
which also signicantly improves the mapping of the mac rocks
with 3 map units being dened (basalt, gabbro/basalt, gabbro). In
combining the SWIR and LWIR data, all 9 geologically meaningful
units were mapped.
Acknowledgements
Funds for the pursuit of this research were provided by the
discovery grant #1245795 from the Natural Sciences and Engineer-
ing Council of Canada. This work was made possible through the
DLRUniversity of Alberta iTERI HGF initiative.
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