CHAPTER 9 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Learning-a relatively enduring or permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from previous
experience with certain stimuli and responses
Behavior-any observable response
A. Three Kinds of Learning
1. Classical Conditioning-Ivan Pavlov
-a kind of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response that was
originally produced by a different stimulus
2. Operant Conditioning-Thorndike
-a kind of learning in which the consequences that follow some behavior increase or decrease the
likelihood of that behaviors occurrence in the future
law of effect-says that if some random actions are followed by pleasurable consequence or reward,
such actions are strengthened and will likely occur in the future
3. Cognitive Learning-Albert Bandura
-a kind of learning that involves mental processes, such as attention and memory; may be learned
through observation or imitation; and may not involve any external rewards or require the person to
perform any observable behaviors

B. Procedure: Classical Conditioning

Step 1: Selecting Stimulus and Response
Neutral stimulus-some stimulus that causes a sensory response, such as being seen, heard or smelled,
but does not produce the reflex being tested
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)-some stimulus that triggers or elicits a physiological reflex, such as
salivation or eye blink
Unconditioned response (UCR)-an unlearned, innate, involuntary physiological reflex that is elicited by
the unconditioned stimulus
Step 2: Establishing Classical Conditioning
Step 3: Testing for conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS)-a formerly neutral stimulus that has acquired the ability to elicit a response
that was previously elicited by the unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response (CR)-which is elicited by the conditioned stimulus, is similar to, but not identical
in size or amount to, the unconditioned response
B. Other Conditioning Concepts
1. Generalization-the tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit
a response that is similar to the conditioned response. Usually, the more similar the new stimulus is
to the original conditioned stimulus, the larger will be the conditioned response
2. Discrimination-occurs during classical conditioning when an organism learns to make a particular
response to some stimuli but not to others
3. Extinction-refers to a procedure in which a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the
unconditioned stimulus and as a result, the conditioned stimulus tends to no longer elicit the
conditioned response
4. spontaneous recovery-the tendency for the conditioned response to reappear after being
extinguished even though there have been no further conditioning trials.

C. Adaptive Value & Uses

Taste-aversion learning-refer to associating a particular sensory cue (smell, taste, sound or sight) with
getting sick and thereafter avoiding that particular sensory cue in the future
One-trial learning

Preparedness-refers to the phenomenon that animals and humans are biologically prepared to
associate some combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli more easily than others
conditioned emotional response-refers to feeling some positive or negative emotion, such as
happiness, fear or anxiety when experiencing a stimulus that initially accompanied a pleasant or painful
event

E. Three Explanations
3 theories of classical conditioning
1. Stimulus substitution-means that a neural bond or association forms in the brain between the
neutral stimulus (tone) and unconditioned stimulus (food). After repeated trails, the neutral stimulus
becomes the unconditioned stimulus (food). Thereafter, the conditioned stimulus (tone) elicits a
conditioned response (salivation) that is similar to that of the unconditioned stimulus
 2. Contiguity theory-says that classical conditioning occurs because 2 stimuli (neutral stimulus and
unconditioned stimulus) are paired close together in time (are contiguous). As a result of this
contiguous pairing, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, which elicits the
conditioned response
3. Cognitive perspective-says that an organism learns a predictable relationship between 2 stimuli
such that the occurrence of one stimulus (neutral stimulus) predicts the occurrence of another
(unconditioned stimulus). In other words, classical conditioning occurs because the organism learns
what to expect
F. Research Focus: Conditioning Little Albert
G. Cultural Diversity: Conditioning Dental Fears
H. Application: Conditioned Fear & Nausea
Anticipatory nausea-refers to feelings of nausea that are elicited by stimuli associated with nausea-
inducing chemotherapy treatments
Systematic Desensitization-a procedure based on classical conditioning, in which a person imagines or
visualizes fearful or anxiety-evoking stimuli and then immediately uses deep relaxation to overcome
the anxiety
-a form of counterconditioning because it replaces or counters, fear and anxiety with relaxation
Step 1: learning to relax
Step 2: Making an anxiety hierarchy
Step 3: imagining and relaxing

CHAPTER 10 OPERANT CONDITIONING

Operational Conditioning/instrumental conditioning-a kind of learning in which an animal or human
performs some behavior, and the following consequence (reward or punishment) increases or decreases the
chance that an animal or human will again perform that same behavior
*operant conditioning-observable behavior which is followed by an observable consequences
*cognitive-involves unobservable mental processes and unobservable rewards
A. Operant Conditioning
Thorndlikes Law of Effect
-animal intelligence, measuring capacity for reasoning
Law of effect-states that behaviors followed by positive consquences are strengthened, while behaviors
followed by negative consequences are weakened

Skinners Operant Conditioning

-ongoing behaviors of animals
-operant response=unit of behavior
-a response that can be modified by its consequences and is a meaningful unit of ongoing behavior that can
be easily measured
Shaping-a procedure in which an experimenter ____ reinforces behaviors that lead up to or approximate
the desire behavior
*reinforce should follow immediately after the desired behavior
superstitious behavior-a behavior that increases in frequency because its occurrence is accidentally
paired with the delivery of a reinforce
Operant Conditioning VS Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
1. Goal: increase or decrease the rate of some response, which usually involves shaping
2. Voluntary response
3. Emitted response
4. Contingent on behavior-performance of the desired response depends on, or is contingent on, the
consequences, or what happens next
5. Consequences: an animal or human learns that performing or emitting some behavior is followed
by a consequence (reward or punishment), which in turn, increases or decreases the chances of
performing that behavior again
Classical Conditioning
1. Goal: to create a new response to a neutral stimulus
2. Involuntary responses
3. Elicited responses
4. Conditioned response
5. Expectancy

B. Reinforcers
There are 2 kinds of consequences:
 1. Reinforcement-a consequence that occurs after a behavior and increases the chance that the
behavior will occur again
2. Punishment-a consequence that occurs after a behavior and decreases the chance that the
behavior will occur again
pica-a behavioral disorder, often seen in individuals with mental retardation, that involves eating inedible
objects or unhealthy substances

2 kinds of reinforcements or consequences:

1. positive reinforcement-refers to the presentation of a stimulus that increases the probability that a
behavior will occur again
positive reinforce-a stimulus that increases the likelihood that a response will occur again
2. negative reinforcement-refers to an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus whose removal increases the
likelihood that the preceding response will occur again

4 different schedules of partial reinforcement

1. fixed ratio schedule-means that a reinforcer occurs only after a fixed number of responses are
made by the subject
2. fixed interval schedule-means that a reinforcer occurs following the first response that occurs
after a fixed interval of time
3. variable-ratio schedule-means that a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of correct
responses has occurred
4. variable interval schedule-means that a reinforcer occurs following the first correct response after
an average amount of time has passed

C. Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedule of reinforcement-refers to a program or rule that determines how and when the occurrence of a
response will be followed by a reinforcer
Cumulative record-a continuous written record that shows an animals or a humans individual responses
and reinforcements

2 schedules of reinforcement
1. continuous reinforcement-means that every occurrence of the operant response results in
delivery of the reinforcer
2. partial reinforcement-refers to a situation in which responding is reinforced only some of the time
primary reinforcer-a stimulus, such as food, water or sex, that is innately satisfying and requires no
learning on the part of the subject to become pleasurable
-are innately satisfying and require no training because they automatically activate the brains built-in
reward/pleasure center
secondary reinforcer-any stimulus that has acquired its reinforcing power through experience; secondary
reinfrocers are learned, such as by being paired with primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcers
-coupons, money, grades, praise
positive punishment-refers to presenting an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus after a response
negative punishment-refers to removing a reinforcing stimulus (a childs allowance) after a response
-noncompliance-refers to a child refusing to follow directions, carry out a request, or obey a
command given by a parent or caregiver
-time out-removes reinforcing stimulus after an undesirable response. This removal decreases the
chances that the undesired response will recur
*Positive and negative punishment decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again
*positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again

D. Other Conditioning Concept

Generalization
In operant condition: means that an animal or person emits the same response to similar stimuli
In classical conditioning: the tendency for a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a
response similar to the conditioned response

Discrimination
In operant conditioning: means that a response is emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is reinforced
and not in the presence of unreinforced stimuli
In classical conditioning: the tendency for some stimuli but not others to elicit a conditioned response
Discriminative stimulus-a cue that a behavior will be reinforced
Extinction
In the operant conditioning: refers to the reduction in an operant response when it is no longer followed by
the reinforcer
In classical conditioning: refers to the reduction in a response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer
followed by the unconditioned stimulus

Spontaneous Recovery
In operant conditioning: refers to a temporary recovery in the rate of responding
In classical conditioning: refers to the temporary occurrence of the conditioned response in the presence of
the conditioned stimulus
E. Cognitive Learning
Cognitive learning-involves mental processes such as attention and memory, says that learning can occur
through observation or imitation and such learning may not involve any external rewards or require a person
to perform any observable behaviors
Cognitive map-a mental representation in the brain of the layout of an environment and its features
(Edward Tolman)
Social cognitive learning-results from watching, imitating and modeling and does not require the observer
to perform any observable behavior or receive any observable reward (Albert Bandura)
learning-performance distinction-means learning may occur but may not always be measured by, or
immediately evident in, performance
social cognitive theory-emphasizes the importance of observation, imitation and self-reward in the
development and learning of social skills, personal interactions and many other behaviors
4 processes of social cognitive learning:
1. attention
2. memory
3. imitation
4. motivation

F. Biological Factors
Biological factors-refer to innate tendencies or predispositions that may either facilitate or inhibit certain
kinds of learning
Ethologists-behavioral biologists who observe and study animal behavior in the animals natural
environment or under relatively naturalistic conditions
Imprinting-refers to inherited tendencies or responses that are displayed by newborn animals when they
encounter certain stimuli in their environment; is essentially irreversible
Critical or sensitive period-refers to a relatively brief time during which learning is most likely to occur
Preparedness or prepared learning-refers to the innate or biological tendency of animals to recognize,
attend to, and store certain cues over others, as well as to associate some combinations of conditioned and
unconditioned stimuli more easily than others

G. Research Focus: Viewing Aggression

H. Cultural Diversity: East Meets West
I. Application: Behavior Modification
Behavior modification-a treatment or therapy that changes or modifies problems or undesirable behaviors
by using principles of learning based on operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and social cognitive
learning
Autism-marked by poor development in social relationships, such as not wanting to be touched, not making
eye contact, and hiding to avoid people; great difficulty developing language and communicating; very few
activities and interests; and long periods of time spent repeating the same behavior or motor patterns, or
following rituals that interfere with more normal functioning
Biofeedback-a training procedure through which a person is made aware of his or her physiological
responses, such as muscle activity, heart rate, blood pressure, temperature. After becoming aware of these
physiological responses, a person tries to control them to decrease psychosomatic problems