Neal Principles of Learning and Learning Theories 1

Emily Neal
LIS 672-01D
Assignment 1
August 20th, 2017

Principles of Learning and Learning Theories

I. What is Learning?

Learning involves a change in knowledge, skill, or behavior as a result of experience or

instruction. Learning is not a passive activity, but instead is an active process that builds upon

prior knowledge. Gagne states that it is important to align instruction with clear learning goal as

well as promote motivation and cognitive engagement (Clark, 2013). Understanding how to

communicate information using instructional design models and learning theories can all assist in

the organization and creation of effective instruction.

a. Learning Theories:

Theories such as behaviorism, constructivism, and cognitivism help shape the design and

implementation of instructional materials. Utilizing learning theories can provide instructors with

guidelines and strategies to select their learning objectives, instructional techniques, and teaching

materials. Behaviorism is a method that employs an external stimulus-response conditions which

is intended to bring about particular behavior from the student (McLeod, S., 2017). This learning

theory does not take into consideration the internal motivations of the student. This method

emphasizes repetition and reinforcement to develop desired habits (McLeod, G. 2003). Another

prominent learning theory is that of cognitivism, which is involves more internal motivations
Neal Principles of Learning and Learning Theories 2

than external by placing emphasis on how concepts are formed and the information processing

involved in memory and learning. Cognitivism considers differences in individual learning and

prior knowledge by building upon information to reach clear learning goals (Smith, 2016, Clark,

2013.). A third prominent theory is that of constructionism, which perpetuates the concept that

people construct their own understanding of the world through experiences, exploration, and then

communicating and analyzing those experiences (Thirteen Ed Online, 2004). This approach

places more emphasize on the students role in their active learning and prompts instructors to

consider the appropriate tasks and tools needed for learners to effectively understand and explore

the information presented. Proponents of this method state that it allows students to apply their

knowledge to real-world experiences, learning to think critically, and increase their problem-

solving skills (Thirteen Ed Online, 2004).

When deciding which of these learning theories to use, it is important to consider the

students needs and characteristics, content and context of the subject matter, the strengths and

weaknesses of the learning theory, as the instructors course goals (McLeod, G., 2003). These

theories have aspects that can blended into a variety of instructional activities around the same

learning outcomes to create a positive experience for students.

b. Cognition and Memorys Role in Learning Process:

Learning theories such as cognitivism takes learning behavior and relates it to cognitive

processes, like memory or perception. The development of computers prompted psychologists to

reframe the definitions of human cognition by terms relating to a computer system to exemplify

a students recall of learned materials (McLeod, S., 2015). Using this description, the student

after a successful learning experiences has gone through the process of receiving information,

storing that information, and retrieving the information similar to a computer system. Learned
Neal Principles of Learning and Learning Theories 3

materials and information is retained through short term or working memory and long-term

memory. Short term is what someone is actively focusing on at a moment while long term

memory which is broken down further into semantic memory and episodic memory which are

specific memories of events (Berkley Center for Teaching and Learning, 2017). To create lasting

educational impacts, instructors can utilize learning theories and instructional design to promote

retention. Learning and teaching structures should relate instruction in a way that the students is

able to process the additional information, maximize connections to prior knowledge, and situate

new knowledge into an existing framework that can be easily retrieved.

II. What is Teaching?

Teaching is relating information to help someone learn or explain how to do something.

Instructional models by Bloom, Gagne, and others expand on this notion by taking into

consideration the diverse student experiences and learning styles which necessitates different

processes to achieve learning outcomes (Smith, 2016, Clark, 2013, Instructional Design Center,

2017). Hirst further maintains that teaching is only teaching if people can take on what is

taught (cited in Smith, 2016). This illustrates a key point regarding successful instruction in that

it requires learners motivation and cognitive engagement to be sustained when learning complex

ideas. Utilizing a systematic process to facilitate and evaluate teaching methods can make a

significant impact on learning success. Instructional design works towards this goal by providing

a systematic process of designing, developing, and delivering instructional content to best serve

the course objectives and classroom needs.

a. Instructional Process:

There are many instructional design models that can be used as guidelines for the
Neal Principles of Learning and Learning Theories 4

learning experiences and content. Some examples include, ADDIE, SAMs model, and Gagnes

Nine Events of Instruction (Instructional Design Center, 2017). The various models all have

areas of strengths and weakness in their approach to instructional design. Gagnes Nine Events

of Instruction act as linear guidelines relating to a variety of learning environments which can be

tailored towards a specific topic. An overview of these nine events are as follows: gain attention,

inform objectives, stimulate recall of prior knowledge, present stimulus material, provide learner

guidance, elicit performance, provide feedback, assess performance, enhance retention and

transfer. Gagnes model as well as other instructional design models allow instructors to design

instruction in clear and structured sequence.

b. How do you know it is effective?

Assessment methods can be employed to gather information for the students and the

teachers relating to course outcomes. The assessment of teaching and learning are both

simultaneous and complementary activities that can greatly benefit both student learning and the

quality of instruction (Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence, n.d.). Two major assessment

methods include formative and summative assessments. formative assessments are performed

throughout the course and allows students and instructors to identify areas that need additional

focus. Summative assessment generally consists of tests or final assessments that are done after

the training materials are delivered. Summative assessments help provide feedback on whether

the instruction accomplished the learning goals. In addition, the data from these assessments can

assist the teacher to evaluate their instruction content or design. Bloom promotes the use of

assessments as learning tools to be used to gather feedback and identify areas of modification or

review in effort to encourage student success which he termed mastery learning (Chow, 2017b,

Guskey, 2010). It is important to note that mistakes are an anticipated part of the learning
 Neal Principles of Learning and Learning Theories 5

processes. The format of these assessments should reflect the ability of a student to be able to

identify mistakes or areas of improvement as well as be given the opportunities to correct and re-

apply the information.

III. ADDIE Model

a. Components of the ADDIE Model

A key component regarding instructional design is the ADDIE model. ADDIE stands for

analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation. This model offers a framework

for diverse types of instruction by delineating out steps for building successful training materials

and instructional tools (Chow, 2017a).

The initial stage of the ADDIE model

is analysis which includes reviewing data that

will inform the overall learning objectives. For

example, key points to identify at this

beginning stage is who are the learners, what

do they need to learn, and how to measure

Source: Instructional Design Center.

learning outcomes (Chow, 2017a; Hovious,

2013). The next stage is design which

incorporates the information gathered from the

initial analysis to find resources, design

content, form instructional strategies and assessment methods, and decide on the format of

instructional materials all within the terms of the course goals (Instructional Design Central,

2017). The next step in the model is development which involves actual creation of the course
Neal Principles of Learning and Learning Theories 6

content, including activities, assessments, and supporting materials. During the implementation

stage of the ADDIE model, the instructor offers the course content and receives feedback (Chow,

2017a). Evaluation is the final piece to this model in which instructors should conclude if

learners met the prescribed learning outcomes. This can take place by using formative or

summative assessment tools to gauge learners responses and provide data on whether the

instruction accomplished the learning objectives. Hovious point out in her overview of ADDIE

that this instructional model offers an easily adaptable, linear approach that gives educators the

ability to continually evolve the instruction as content and delivery is assessed, defined, and

modified (Hovious, 2013).

IV. Instructional and Learning Environments

a. My Current and Future Environments

In my current work at the public library, I am responsible to interview and train library

volunteers of all ages. This poses a unique challenge as I must be able to offer clear instruction to

many different demographics. My currently instruction for these volunteer services relies

heavily on person to person instruction with hands-on demonstrations and practice. In addition, I

have found from analyzing my own instructional styles that I use a variety of behaviorist and

cognitive instructional approaches with a good deal of positive reinforcement, discussions and

explanations, and formative assessment measures so the volunteers can feel comfortable and

confident moving forward in their assigned duties.

As I move towards my goal of becoming a childrens librarian, I will face different

instructional situations as I move towards group situations by offering educational and literacy

based programming for children. While some may maintain that this would necessitate a more
Neal Principles of Learning and Learning Theories 7

behaviorist approach towards a classroom-like environment, I personally feel this will lead me

towards more opportunities for a constructionist methodology. For school age or middle school

programs, I can move away from the strict guidelines of shelving procedures which do not allow

for much creative interpretation and instead provide instruction that will promote more self-

directed and active learning by exploring these concepts themselves. An example of this may be

a childrens science program where we can discuss important concept as a group and provide the

participants with the tools, concepts, and opportunity to work on their own experiments and

reach their own conclusions. The knowledge of instructional design tools and learning theories

will greatly influence my ability to adapt my pedagogy to meet the needs of library patrons of all

ages.

V. Develop Instruction using ADDIE Model

For this exercise, I wanted to offer instruction on a library related skill that would be

beneficial to my classmates present or future careers in a variety of library environments while

being sensitive to presentation time constraints. I decided to offer my own insight from

instructing volunteers and fellow staff to talk about shelve reading. If some of my classmates are

not currently in a library environment, they may not be aware of shelf reading responsibilities

and this information may assist in their future professional endeavors. In addition, if they are

currently in a library environment then shelving is likely a daily routine. They may have trouble

explaining a daily task like shelving guidelines in simple terms as they no longer experience the

same questions or confusions that a new employee or a new library patron may experience. In

addition, understanding how to best communicate this info with library volunteers or fellow staff

members will help my classmates be able to have a better grasp of these concepts for themselves.
Neal Principles of Learning and Learning Theories 8

To begin, I utilized the analysis from the ADDIE model to gain an understanding of the

learning needs as well as the content and delivery of information. An understanding of learning

theories and instructional models assisted as I moved forward in the design and development

phases, planning and creating content. In the implementation stage, I plan tooffer the instruction

using PowerPoint and WebEx to interact with my classmates and promote discussion on this

topic. Evaluations will be shelving examples and discussion prompts with a few multiple-choice

questions at the end.

a. Establish Learning Objectives and Intended Audience:

My intended audience for this instruction are my 672 classmates and the learning

objectives is for students to be able to understand basic principles of shelf reading and shelving

alphabetically as well as the ability to communicate this information to others.

b. Design Instruction to Meet Objective:

Using Gagnes Nine Events of Instruction, I delineated my course outline. A brief

description using each step is included below.

1. Gain attention:

Present the situation that shelf reading can be a daunting task for patrons and staff

unfamiliar with shelving systems. Understanding the basic concepts of shelf reading and general

principles can assist library staff to maintain an organized and welcoming environment for

patrons and staff.

2. Provide a Learning Objective:

Upon completion of this lesson, students will be able to: understand basic principles of

shelf reading, understand how to shelf read items in alphabetical order, and have tools to express

that information to others as needed. This is important to assist in students own professional
Neal Principles of Learning and Learning Theories 9

development as well as allowing them to better assist incoming staff, volunteers, or library

patrons unfamiliar with library collections.

3. Stimulate recall of prior knowledge:

Associating information with prior knowledge and personal experience by discussing

with students about what they already know about shelving systems in the library or experiences

they have teaching others about these systems to help facilitate the learning process.

4. Present the material:

Present basic shelf reading definitions and applications in library environments. Content

will be explained and demonstrated using a variety of media and visuals.

5. Provide guidance for learning:

Demonstrate examples, learning tools, key concepts, and mnemonics to help learners

encode information for long-term storage and make the information meaningful and relatable to

their professional growth.

6. Elicit performance:

Offer a chance for students to work on shelf reading examples. Having students interact

with these concepts provides opportunity for learners to confirm their understanding, encourages

active participation and engagement, and the repetition increases the likelihood of content

retention.

7. Provide feedback:

Discuss with students any questions that arise as they reviewed the shelf reading

examples. Offering guidance can help students make real-world connection relating to the

information as well as promote additional learning opportunities as they observe other students

interactions with the information.

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8. Assess performance:

Allow students to review assessment questions and discuss results.

9. Enhance retention and transfer:

Offer a summary of key points and additional reference materials. Allow for question and

answer session as well as group discussion on concepts discussed.

c. Create Assessment Methods

For this learning environment, assessment would be based on review questions as well as

examples of shelving systems. Time will be allotted for discussion as well as a review of

information if necessary. Students will be encouraged to discuss shelf reading together within

their own library or future library environments. In addition, tools will be provided so that

students can better self-assess their own skills and encourage critical thinking of these concepts

in relation to their specific library settings.

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References:

Berkley Center for Teaching and Learning (2017). Memory and recall. Retrieved from:
https://teaching.berkeley.edu/resources/learn/memory-and-recall

Chow, A. (2017a) The teaching and learning process [PowerPoint Slides]. Retrieved from
Week 4 Reading and Notes Online:
https://uncg.instructure.com/courses/40687/pages/week-4-readings-and-notes

Chow, A. (2017b) Providing instruction. [PowerPoint Slides]. Retrieved from Week 6 Reading
and Notes Online: https://uncg.instructure.com/courses/40687/pages/week-6-readings-
and-notes

Clark, D. R. (2013). Robert Gagns nine steps of instruction. Retrieved from:

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/learning/id/nine_step_id.html

Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence. (n.d). Whys and Hows of Assessment. Retrieved from:
http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/assessment/howto/basics/formative-summative.html

Guskey, T. R. (2010). Lessons of mastery learning. Interventions that Work.

68(2) 52-57. Retrieved from: http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-
leadership/oct10/vol68/num02/Lessons-of-Mastery-Learning.aspx

Hovious, A. (2013). The ADDIE model in a nutshell. [Web blog post]. Retrieved from:
https://designerlibrarian.wordpress.com/2013/11/18/the-addie-model-in-a-nutshell/
Neal Principles of Learning and Learning Theories 12

Instructional Design Center, 2017. Instructional Design Models. Retrieved from:

https://www.instructionaldesigncentral.com/instructionaldesignmodels

McLeod, G. (2003). Learning theory and instructional design. Learning Matters, 2(2003), 35-43.
Retrieved from:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/0f20/69063f35553917aca882cddfb6cd6e361c3f.pdf

McLeod, S. A. (2017). Behaviorist Approach. Retrieved from

www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html

Smith, M. K. (2016). What is teaching? [Web blog post]. Encyclopedia of Informal Education.
Retrieved from: http://infed.org/mobi/what-is-teaching/

Thirteen Ed Online, (2004). Constructionism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning.

Retrieved from: http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/