CKR Usm Presentation 2

Calculus without
Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Calculus without Limits: Set theory and

supertasks
the Theory Paradoxes of set

theory
A Critique of Formal Mathematics Why R?
Part 1: Axioms and Definitions How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
C. K. Raju
Inmantec, Ghaziabad
and
Centre for Studies in Civilizations, New Delhi
Calculus without
Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Calculus without Limits: Set theory and

supertasks
the Theory Paradoxes of set

theory
A Critique of Formal Mathematics Why R?
Part 1: Axioms and Definitions How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
C. K. Raju
Inmantec, Ghaziabad
and
Centre for Studies in Civilizations, New Delhi
Calculus without
Outline Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Introduction Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Set theory and supertasks
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Paradoxes of set theory
Conclusions
Why R?
How to define the derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
Why are limits important? Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
I We saw that it is impossible to teach limits? Paradoxes of set

theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks

theory
I So, why are limits important? Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks

theory
I Common answer: rigor. How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks

theory

derivative?
I Belief is that the use of limits makes calculus Conclusions
rigorous.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks

theory

derivative?
rigorous.
I Calculus is taught for its practical value in physics
and engineering, while
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks

theory

derivative?
rigorous.
I Calculus is taught for its practical value in physics
and engineering, while
I limits are taught for rigor.
Calculus without
Why limits? Limits
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
f
I We can easily form the difference quotient x , Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
Why limits? Limits
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
f
theory
I but as we take smaller and smaller values of x the Why R?
limit might fail to exist, or it might fail to be unique. How to define the
derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
Why limits? Limits
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
f
theory
derivative?
I The rigorous approach to calculusalso called Conclusions
mathematical analysisallows us to prove the
existence and uniqueness of limits.
Calculus without
Why limits? Limits
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
f
theory
derivative?
I The mathematician believes this answer, and other
persons in the community of mathematicians may
share this belief.
Calculus without
Why limits? Limits
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
f
theory
derivative?
I The mathematician believes this answer, and other
persons in the community of mathematicians may
share this belief.
I But how far is it true?
Calculus without
What is rigor actually? Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

I I will argue that rigor = reliance on the arbitrary supertasks
decisions of those in mathematical authority. Paradoxes of set

theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
I What the calculus student learnsritualistic Why R?
manipulation of symbols, and obedience to How to define the
derivative?
authorityis inherent to formal mathematics.
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
Conclusions
I Tomorrow I will look at arbitrariness in the notion of
proof.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
Conclusions
proof.
I Today I look at arbitrariness in axioms and
definitions,
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
Conclusions
proof.
I Today I look at arbitrariness in axioms and
definitions,
I to demonstrate the arbitrariness in calculus from
within formal mathematics.
Calculus without
Set theory and supertasks Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
I Historically, the construction of R by Dedekind cuts
Paradoxes of set
involved Cantors set theory. theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I Let us try to understand why set theory is needed for Why R?
calculus. How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
I After the calculus came to Europe (in the 16th c.) Conclusions
there were epistemic doubts about its validity.

Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set

derivative?

I Mathematicians thought of summing an infinite
series by actually carrying out the sum,
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set

derivative?

I Mathematicians thought of summing an infinite
series by actually carrying out the sum,
I and this seemed a supertask (an infinite series of
tasks).
Calculus without
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
I Even the simplest set theoretic statement let x R Why R?
How to define the

involves a supertask. derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
How to define the

I This involves the claim that it is possible to select Conclusions
and specify a real number, in a way that singles it out

uniquely from an infinity of adjacent real numbers.
Calculus without
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
How to define the

I This involves the claim that it is possible to select Conclusions
and specify a real number, in a way that singles it out

uniquely from an infinity of adjacent real numbers.
I This is a supertask.
Calculus without
An example Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I Consider a real number such as which has a Set theory and
decimal expansion 3.14159. . . which neither supertasks
terminates nor recurs. Paradoxes of set

theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
An example Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction

theory
I This decimal expansion represents
P the number as Why R?
the limit of an infinite series an . How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
An example Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction

theory

derivative?
I Summing this series term by term, or calculating Conclusions
a1 + a2 , a1 + a2 + a3 , . . . , is a supertask, for it
requires us to perform an infinity of additions.
Calculus without
An example Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction

theory

derivative?
I The fastest computers today can manage teraflops,
or around 1012 floating point additions per second.
Calculus without
An example Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction

theory

derivative?
I The fastest computers today can manage teraflops,
or around 1012 floating point additions per second.
I If we use this computer exclusively to add
continuously for a year: we can only go up to 1020
additionsstill a long way from infinity.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
I To specify just one real number involves a supertask. Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
I this is not a task which is physically every going to be How to define the
derivative?
possible.
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
derivative?
possible.
Conclusions
I But set theory allows us to do it metaphsyically.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
derivative?
possible.
Conclusions
I But set theory allows us to do it metaphsyically.
I In fact, set theory allows us to specify an
uncountable infinity of real numbers!
Calculus without
A note Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
I Note that we must discriminate formal reals from the Paradoxes of set
theory
traditional use of real numbers, such as 3.14 as an
Why R?
approximation to ,
How to define the
derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
A note Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
Why R?
approximation to ,
How to define the
I which has a very old history, dating back to times derivative?
Conclusions
when European culture had not even begun.
Calculus without
A note Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
Why R?
approximation to ,
How to define the
Conclusions
I Such approximations are readily possible
Calculus without
A note Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
Why R?
approximation to ,
How to define the
Conclusions
I Such approximations are readily possible
I the question of a supertask arises only when we
speak of being able to specify the value of exactly
or uniquely.
Calculus without
Dedekinds real achievement Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I The use of R for calculus means that doubts about theory
supertasks, Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
supertasks, Why R?
I which were earlier attached to the calculus, How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
supertasks, Why R?

derivative?
I got pushed into doubts about set theory. Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
supertasks, Why R?

derivative?
I got pushed into doubts about set theory. Conclusions
I From this perspective, Dedekinds real achievement

was that he pushed doubts about supertasks and
infinity away from nubers and into the domain of set
theory.
Calculus without
Irrational proofs Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I From a practical perspective, this is an excellent Set theory and
solution. supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Paradoxes of set
I It provides an easy escape route for most theory
mathematicians who rarely go beyond naive set Why R?
theory. How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
I They can say that it is not their job (proof by territory Conclusions
limitation).
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
limitation).
I they can say (as Paul Erdos nearly said), so many
people believe it, they cant all be wrong can they?
(proof by numbers), etc.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
limitation).
I they can say (as Paul Erdos nearly said), so many
people believe it, they cant all be wrong can they?
(proof by numbers), etc.
I (For more details about such proofs, see the
appendix to my book The Eleven Pictures of Time,
Sage, 2003.)
Calculus without
Sets and supertasks Limits
Summary C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
I Thus, with R, doubts about supertasks in the How to define the
calculus were pushed out of what mathematicians derivative?
Conclusions
regard as their normal area of activity,
Calculus without
Summary C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
Conclusions
I and into set theory.
Calculus without
Summary C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
Conclusions
I and into set theory.
I But were they resolved?
Calculus without
Traditional paradoxes of infinity Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
I It has long been known that infinity brings in various
Paradoxes of set
paradoxes. theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
paradoxes. theory
Why R?
I A classic example is the Sanskrit sloka, the first
verse of the Isa Upanisad, : pZ md, pZ Emdm pZA t^ How to define the
derivative?
pZ mdQyt
/ pZ -y pZ mAdAy pZ mvAvEf yt. Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
paradoxes. theory
Why R?
derivative?
pZ mdQyt
I The second line says if you remove the whole from

the whole, what remains is the whole.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
paradoxes. theory
Why R?
derivative?
pZ mdQyt
I The second line says if you remove the whole from

the whole, what remains is the whole.
I It was such paradoxes which made Descartes and
Galileo suspect the calculus when it first arrived in
Europe (as we will see in more detail, later on).
Calculus without
Paradoxes of infinity in the Christian tradition Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I A similar paradox was encountered in Christian Set theory and
tradition a thousand years before Descartes. supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Paradoxes of set
I Proclus (a commentator on the Elements) had theory
argued that the truths of mathematics were eternal, Why R?
hence the world itself must be eternal. How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
I John Philoponus, in his Apology Against Proclus, Conclusions
defended the idea that the world was created,
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
I He argued that adding a day to eternity would not
change eternity. Hence, the world was not eternal.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
I He argued that adding a day to eternity would not
change eternity. Hence, the world was not eternal.
I Curiously, he had a different attitude towards the
eternal torture in hell which he thought awaited
non-Christians, a torture which he thought they
would experience for an eternity of time.
Calculus without
The double standard Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
I A similar double-standard is found today in set How to define the
theory, derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
theory, derivative?
Conclusions
I but this is much harder to spot.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
theory, derivative?
Conclusions
I but this is much harder to spot.
I Let us try.
Calculus without
Russells paradox Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I Recall Russells paradox. theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
Why R?
I Let R = {x|x 6 x}.
How to define the
derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
Why R?
How to define the
I Now, if R 6 R, then, by definition, we must have derivative?
R R. Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
Why R?
How to define the
R R. Conclusions
I On the other hand, if R R then, again, by definition,

we must have R 6 R.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
Why R?
How to define the
R R. Conclusions
I On the other hand, if R R then, again, by definition,

we must have R 6 R.
I So, either way, we have a contradiction.
Calculus without
The definition of a set Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I The way these contradictions are resolved in theory
axiomatic set theory is peculiar. Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I Take, for example, the von-Neumann-Bernays-Gdel How to define the

derivative?
(NBG) set theory. Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
I Here, a well-formed formula (of the sort used in

Russells paradox) in general only defines a class.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
I Here, a well-formed formula (of the sort used in

Russells paradox) in general only defines a class.
I A set is defined as a class A for which a class B,
such that A B.
Calculus without
Resolution of Russells paradox in NBG Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I Russells paradox is resolved in NBG by saying that theory
the Russell class is a class, not a set, for we cannot Why R?
find a class S such that R S. How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
I The paradoxes of set theory apply to classes, not Conclusions
sets.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
I The paradoxes of set theory apply to classes, not Conclusions
sets.
I Mathematicians can stick to sets and thus avoid the
paradoxes which are now (believed to be) confined to
classes.
Calculus without
So are all paradoxes resolved? Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
I How can we be sure that all paradoxes of set theory Why R?
How to define the

are resolved. derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
How to define the

I NBG includes classes which are paradoxical. Conclusions

Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
How to define the

I NBG includes classes which are paradoxical. Conclusions
I How can we be sure this does not make NBG

inconsistent?
Calculus without
The consistency of NBG Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
I The consistency of NBG is not proven Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
How to define the

I it is only widely believed among mathematicians. derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
How to define the

I So, basing the calculus on R and NBG does not Conclusions
guarantee the surety of the results.

Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
How to define the

I So, basing the calculus on R and NBG does not Conclusions
guarantee the surety of the results.

I Thats only a belief.
Calculus without
Metamathematics Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
I It is interesting to see how the belief in the
Paradoxes of set
consistency of NBG is maintained. theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I By Gdels second incompleteness theorem, the Why R?
consistency of a consistent theory cannot be proven How to define the

derivative?
within the theory. Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
I Therefore, to decide the consistency of set theory we

require metamathematics.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set

derivative?

I The question is: what kind of metamathematics?
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set

derivative?

I The question is: what kind of metamathematics?
I Before answering this question, let us recall some
socially accepted results of metamathematics.
Calculus without
Cantors Continuum Hypothesis Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I For a set X denote its cardinality by #(X ). Set theory and
supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
I It may be proved (by contradiction) that Paradoxes of set
#(X ) < #P(X ). theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
Why R?
I If the set X is finite, #(X ) = n, then the binomial
How to define the
expansion may be used to show that #(P(X )) = 2n . derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
Why R?
How to define the
Conclusions
I Not clear what happens when X is infinite.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
Why R?
How to define the
Conclusions
I Recall that Cantors continuum hypothesis states that
if 0 is the cardinality of the infinite set N of natural
numbers, and c is the cardinality of R then 20 = c.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
Why R?
How to define the
Conclusions
I Recall that Cantors continuum hypothesis states that
if 0 is the cardinality of the infinite set N of natural
numbers, and c is the cardinality of R then 20 = c.
I The metamathematical theorems of Gdel and
Cohen showed that the continuum hypothesis (CH)
implies (but is not implied by) the axiom of choice.
Calculus without
Axiom of Choice Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I The axiom of choice (AC): every set has a choice Set theory and
function. supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Paradoxes of set
I That is, if X is a set the elements of which are theory
nonempty sets, then there exists a function f with Why R?
domain X such that A X , f (A) A. How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
I A choice function f for a set X allows us to pick an Conclusions
individual element f (A) A for each A X .

Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Paradoxes of set

derivative?

I Equivalent is Zorns Lemma: in a partially ordered
set if every chain is bounded above, then there must
be at least one maximal element,
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Paradoxes of set

derivative?

I Equivalent is Zorns Lemma: in a partially ordered
set if every chain is bounded above, then there must
be at least one maximal element,
I or Hausdorff maximality principle: in a partially
ordered set every chain is contained in a maximal
chain etc.
Calculus without
Axiom of choice Limits
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I These are today part of the everyday equipment of theory
mathematical reasoning. Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
How to define the

I The AC is needed to prove what are regarded as derivative?
everyday results today: Conclusions
Calculus without
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
How to define the

I the existence of a Lebesgue non-measurable set or

Tychonoffs theorem (that the product of compact
sets is compact) etc.
Calculus without
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
How to define the

I the existence of a Lebesgue non-measurable set or

Tychonoffs theorem (that the product of compact
sets is compact) etc.
I Zorns lemma is used to prove the Hahn-Banach
theorem etc.
Calculus without
Banach-Tarski paradox Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
I However, the AC (and the existence of Lebesgue Paradoxes of set
theory
non-measurable sets) also leads to the
Why R?
Banach-Tarski paradox.
How to define the
derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
Why R?
How to define the
I Namely, let A, B Rn , with n 3. derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
Why R?
How to define the
Conclusions
I Further, let A, B be bounded and have non-empty
interior.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
Why R?
How to define the
Conclusions
I Further, let A, B be bounded and have non-empty
interior.
I Then,
Skthere exist finite
Sk partitions of A, B, such that
A = i=1 Ai , B = i=1 Bi , and each Ai is congruent
(under Euclidean motions) to Bi .
Calculus without
Banach-Tarski Paradox Limits
contd C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
I This paradox conflicts violently with geometric
Paradoxes of set
intuition, for it means that a ball in 3-dimensional theory
space may be broken into a finite number of Why R?
non-overlapping pieces, which may be reassembled How to define the

derivative?
by rotation and translation (without stretching) into Conclusions
two balls of the same volume as the original.

Calculus without
The theorems of Gdel and Cohen Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
I such paradoxes created fears that AC may lead to
Paradoxes of set
inconsistency of NBG. theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I However, the metamathematical theorems of Gdel Why R?
How to define the

and Cohen showed that both the continuum derivative?
hypothesis (CH) and AC are independent of the Conclusions
remaining axioms of NBG.

Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
How to define the


I Usually taken as reassurance about CH and AC.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
How to define the


I We look at the formal contrapositive:
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
How to define the


I We look at the formal contrapositive:
I if set theory is inconsistent with AC, then it must be
inconsistent without AC.
Calculus without
What kind of metamathematics Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
I To return to the original question. Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
I Metamathematics needed to prove consistency of How to define the
derivative?
NBG,
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
derivative?
NBG,
Conclusions
I But what kind of metamathematics?
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
derivative?
NBG,
Conclusions
I But what kind of metamathematics?
I Specifically, can principles like AC and CH be
admitted in metamathematics?
Calculus without
Deciding decidability Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

I By Gdels first incompleteness theorem, any formal supertasks
theory large enough to contain natural numbers Paradoxes of set

theory
contains a proposition asserting its own negation Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
I which cannot hence be either proved or disproved How to define the
derivative?
within the theory (if the theory is consistent; if it is
Conclusions
inconsistent, every statement is provable).
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
Conclusions
I However, if such a theory is decidable, then the
statement can be either proved or disproved within
the theory.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
Conclusions
I However, if such a theory is decidable, then the
statement can be either proved or disproved within
the theory.
I That is, if set theory is decidable it must be
inconsistent.
Calculus without
Is set theory consistent? Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I Decidability of a formal theory is usually understood theory
Why R?
in the sense of recursive decidability.
How to define the
derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
Why R?
How to define the
I But, why should we limit metamathematics to finite derivative?
recursion? Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
Why R?
How to define the
I But, why should we limit metamathematics to finite derivative?
recursion? Conclusions
I Conjecture: Transfinite recursion (an easy

consequence of AC), makes set theory decidable
(hence inconsistent).
Calculus without
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

I Usually AC etc. are excluded from metamathematics supertasks
on the grounds that metamathematics should only Paradoxes of set

theory
use conservative techniques of proof. Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
I But if we distrust transfinite induction, why allow it in How to define the
derivative?
set theory?
Conclusions
Calculus without
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
set theory?
Conclusions
I And if we find it trustworthy, why not allow it also in
metamathematics?
Calculus without
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
set theory?
Conclusions
metamathematics?
I So, standard of proof in metamathematics 6=
standard of proof in mathematics. Why?
Calculus without
contd. C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
set theory?
Conclusions
metamathematics?
I So, standard of proof in metamathematics 6=
standard of proof in mathematics. Why?
I The only answers is from mathematical authority. So
formal mathematics ultimately depends upon
authority, not reason.
Calculus without
Interim summary Limits
C. K. Raju
I Use of limits in calculus does not guarantee any Introduction
surety in the results. Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju

supertasks
I All it does is to push the doubts about supertasks Paradoxes of set
theory
into the domain of set theory.
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
Why R?
I The consistency of set theory is not proven: it is How to define the
derivative?
believed.
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
Why R?
derivative?
believed.
Conclusions
I This belief is maintained by using two standards of
proof.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
Why R?
derivative?
believed.
Conclusions
proof.
I Infinite procedures (even AC) allowed for proofs in
mathematics, but disallowed in metamathematics.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
Why R?
derivative?
believed.
Conclusions
proof.
I Infinite procedures (even AC) allowed for proofs in
mathematics, but disallowed in metamathematics.
I This is a hypocritical social consensus among
authoritative Western mathematicians. Ideally, there
should be one standard of proof for both
mathematics and metamathematics.
Calculus without
Completeness of R Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

I Why is R needed for calculus? supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

I Conventional answer: because R is complete (as a Paradoxes of set

theory
metric space). Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
I The field of rational numbers Q is not. How to define the
derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
I The usual algorithm for square-root
extraction (first Conclusions
stated by Aryabhat.a) gives for 2 a sequence of
rational numbers 1.4, 1.41, 1.414, 1.4142, . . . .
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
I This is a Cauchy sequence: for successive terms
differ only in the next decimal place,
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
I This is a Cauchy sequence: for successive terms
differ only in the next decimal place,
I so the difference between the mth and nth term can
be made less than 10q where q = min{m, n}.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I However, this Cauchy sequence does not converge theory
in Q since Q is not complete. Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set

I The limit would be 2, but easy to prove that there is How to define the
derivative?
no rational number p such that p2 = 2. Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
I From the construction of R as the set of equivalence
classes of Cauchy sequences in Q, this does not
happen in R which is complete.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
I From the construction of R as the set of equivalence
classes of Cauchy sequences in Q, this does not
happen in R which is complete.
I What happens in a field larger than R?
Calculus without
Archimedean Property Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
I R has the Archimedean property (AP). Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
I Namely, given x R, x 0, n N, such that x < n. Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
I Here, n = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 (n times), is defined in How to define the
derivative?
any ordered field (so AP makes sense in any ordered
Conclusions
field).
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
derivative?
Conclusions
field).
I AP characterizes R. That is, R is the largest ordered
field with AP.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
derivative?
Conclusions
field).
I AP characterizes R. That is, R is the largest ordered
field with AP.
I Consequently, if we have an ordered field S R,
then the AP must fail in S.
Calculus without
Infinities and infinitesimals in an ordered field Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

I Such a field S in which the AP fails, must have both supertasks
infinities and infinitesimals. Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

theory
I Thus, since the AP fails, we must have an x S such Why R?
that x > n for all n N. How to define the
derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

theory
derivative?
I Such an x is what we intuitively understand as an
Conclusions
infinitely large number.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

theory
derivative?
Conclusions
I Further, since S is an ordered field, this x must have
a multiplicative inverse x1 . This must satisfy
0 < x1 < n1 for all n N.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

theory
derivative?
Conclusions
I Further, since S is an ordered field, this x must have
a multiplicative inverse x1 . This must satisfy
0 < x1 < n1 for all n N.
I Thus, x1 corresponds to what we intuitively
understand as an infinitesimally small number.
Calculus without
Limits in a field without AP Limits
C. K. Raju
I What would happen to limits in such a field? Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
I Still possible to say that Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
1 theory
lim = 0,
n n Why R?
How to define the

but the limit would not be unique, derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
1 theory
lim = 0,
n n Why R?
How to define the

1 Conclusions
I for the infinitesimal x is another limit on the
definition of limit,
Calculus without
C. K. Raju

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
1 theory
lim = 0,
n n Why R?
How to define the

1 Conclusions
I since
1 1 1 1
| | < | 0| < .
n x n n
Calculus without
C. K. Raju

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
1 theory
lim = 0,
n n Why R?
How to define the

1 Conclusions
I since
1 1 1 1
| | < | 0| < .
n x n n
I Note: we are here not talking about non-standard
analysis: the infinities and infinitesimals in the field S
do not arise merely at an intermediate stage: they
are permanent, so to say.
Calculus without
Example of an ordered field without AP Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I This example also required for later philosophy of Set theory and
supertasks
zeroism. Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
theory
I Consider the set P of all polynomials with real
Why R?
coefficients, in one indeterminate,
How to define the
derivative?
n
Conclusions
X
P = {f (x) = ai x i |ai R, an 6= 0}.
0
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
theory
Why R?
How to define the
derivative?
n
Conclusions
X
P = {f (x) = ai x i |ai R, an 6= 0}.
0
I Define f (x) > 0 if f (x) > 0 for all sufficiently large x.

Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
theory
Why R?
How to define the
derivative?
n
Conclusions
X
P = {f (x) = ai x i |ai R, an 6= 0}.
0

I Likewise, define f > g if f g > 0.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
theory
Why R?
How to define the
derivative?
n
Conclusions
X
P = {f (x) = ai x i |ai R, an 6= 0}.
0

I Likewise, define f > g if f g > 0.
I Since R is a field, it is well known P must be an
integral domain.
Calculus without
example of an ordered field without AP Limits
contd C. K. Raju
I Note that the AP fails in P. Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
contd C. K. Raju

I Thus, the unit element is the polynomial f (x) = 1, Set theory and
supertasks
and if g(x) = x, we see that g(x) > n no matter what
Paradoxes of set
n we choose. theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
contd C. K. Raju

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
n we choose. theory
I The integral domain P can be extended naturally to Why R?
its field of quotients S, consisting of all rational How to define the

derivative?
functions. Conclusions
Calculus without
contd C. K. Raju

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
n we choose. theory

derivative?
I The formal quotient, such as x2 x3 is defined
whenever the denominator is a non-zero polynomial,
even though, as a function, it may be infinite (or fail to
be defined) at a finite set of points (the roots of the
denominator).
Calculus without
contd C. K. Raju

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
n we choose. theory

derivative?
I The formal quotient, such as x2 x3 is defined
whenever the denominator is a non-zero polynomial,
even though, as a function, it may be infinite (or fail to
be defined) at a finite set of points (the roots of the
denominator).
I To avoid quibbles concerning the form 00 , we can
define two rational functions to be equivalent if they
differ only on a finite set of points. (This can happen
also with equivalent formal quotients, e.g. x(x1)
x1 and
x(x2)
.)
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

I As we will see in more detail later on, this is how the supertasks
calculus originally developed in India. Paradoxes of set

theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
I Order counting (with rational functions) was used in Why R?
place of limits. How to define the
derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
I and it was acceptable that limits are not unique. Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
I Right now the question is only this: why do calculus
in R? why not use such an S which makes calculus
easier and more intuitive?
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and


theory
derivative?
I Right now the question is only this: why do calculus
in R? why not use such an S which makes calculus
easier and more intuitive?
I The only answer is that conventional calculus
teaching uncritically imitates the European historical
experience of the calculus.
Calculus without
Inadequacy of the classical definition Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I There are other practical reasons why it is necessary theory
to involve infinities and infinitesimals. Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I Classical () definition soon proved inadequate for How to define the
derivative?
applications to physics. Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
derivative?
I With this definition a differentiable function must be

continuous.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
derivative?
I With this definition a differentiable function must be

continuous.
I So, a discontinuous function may not be
differentiated.
Calculus without
The Dirac Limits
C. K. Raju
I But, in physics, there regularly arose the need to Introduction

differentiate discontinuous functions. Set theory and
supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
The Dirac Limits
C. K. Raju

supertasks
I The classical example of a discontinuous function is Paradoxes of set
the Heaviside function: theory
( Why R?
0 if x < 0 How to define the

H(x) = derivative?
1 if x > 0 Conclusions
Calculus without
The Dirac Limits
C. K. Raju

supertasks
( Why R?

H(x) = derivative?
I Its derivative of this is the Dirac function.

Calculus without
The Dirac Limits
C. K. Raju

supertasks
( Why R?

H(x) = derivative?

I The Dirac had a sad childhood:
Calculus without
The Dirac Limits
C. K. Raju

supertasks
( Why R?

H(x) = derivative?

I physicists denied that it was physical, and used it as
purely a mathematical artifice.
Calculus without
The Dirac Limits
C. K. Raju

supertasks
( Why R?

H(x) = derivative?

I physicists denied that it was physical, and used it as
purely a mathematical artifice.
I Mathematicians, on the other hand, considered it as
something non-mathematical and non-rigorousa
mere construct used by physicists.
Calculus without
Formalizations Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
I Heaviside, however, used it for electrical engineering. Paradoxes of set

theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks

theory
I The resulting physical intuition was, however, soon Why R?
formalised by How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks

theory

derivative?
I Sobolev, Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks

theory

derivative?
I Schwartz (theory of distributions),

Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks

theory

derivative?

I by Gelfand and Shilov in the theory of generalised
functions, and
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks

theory

derivative?

I by Gelfand and Shilov in the theory of generalised
functions, and
I by Mikusinski in the operational calculus.
Calculus without
Schwartz theory Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I In the Schwartz theory, one averages a function and
Set theory and
then differentiates it. supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and
Paradoxes of set
I Formally, this corresponds to the formula for theory
integration by parts: Why R?
Z Z How to define the

derivative?
0
f g= fg 0 . Conclusions

Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
0

I Here, f is the function (possibly discontinuous) which

one seeks to differentiate,
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
0


I and the derivative f 0 is now being defined by the right
hand side, where the derivative is transferred to
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and
Paradoxes of set

derivative?
0


I and the derivative f 0 is now being defined by the right
hand side, where the derivative is transferred to
I the test function g which is assumed to be infinitely
differentiable: g C .
Calculus without
Test functions Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I The test function g is usually assumed to be
Set theory and
compactly supported supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and
Paradoxes of set
I or to vanish rapidly at infinity etc., theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and
Paradoxes of set
I so that the term fg vanishes at infinity, Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and
Paradoxes of set
How to define the

I and the above formula corresponds to the formula for derivative?
integration by parts. Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and
Paradoxes of set
How to define the

I and the above formula corresponds to the formula for derivative?
integration by parts. Conclusions
I This works equally well for functions of several

variables, and we can write
Z Z
f 0g = fg 0 ,
Rn Rn
for g D(Rn ) where D(Rn ) is the space of compactly

supported and infinitely differentiable functions.
Calculus without
The space of test functions Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I Formally, D(Rn ) is a topological vector space with the Set theory and
supertasks
topology of uniform convergence on compacta to all Paradoxes of set
orders. theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
orders. theory
Why R?
I Technically, this topology is obtained as follows.
How to define the
derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
orders. theory
Why R?
How to define the
I Take a sequence of compact sets KiSsuch that Ki is derivative?

contained in the interior of Ki+1 and i=1 Ki = Rn . Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
orders. theory
Why R?
How to define the

I On C (Rn ) define the seminorms
pN (f ) = max{|D f (x)| x KN , || N}.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I Formally, D(Rn )
is a topological vector space with the Set theory and
supertasks
orders. theory
Why R?
How to define the

pN (f ) = max{|D f (x)| x KN , || N}.
I Here = (
1, . . , n ) is a multi-index,
2 , . and
1 2 n

D = x1 x2 ... xn .
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I Formally, D(Rn )is a topological vector space with the Set theory and
supertasks
orders. theory
Why R?
How to define the

pN (f ) = max{|D f (x)| x KN , || N}.
I Here = (
1, . . , n ) is a multi-index,
2 , . and
1 2 n
D = x 1
x2 . . . x n .
I These seminorms pN generate a vector topology on
C (Rn ), in which the space of compactly supported
test functions D is a closed subspace.
Calculus without
Which derivative? Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
I The Schwartz theory requires that the integral be the Paradoxes of set
theory
Lebesgue integral and not the Riemann integral.
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
Why R?
I with the Schwartz theory every integrable functions How to define the
is differentiable. derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
Why R?
Conclusions
I definition of the limit and the corresponding
derivative was not natural.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
Why R?
Conclusions
I definition of the limit and the corresponding
derivative was not natural.
I That was just a consensus among mathematicians,
which has changed, because the earlier definition
was not adequate for physics.
Calculus without
Which derivative Limits
contd C. K. Raju
I Oddly enough, some people continue with both Introduction
definitions. Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
contd C. K. Raju

supertasks
I though both definitions cannot go together: if a Paradoxes of set
theory
function admits both a classical derivative almost
Why R?
everywhere and a Schwartz derivative, it is not
How to define the
necessary that the two should agree. derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
contd C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
Why R?
How to define the
I E.g., the Heaviside function H(x) is differentiable Conclusions
almost everywhere (i.e., except on a set of Lebesgue

measure zero), and the derivative H 0 = 0 almost
everywhere.
Calculus without
contd C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
Why R?
How to define the

everywhere.
I However,
R the Dirac delta is not the zero distribution,
since (x)dx = 1.
Calculus without
contd C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
Why R?
How to define the

everywhere.
I However,
R the Dirac delta is not the zero distribution,
since (x)dx = 1.
I Thus, for purposes of physics, we need to settle on
one of the two as the right definition, and clearly the
Schwartz definition is better than the older
definition.
Calculus without
Difficulty of point values and products Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I However, using the Schwartz theory creates another
Set theory and
problem in the formulation of the basic differential supertasks
equations of physics Paradoxes of set

theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

theory
I the Schwartz theory reinterprets a function as a Why R?
functional on a function space. How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

theory

derivative?
I Hence, it is no longer possible to speak of the value Conclusions
f (x) of the function f at a point x.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

theory

derivative?
I This loss of point values already occurred in the
Lebesgue theory of integration.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

theory

derivative?
I However, it has more serious consequences in the
Schwartz theory.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

theory

derivative?
I However, it has more serious consequences in the
Schwartz theory.
I Pointwise products of functions are no longer
defined.
Calculus without
The Schwartz product Limits
C. K. Raju
I Pointwise product
Introduction
fg(x) = f (x)g(x) Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
defined only in the special case where the functions f theory
and g are smooth (C ). Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
I Pointwise product
Introduction

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
How to define the

I Possible to give a natural-looking definition of the derivative?
pointwise product when only one of the functions is Conclusions
C .
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
I Pointwise product
Introduction

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
How to define the

C .
I Called the Schwartz product. If g is a distribution,
and f C , define
hfg, hi = hg, fhi

R
for all test functions h, where hf , hi fh.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
I Pointwise product
Introduction

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
How to define the

C .
I Called the Schwartz product. If g is a distribution,
and f C , define
hfg, hi = hg, fhi

R
for all test functions h, where hf , hi fh.
I If f C and h is a test function, f .h is again a test
function. Hence, the right hand side is well defined.
Calculus without
Schwartz impossibility theorem Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I Schwartz proved that there does not exist a product theory
of distributions which Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
I (a) agrees with the Schwartz product (defined How to define the
derivative?
above), Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
derivative?
above), Conclusions
I (b) is associative (that is (fg)h = f (gh) for all
distributions f , g, h), and
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
derivative?
above), Conclusions
I (b) is associative (that is (fg)h = f (gh) for all
distributions f , g, h), and
I (c) satisfies the Leibniz rule (that is (fg)0 = fg 0 + f 0 g
for all distributions f , g).
Calculus without
Taubs remark Limits
C. K. Raju
I Taub1 asserted, Fortunately, the product of such
distributions [as arise] is quite tractable. Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
1
A. H. Taub, J. Math. Phys.,21 (1980) pp. 142331.
Calculus without
Taubs remark Limits
C. K. Raju
I Thus, for example, consider the Heaviside function . Set theory and
supertasks
I Paradoxes of set
2 = , theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
1
Calculus without
Taubs remark Limits
C. K. Raju
supertasks
I Paradoxes of set
2 = , theory
Why R?
I Apply the Leibniz rule (for the derivative of a How to define the
derivative?
product of two functions) to conclude that
Conclusions
2 0 = 0 ,
1
Calculus without
Taubs remark Limits
C. K. Raju
supertasks
I Paradoxes of set
2 = , theory
Why R?
I Apply the Leibniz rule (for the derivative of a How to define the
derivative?
product of two functions) to conclude that
Conclusions
2 0 = 0 ,
I Since 0 = , this can be rewritten as
2 = ,
which immediately tells us that
1
= .
2
1
Calculus without
Taubs remark Limits
contd C. K. Raju
I This is simple enough except that we also have Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
3 = , Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
Taubs remark Limits
contd C. K. Raju
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
I from which, by the same logic, it would follow that Why R?
How to define the
32 0 = 0 .
derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
Taubs remark Limits
contd C. K. Raju
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
How to define the
32 0 = 0 .
derivative?
Conclusions
I Since
2 = ,
this corresponds to
1
= .
3
Calculus without
Taubs remark Limits
contd C. K. Raju
Set theory and

supertasks
theory
How to define the
32 0 = 0 .
derivative?
Conclusions
I Since
2 = ,
this corresponds to
1
= .
3
I Comparing the above two leads to the interesting
conclusion that 21 = 13 !
Calculus without
Infinities of quantum field theory Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I However, infinities arise in quantum field theory (qft). Set theory and
supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
I The propagators of qft are fundamental solutions of Paradoxes of set
theory
the Klein-Gordon and Dirac equations.
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
theory
Why R?
I Products of these propagators arise in the S-matrix How to define the
expansion. derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
theory
Why R?
Conclusions
I These products are Fourier transformed into
convolution integrals, which are divergent.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
theory
Why R?
Conclusions
I These products are Fourier transformed into
convolution integrals, which are divergent.
I If we apply this to 2 we see that
Z
2
( ) = = 1 1 = 1 = .
Calculus without
Arbitrariness in the definition of the product Limits
C. K. Raju
I Problem today is not that a product cannot be Introduction
defined. Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju

supertasks
I Many definitions have been given including one by Paradoxes of set
theory
this author (1982)
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
this author (1982)
Why R?
I The problem is to select one definition from among How to define the
derivative?
the 40-odd definitions that have been proposed in
Conclusions
the literature.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
this author (1982)
Why R?
derivative?
Conclusions
the literature.
I Quantum field theorists use the Hahn-Banach
definition useless for classical physics (shock waves).
Calculus without
C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
this author (1982)
Why R?
derivative?
Conclusions
the literature.
I Mathematicians use Colombeaus product useless
for physics (since it is both associative and satisfies
the Leibniz rule).
Calculus without
C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
this author (1982)
Why R?
derivative?
Conclusions
the literature.
I Mathematicians use Colombeaus product useless
for physics (since it is both associative and satisfies
the Leibniz rule).
I What are the principles on which the choice is to be
decided?
Calculus without
Which definition of the product? Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
I One possibility is to use comparison theorems. Set theory and
supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
I However, Hahn-Banach product used in qft has Paradoxes of set
2 = A. Not comparable with Hormanders product theory
which does not define has 2 or with my product Why R?
How to define the

which defines 2 as an infinite distribution. derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
How to define the

I Another possibility is to by social consensus among Conclusions
authoritative mathematicians.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
How to define the

I This is decided by other considerations.
Colombeau product exactly like naive product of
non-standard distributions.
Calculus without
C. K. Raju
Introduction
supertasks
How to define the

I This is decided by other considerations.
Colombeau product exactly like naive product of
non-standard distributions.
I Since associate law and Leibniz rule holds, it has a
problem as follows.
Calculus without
Shock waves Limits
C. K. Raju
I For smooth fluid flows one can use either (a) Introduction
conservation of mass, momentum, and energy, or (b) Set theory and

supertasks
conservation of mass, momentum and entropy. Paradoxes of set
theory
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
Shock waves Limits
C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
I This is no longer true for non-smooth flows involving
Why R?
shocks.
How to define the
derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
Shock waves Limits
C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
Why R?
shocks.
How to define the
derivative?
I (Here a shock is regarded as a surface of
Conclusions
discontinuity.)
Calculus without
Shock waves Limits
C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
Why R?
shocks.
How to define the
derivative?
Conclusions
discontinuity.)
I Historically, Riemann made the mistake of choosing
form (b), and arrived at physically incorrect
conditions for shocks.
Calculus without
Shock waves Limits
C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
Why R?
shocks.
How to define the
derivative?
Conclusions
discontinuity.)
I The correct conditions, using (a) were given by
Rankine and Hugoniot.
Calculus without
Shock waves Limits
C. K. Raju

supertasks
theory
Why R?
shocks.
How to define the
derivative?
Conclusions
discontinuity.)
I The correct conditions, using (a) were given by
Rankine and Hugoniot.
I With the Colombeau theory, it is not possible to
discriminate between forms (a) and (b).
Calculus without
Conclusions Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

I Calculus with limits is taught on grounds of rigor. supertasks
However, this purported rigor depends upon the Paradoxes of set
theory
imposition of a variety of arbitrary choices.
Why R?
How to define the

derivative?
Conclusions
Calculus without
Conclusions Limits
C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

I Calculus with limits is taught on grounds of rigor. supertasks
However, this purported rigor depends upon the Paradoxes of set
theory
imposition of a variety of arbitrary choices.
Why R?
I The choice of metamathematics is arbitrary. How to define the
Calculus with limits requires infinite procedures derivative?
(spertasks), incorporated in R which is constructed Conclusions
using axiomatic set theory, such as NBG. Supertasks

lead to paradoxes of set. Consistency of NBG can
only be proved or disproved in metamathematics.
The consistency is maintained by an arbitrary choice
of metamathematics: refusing to allow in
metamathematics the sort of infinite procedures for
proof that are admitted in NBG.
Calculus without
Conclusions Limits
contd C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
I The choice of the number system underlying the
Why R?
calculus is arbitrary. It is possible to do calculus How to define the
more intuitively in non-Archimedean fields larger derivative?
than R. Conclusions
Calculus without
Conclusions Limits
contd C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
Paradoxes of set
theory
I The choice of the number system underlying the
Why R?
calculus is arbitrary. It is possible to do calculus How to define the
more intuitively in non-Archimedean fields larger derivative?
than R. Conclusions
I The definition of the derivative is arbitrary. The

classical definition of the derivative is not
adequate for physics, since the derivative of
discontinuous functions naturally arises in physics.
Calculus without
Conclusions Limits
contd C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
I The definition of the product of distributions is
Paradoxes of set
arbitrary The classical definition of derivative is theory
usually replace by the Schwartz definition which is Why R?
incomplete since it does not address the issue of How to define the
derivative?
products of distributions. Colombeaus simplistic Conclusions
definition is today being promoted by mathematical
authority, although it is inadequate and inappropriate
for physics
Calculus without
Conclusions Limits
contd C. K. Raju
Introduction
Set theory and

supertasks
I The definition of the product of distributions is
Paradoxes of set
arbitrary The classical definition of derivative is theory
usually replace by the Schwartz definition which is Why R?
incomplete since it does not address the issue of How to define the
derivative?
products of distributions. Colombeaus simplistic Conclusions
definition is today being promoted by mathematical
authority, although it is inadequate and inappropriate
for physics
I As seen by the fate of the classical definition of
derivative, ultimately mathematical definitions have
to be related to practical value not mathematical
authority.

CKR Usm Presentation 2

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Calculus without

Calculus without Limits: Set theory and

the Theory Paradoxes of set

Part 1: Axioms and Definitions How to define the

Calculus without Limits: Set theory and

the Theory Paradoxes of set

Part 1: Axioms and Definitions How to define the

Introduction Set theory and

How to define the

How to define the derivative?

Set theory and

I We saw that it is impossible to teach limits? Paradoxes of set

How to define the

Set theory and

I We saw that it is impossible to teach limits? Paradoxes of set

How to define the

Set theory and

I We saw that it is impossible to teach limits? Paradoxes of set

I Common answer: rigor. How to define the

Set theory and

I We saw that it is impossible to teach limits? Paradoxes of set

I Common answer: rigor. How to define the

Set theory and

I We saw that it is impossible to teach limits? Paradoxes of set

I Common answer: rigor. How to define the

Set theory and

I We saw that it is impossible to teach limits? Paradoxes of set

I Common answer: rigor. How to define the

Set theory and

How to define the

Set theory and

Set theory and

Set theory and

Set theory and

Set theory and

decisions of those in mathematical authority. Paradoxes of set

How to define the

Set theory and

decisions of those in mathematical authority. Paradoxes of set

Set theory and

decisions of those in mathematical authority. Paradoxes of set

Set theory and

decisions of those in mathematical authority. Paradoxes of set

Set theory and

decisions of those in mathematical authority. Paradoxes of set

Set theory and

How to define the

Set theory and

I Let us try to understand why set theory is needed for Why R?

calculus. How to define the

Set theory and

I Let us try to understand why set theory is needed for Why R?

calculus. How to define the

there were epistemic doubts about its validity.

Set theory and

I Let us try to understand why set theory is needed for Why R?

calculus. How to define the

there were epistemic doubts about its validity.

Set theory and

I Let us try to understand why set theory is needed for Why R?

calculus. How to define the

there were epistemic doubts about its validity.

Set theory and