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the centroids would then create a bending moment that tends small, and the stress does not exceed the yield stress of the
to bend the blade in the direction opposite that of the steam- material at a given amplitude, the blades experience high-
bending load [3]. Fig. 2 helps to illustrate this point [3]. cycle fatigue causing them to fail suddenly after a large
number of cycles. Larger amplitudes of stress fluctuations
will result in greater stresses in the blades and cause low-
cycle fatigue with blade failure occurring only after a
relatively small number of cycles. Blade vibrations are most
dangerous when the frequency of vibrations coincides with
the natural frequency of the blades [3]. When this occurs, the
blades resonate and fail from high-cycle fatigue in a short
period of time.
Creep
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downsides of Titanium alloys as they are not easily presence or formation of cracks that allow corrosion is
welded and they are expensive to produce). practically inevitable. To this end, studies have been
3. Blade materials must exhibit a moderate elastic conducted to determine whether certain chemical coatings,
modulus so that the blade neither deforms when deposited on turbine blades, are effective in preventing
exceedingly nor breaks suddenly under normal blade corrosion [17]. E. K. Sevidova, et al, determined that
operating stresses. among three coatings (Ti+TiN, Cr+CrN, Cr+(CrTi)N) tested
4. Preferably, blade materials should be low-density in on 20X13 steel, the Cr+CrN coating proved to be most
order to decrease the centrifugal forces, and effective in resisting corrosion when exposed to a 3% NaCl
therefore centrifugal stresses, on the blades. solution [17].
5. The blades must be corrosion-resistant, even in the Water droplet erosion is also an issue in steam turbines.
presence of aggressive ionic solutions formed by Erosion of blade materials will distort the geometry of the
impurities in the steam. blade and cause a decrease in efficiency due to aerodynamic
6. Blades must be manufactured in such a way as to losses. In order to improve erosion resistance, coatings that
minimize initiation of cracks during the harden the surface of the blade have been investigated.
manufacturing process. Shun-sen Wang, et al, tested five different boride coatings,
three ion-plating CrN coatings, and three thermal-spray
Kiyoshi Segawa, et al, have developed a new rotor blade coatings on five different substrate steels [18]. They
for steam turbine plants [15]. The new blade design concluded that the thermal coatings had negligible effects on
optimized blade aerodynamics near the root section of the protecting the blade substrate from erosion when compared
blade, thus decreasing both profile and endwall losses. to the other coatings tested; that the protective coating must
Based on the results of 3-D stage and air turbine tests, the be a at least equal to some minimum critical value in order
new rotor blade was found to increase stage efficiency by to effectively protect the substrate from erosion; that
about 0.3%. In addition, the new blade design was found to improving coating thickness reduces the erosion rate of the
improve internal efficiency and reduce manufacturing costs coating; and that the erosion resistance of the coating is
by reducing the blade number by 15% [15]. strongly dependent on temperature.
Walker and Hesketh have determined that improvements Overall, an improved blade design consisting of strong,
in efficiency can be realized by the optimization of erosion and corrosion-resistant materials with optimized
aerodynamic parameters including stage heat-drop, blade aerodynamic parameters will result in a more efficient
velocity distribution, surface finish, and three-dimensional turbine.
design [9]. However, in order to optimize these parameters
the constraints imposed by manufacturing costs and TURBINE EFFICIENCY
mechanical limitations must be considered. For example,
reduction of blade stress can be realized with the Turbine efficiency is lost through defects accumulating in
implementation of lighter-weight materials, such as turbine components. As the turbine blades significantly
Titanium alloys. However, such alloys are not suitable for impact the overall efficiency of the turbine [2], defects that
use in regions of elevated temperatures and they are neither accumulate in theses components dramatically reduce the
easily nor cheaply manufactured. Thus, in order to improve efficiency of the turbine. At the worst, these defects can
turbine efficiency, a happy medium between cost and cause the failure of the turbine and necessitate the shutdown
performance must be established. of the generator; at best, these defects will increase turbine
A new blade design developed by Hideo Nomoto, et al, maintenance costs. When defects arise, such as blade
allows steam turbine blades to be more resistant to cracking and blade corrosion, the aerodynamic designs of
temperatures up to six hundred and thirty degrees Celsius the blades are severely compromised leading to inefficient
[16]. Thanks to advancements in computer fluid dynamics, interactions between the steam and the blades. This
blade design has allowed for a more efficient steam path. consequently increases the amount of fuel consumed to
The blade is now designed to optimize root and tip area, produce the steam, which increases operating costs, which
which in turn minimizes leakage from the steam path to the ultimately reflects increased the costs to the consumer.
blade. This allows for a more efficient system where steam Hence, to avoid, or at least diminish, elevated energy costs,
is not lost throughout. The introduction of integral snubbing the implementation of an improved blade design in existing
at the tip connects the blades circularly. This new blade turbines, consistent with the findings of this paper, should be
design aspect also reduces leakage, as well as vibration considered.
control. Both add to the efficiency of the steam turbine An increase in fuel consumption necessarily increases
system. This new blade design reduces the impact of thermal the amount of emissions from the generator plant. In the case
stress because of the improved efficiency of the system [16]. of fossil fuel-burning power plants, this indicates elevated
Effective corrosion resistance is key in improving blade amounts of carbon dioxide emissions. However, improved
design. Although the materials currently used in turbine turbine technologies that utilize cleaner, renewable fuels
blades have some degree of corrosion resistance, the have been developed, thereby lessening unwanted emissions.
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