AS BIOLOGY- UNIT 2

The Voice of the Genome-Cell Ultra structure

The 3 basic ideas about cells are:
- They are building blocks of structure in living things
- Are the smallest units of life
- Are derived from other pre-existing cells by division
- Contains a blueprint for their growth, development and behaviour
- Have sites of chemical reactions of life (metabolism)
Transmission electron microscopy
In the electron microscope (EM), a beam of electrons is used to produce a magnified image.
The electron beam is generated by an electron gun and is focused on electromagnets
In transmission electron microscopy of biological material, the electron beam is passed
through an extremely thin section of tissue.
Membranes and other structures present in cells are stained with heavy metal ions, making
them electron opaque so they stand out
In scanning electron microscopy, the surface of the whole specimen is scanned by a beam of
electrons
The 3D image is created from electrons reflected from the surface and also from electrons
generated their secondary electrons.
Larger specimens can be viewed by scanning electron microscopy than by transmission
electron microscopy, but the reaction is not as great
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and prokaotic cells dont
The ultrastructure of an animal cell
The fluid around the organelles in an eukaryotic cell is called the cytosol which is formed and
used in the chemical reactions of life (metabolism which involves the chemical metabolites).
They cytosol and organelles are contained within the plasma membrane, allowing the
metabolites to move within the organelles
Introducing organelles
Nucleus- is the largest organelle (10-20m diameter). Its surrounded by a double
membrane with 100nm pores (diameter) and pores make up 1/3 of the nuclear membranes
surface diameter. The nucleus contains chromosomes which appear dispersed as a diffuse
network (chromatin). The nuclei are present in nucleus (is tiny and rounded and is where
ribosomes are synthesised
Mitochondria- are metabolically active cells and are 0.5-1.5m wide and 3.0-10.0m long. It
has a double membrane-its inner membrane is infolded to form cristae. The interior of the
mitochondria contains an aqueous solution of metabolites and enzymes (matrix) and
mitochondrion is the site of aerobic respiration
Ribosomes- are the site of protein synthesis. They are 25nm in diameter and are built of 2
subunits and dont have membranes. They are made of protein and nucleic acid (RNA)
Rough endoplasmic rectilium- have ribosomes attached to its outer surface. Vesicles are
then pinched off. Vesicles are small, spherical organelles bound by a single membrane used
 to transport and store substances around the cell. Example- RER is the site of protein
synthesis and discharge from cells e.g. digestive enzymes
Smooth endoplasmic rectilium- have no ribosomes and are the site of synthesis of
substances needed by cells. Example- SER is important in the manufacture
Endoplasmic rectilium- has a network of folded single membranes forming interconnected
sheets, tubes or sacs. The origin of endoplasmic rectilium is the outer membrane of nucleus
which remains attached
Golgi apparatus- contains a stack-like collection of flattened membranes sacs one side of
stack of membranes is formed by fusion of membranes of vesicles from endoplasmic
rectilium. At the opposite side of stack, vesicles are formed from swellings of margins that
may be printed off. It is the site of biochemical synthesis
Lysosomes- are involved in the breakdown of contents of imported food vacuoles e.g.
harmful bacterium that invades body and is engulfed by defence cells which is then broken
down. Lysosomes fuse and digest any broken down organelles. When an organism dies, the
hydrolytic enzymes in the lysomes of the cell escape into the cytoplasm and cause self-
digestion (autolysis)
Microtubules and centrioles- microtubules are straight, unbranched hollow cylinders (25nm
wide) which are made up of globular protein called tublim and are built and broken down as
needed by cells. They are involved in movement of cell components and form centrosome
which consists of centrioles that lay right angles to each other, each consisting of 9 triplets of
microtubules. Centrioles separate and move to opposite ends of nucleus before nuclear
division.
Eukaryotic cell diagram
Prokaryotic cell diagram

The Voice of the Genome-Cells make organisms

Unicellular organisms are structurally simple but they are able to perform all the functions
and activities of life within a single cell. The cell feeds, respires, sensitive to internal/external
conditions, more & may divide and reproduce
Multicellular organisms are identical cells that stay and divide together. The majority of
multicellular organisms are like mammals (the fact that their cells grow and develop to form
a zygote)
 Specialised cells are efficient in the conduct of a particular function, such as transport,
support or protection but they cant do other things (resulting differences between cells are
due to the division of labour).
Some cells are totally dependent on other cells for example nerve cells are adapted for the
transport of nerve impulses but are dependent on blood cells for oxygen, and on heart
muscle cells to pump the blood
Specialised cells in mulitcellular organisms become organised into tissues and organs during
development
A tissue is a group of similar cells specialised to perform a particular function e.g. muscle
tissue
An organ is a collection of different tissue which perform a specialised function e.g. leaf in a
plant.
Cell division and the cell cycle
The cell division cycle consists of 3 stages which are interphases, division of the nucleus by a
process (mitosis) that results in 2 identical nuclei
The cell consists of interphases and mitosis. Interphases = G1 + S + G2
Interphase
During interphases, the chromosomes are copied for gene/groups of gene information for
cytoplasm
The ribosomes of the cytoplasm makes the proteins from assembled amino acids and for
them into mRNA. The chromosomes become visible and become dispersed (now known as
chromatin).
You can see the nuclei in chromatin which consists of protein and RNA and are at the site of
ribosome synthesis and migrate out of cytoplasm
Stages of interphase
The first phase of growth is (G1) the synthesis of new gametes takes place in cytoplasm,
where stored energy is there and where intense biochemical activity in cytoplasm and
organelles takes place
Then the DNA synthesis takes place (S) where chromosomes replicate to form 2 identical
structures called chromatids (they remain attached until mitosis division)
The second phase of growth (G2) is the continuation of intense biochemical activity and
increased time taken in cytoplasm
Mitosis
Mitosis is the process of cell division and takes place in 4 stages:
- Prophase- Chromosomes become short and thick due to super coiling and at end of
prophase the chromatids are held at centromere and the nucleolus disappears and
nuclear membrane breaks down.
- Metaphase- the centrioles move to opposite ends of cell (animal cell) microtubules form
into a spindle, radiating out from the centrioles and attach to the centrometers of each
pair of chromatids and are arranged at equator of spindle
- Anaphase- the centrometers divide, the spindle fibres shorten & the chromatids are
pulled by their centrometeres to opposite poles. Once separated the chromatids are
reflected to as chromosomes.
 - Telophase- a nuclear membrane reforms around both groups of chromosomes at
opposite ends of the cell. The chromosomes decondense by uncoiling, becoming
chromatin again. The nucleolus reforms in each nucleus.
Cytokenisis
Follows after telophase. During division the cell organelles e.g. chloroplast become evenly
distributed cells
In animal cells, division is by in-tucking of plasma membrane at spindle equator and pinching
cytoplasm in half
In plant cells the Golgi apparatus forms vesicles of new cell wall materials which collect along
the line of equator spindle a.k.a. the cell plate.
The vesicles coalesce and form new plasma membrane and cell walls between the 2 cells
Observing chromosomes during mitosis experiment
1. The tip of a root (5mm) is cut off and retained
2. Tip is transferred to a watch glass
3. 30 drops of aceto-orecien stain added with 3 drops of hydrochloric acid
4. Gently heat for 3-5 mins using a steam bath (or hot plate or by passing through a law Bunsen
flame).
5. Tissues transferred to a microscope slide and root tip cells gently teased apart with mounted
needles
6. Additional drops of stain added followed by a cover slide
7. Tissue firmly squashed by thumb pressure avoiding lateral movements
8. The slide examined under the high power objective of microscope
The significance of mitosis
The significance of mitosis occurs because:
An exact copy of each chromosome is made by accurate replication during interphases when
2 chromatids are formed
Chromatids remain attached by their centromeres during metaphase of mitosis, when each
become attached to as spindle fibre at the equator of spindle
Centrometers then divide during anaphase and the chromatids of each pair are pulled apart
to opposite poles of the spindle- one copy of each pole of the spindle
The chromosomes at the poles from the new nuclei
2 cells are then formed by division of the cytoplasm at the midpoint of the cell, each with an
exact copy of the original nucleus
Mitosis is commonly abandoned in the growth and development of the embryo and during
asexual reproduction.

The Voice of the Genome-Organisms and reproduction

Reproduction is the production of new individuals by an existing member/s of the same
species and it involves a parent generation passing a copy of itself in the form of genetic
material to its offspring which consists of chromosomes, made of nucleic acid.
Asexual reproduction
This involves an organism producing new individuals by not using gametes and the cells of
the new offspring are produced by mitosis so the progeny are identical to the parent and
each other (a.k.a. clones).
 One advantage of asexual reproduction is that they have successful quantities of the new
parent and the organisms can reproduce quickly
Sexual reproduction
This involves 2 gametes fusing to form a zygote which grows into a new individual and fusion
of gametes is called fertilisation.
In the process of gamete formation a nuclear division (meiosis) halves the chromosome
number so gametes are haploid and fertilisation restores the diploid number of
chromosomes
Without the reductive nuclear division the chromosome number would double with each
generation.
Mammals reproduce sexually only but plants can reproduce both sexual and asexual
reproduction
Self fertilisation is when the sperm and egg come from the same individual but cross
fertilisation comes from sperm and egg form different individuals.
Meiosis, the reduction of division
In meiosis, 4 daughter cells are produced, each with half the number of chromosomes of the
parent cell. Halving of the chromosome number in gametes is essential, since at fertilisation
the number is doubled
Meiosis involves 2 divisions of the nucleus meiosis 1 and meiosis 2 (both superficially
resemble meiosis) and the chromosome replicate to form chromatids in interphases, before
meiosis.
In early meiosis 1, homologous chromosomes pair up and at the end of the chromosomes
separate but chromatids stay together until meiosis 2.
Therefore meiosis consists of 2 nuclear divisions but only 1 replication of the chromosomes.
The process of meiosis
As meiosis begins, chromosomes become visible and homologous chromosomes pair up
(Remember in a diploid cell each chromosome has a partner that is the same length and
shape and with the same linear sequence of genes) It is these partner chromosomes that
pair up.
When the homologous chromosomes pair up closely, each pair is called a bivalent pair which
is then continues to coil and shorten
During the coiling and shortening, the chromatids break which rejoin at corresponding sites
so that a cross-shaped structure, chisma is formed at one or more places along a bivalent.
This event is known as a crossing over because the length of genes has been exchanged
between the chromatids.
When members of the bivalent repel and separate from each other are held together by
more than one chisma temporarily giving an unusual shape to the bivalent.
Then, the spindle fibres forms and members of the bivalent become attached by the
centromeres to the fibres of spindle at equatorial plate of cell.
Spindle fibres now pull the homologous chromosomes apart, to opposite poles, but the
individual chromatins remain attached together by their centromeres
Meiosis 1 ends contain a single set of chromosomes which continue to meiosis 2 and takes
place at right angles to meiosis 1.
 Centromeres of chromosomes divide and individual chromatids move in opposite poles.
Now, there are 4 cells, each with half the chromosomes of original parent cell (haploid)
Meiosis and genetic variation
Meiosis is the main factor for genetic variation- the haploid cells produced by meiosis differ
for 2 reasons:
- Independent assortment of maternal and paternal chromosomes- occurs when bivalents
line up at equator of spindle in meiosis 1. Chromosomes (paired) randomly go to
different poles and orientation at equator of spindle is random. This generates a huge
amount of potential variation in coded information carried by different gametes into
fertilisation stage.
- Crossing over segments of individual maternal and paternal chromosomes- results in
new combinations of genes on chromosomes of the haploid cells produced. It involves:
1. Homologous chromosomes paired in a bivalent
2. If chromatids break at corresponding points along their length, their rejoing may
cross over
3. The chromatids finally separate and move to haploid nuclei in meiosis 2, producing
new genetic combination.
Fertilisation in mammals
The sperm are formed in testes- in seminiferous tubules which make up the bulk of the
testes
Sperm are immobile when first formed, are stored in epididymis and is adapted for reaching
the egg cell once the sperm reached its target, it penetrates the surrounding follicle cells of
the egg and delivers the male nucleus within the egg cell
The flagellum helps the sperm to swim and at the head, there is ATP which provides the
nucleus and it has the haploid nucleus and acrosome- enzymes that are required for
penetration.
The egg cells exist as primary oocytes and at puberty, secondary oocytes form in ovaries and
few mature in each month.
Then, 1 secondary oocyte is drawn into oviduct funnel and begins to pass down oviduct
when fertilisation may occur
A secondary oocyte contains a large egg cell and is adapted for implantation on wall of
uterus, following fertilisation and the egg cell contains food reserves
Structure of sperm cell Structure of egg cell
Steps leading to fertilisation
In mammals fertilisation occurs in upper oviduct and during intercourse the PH of the
vagina is quite acidic but the alkaline secretion of prostate gland helps to neutralise the
acidity and provide a neutral environment for the sperm
Waves of contraction of the muscular walls of the uterus guides the semen to the site of
fertilisation
As sperm nucleus enters the oocyte, the completion of meiosis 1 is triggered and the male
and female haploid nuclei come together to form the diploid nucleus in the zygote
Stages of fertilisation:
1. Sperm passes between the follicle cells
2. Capactation changes to the surface of the head of the sperm, releasing hydrolytic enzymes
(acrosome reaction)
3. Enzymes digestion creates a tiny path for sperm to reach the plasma membrane of the
secondary oocyte
4. Head of sperm is engulfed by the secondary oocytes plasma membrane
5. Cortial granules in outer layers of cytoplasm of secondary oocyte pass across plasma
membrane by Exocytosis, preventing entry of a second sperm
6. Nucleus of secondary oocyte is stimulated to complete meiosis 2 by the arrival of the male
nucleus
7. The haploid nuclei (derived from division of the egg cell nucleus and sperm cell nucleus fuse)
8. The new nucleus divides by mitosis immediately, producing 2 diploid cells
Fertilisation in flowering plants
Flowering plants contain their reproductive organs in the flower. Flowers have
hermaphrodite structure- they both have male and female parts
The stamen (contains anthers and filaments (stalk) contain male gametes and the carpels
(female part) contains the ovary, stigma and connecting style.
Pollination is the transfer if pollen from a mature anther to a receptive stigma. The pollen
may come from the same plant (self pollination) or different plant (cross pollination)
Transfer of pollen is from insects or by wind. Fertilisation in flowering. Fertilisation in
flowering plants only occur after an appropriate pollen grown has landed on the stigma and
germinated there
The pollen grown produces a pollen tube which grows down between cells of style and into
ovule through microphyle.
The pollen tube delivers 2 male nuclei. One forms a diploid zygote and other forms the
formation of food store for the developing embryo (double fertilisation).

The Voice of the Genome-Growth and development of the embryo

Growth is the permeant and irreversible increase in size that occurs in organisms with time;
development refers to the changes in shape, form and degree of complexity that accompany
growth of organisms- these 2 factors are the ultimate control of the cell nuclei
A stem cell is a cell that can repeat cell division while maintain an undifferentiated state and
the subsequent activity to differentiate into mature cell types (potency) and they are found
in multicellular organisms.
Embryonic stem cells (ES) Adult stem cells
Undifferentiated cells capable of continuing cell
divisions and of developing into almost all the
cell types of an adult organism (+200 different
ones)
Make up the bulk of the embryo as it
commences development from the inner cell
mass of blastocyst
A.k.a pluripotent stem cells- meaning having the
potential to differentiate into very many but not
quite all- cell types that make up the tissues and
organs of organisms
Undifferentiated cells capable of cell divisions
and of giving rise to a limited range of cells
within a tissue type e.g. blood stem cells give rise
to red and white cells and platlets only
Occurs in growing and adult body, with most
organs where they replace dead/damaged cells
e.g. in bone
a.k.a. multipotent stem cells- meaning capable of
giving rise to a restricted range of cell types i.e.
those within the particular tissue/organ in which
they are found.

Stem cells and society- a developing tissue

Where do ES cells naturally occur?
The first few divisions of the zygote are known as the cleavage and becomes a solid ball of
cells being formed. The embryo doesnt increase mass and at 4-8 cleavage cell stage, the
cells are versatile and can develop into any cells within the body (a.k.a. totipotent cells).
Example- identical twins become split at this very early totipotent stage.
Division continue and cell of developing embryo become a fluid-filled ball known as a
blastocyst. In humans by day 7, the blastocyst has 100 cells and becomes embedded to the
endometrium (wall of nucleus)- (a.k.a. implantation)
Some of the cells in blastocyst become grouped as the inner cell mass which develops into a
foetus. Once implanted, the embryo receives nutrients from endometrium and at the same
time, other cells of the blastocyst begins to form the membrane that surround the foetus
throughout its time in the uterus
Soon, parts of the membrane and the endothelium form the placenta and its connected
with the foetus by the umbilical cord- a life line
Once stem cells are isolated , they require manipulation under reproducible conditions so
they:
- Continue to profilerate, while held in a sterile cell culture environment, because
relatively large volumes of tissue will be required
- Are induced to differentiate into specific, desired cell types, like heart muscle
- Survive in a patients body into which they have been introduced, after differentiation
- Intergregate into the same tissue type in the patients body
- Continue to function correctly in the body for the remainder of the patients life
- Avoid triggering any harmful reactions among the cells and tissues of the patients body
If these things are mastered, it could be used to treat many diseases e.g. cystic fibrosis,
spinal cord injury.
How stem cells may be obtained
1. Embryonic stem cells may be obtained from spare embryos from infertility clinics. You
could get embryos using IVF. The IVF steps are:
- Normal menstrual cycle steps are blocked (pituitary gland is suppressed by injection of
drug)
- Synthetic FSH is injected-ovaries are stimulated to develop may egg cells (super
ovulation)
 - Male provides semen sample. Sample is then processed to concentrate the healthiest
sperm
- Several eggs are removed from the ovaries using a lapascrope positioned with the aid of
ultrasound
- Eggs are then mixed with sperm in a shallow dish and are checked using a microscope to
ensure fertilisation
- Zygotes then incubated at body temperature for 2-3 days
- Microscope examination to confirm that the embryos have reached the 4-8 cell stage
- Up to 3 embryos are transferred into uterus in the expectation that will implant
successfully embryo can be frozen for further use
2. Another source of ES cells is from a single cell removed from an embryo at the 8 cell stage of
cleavage. It is safe to remove it because its a single cell and the embryo wouldnt be
destroyed or harmed. The remaining 7 cells would develop into a normal blastocyst and if
implanted, have the ability to grow in a healthy offspring. The 1 cell is grown in a cell culture
or used for PGD.
3. Another source of ES cells is the blood can be extracted from the umbilical cord at the time
of birth. The cord has pluripotent cells which can be multiplied by sterile culture technique
4. Adult stem cells are used for medical therapies. These stem cells cannot divide into any
other specific cell but they are identified in many organs/tissues. The stem cells that
generate blood cells are already used in treatment
Regulation of ES research and the ethical issues it generates
The ethical issues that this area of human reproduction generates on:
- IVF as a medical procedure, for infertility problems that creates stress and unhappiness
that it causes
- The obtain and use of ES cells from embryos
Ethical issues raised by IVF
Favourable arguments Critical arguments
For childless couples, desired parenthood may Allows infertility issues due to inherited defects
be achieved to be passed on to the next generation
Allows men and women suffering from cancer to Embryologists selects new embryos to live and
have children later allows later destruction, killing potential human
lives
Screening/selection of embryo before Multiple pregnancies have a common outcome,
implantation stage to avoid disease producing multiple babies which affect mums
health and risks premature birth or cerebral
palsy
Lives can be saved Infertility isnt a health problem it may be due to
late biological clock which delays having families
Offspring produced by IVF are much loved, This creates an excess of unwanted children-
longed for and cared for couples would adopt if they are so keen.

The effects of obtaining and using ES cells

Favourable arguments Critical arguments
Respect due to ES cells as human beings has An embryo should be accorded full human status
developed and needs to be weighed against from the moment of its creation-held by some
potential future benefits of ES cell research people to occur as soon as a zygote begins to

The ultimate fate of all spare embryos produced
in IVF treatments is to be destroyed
It is now possible to obtain ES cells from an
embryo at the 8 cell stage without causing the
death of the embryo
It is possible to regulate and control ES cell
research to serve:
Advances in understanding and treating
infertility and the causes of miscarriages
Future opportunities of treating and
possibly curing many conditions
Investigation of the causes of congenital
diseases and the development of
methods of detecting gene or
chromosome abnormalities
divide.
All human life is sacred at whatever level or
stage of development, and no human life of this
sort should be taken in these circumstances
It is an important overriding principal for some
people that humans should not tamper with
nature in a deliberate way
Stem cell research is a costly technology, mostly
beneficial to the lives of a very limited number of
people of developed nations, whereas if much of
the funds were to be diverted to solve more
basic problems of health and nutrition (e.g. clean
water) of the poor worldwide and to many in the
less developed countries, the money would
benefit vastly more humans.

Gene and the control of development

Control expression of eukaryotes:
1. RNA polymerase needs particular transcriptional initiation factors to function this is the
main way that eukaryotic gene expression is controlled
- Many genes contain short lengths of nonsense (sequences of bases additional to coded
information of the gene) called introns
- mRNA produced by transcription a copy of the coded information of the gene
2. mRNA processing selectively removes nonsense DNA (introns). Here, alternative DNA of
splicing generates different mRNA molecules
- introns are edited out of the mRNA by the action of enzymes present of nucleus
3. Movement of mRNA through pores in nuclear membrane is an active-selective process- only
mRNA that passes out to ribosomes is transcribed into proteins (gene product)
- What remains, known as exons are joined up to form mature RNA
- Mature mRNA passes out of the nucleus via pores in the nuclear membrane
4. In cytoplasm- post transcriptional modification may change the gene product selectively and
so influence gene expression and proteins become active e.g. an enzyme
Interactions of genes- polygene and the environment
Polygenic inheritance is the inheritance of phenotypes that are determined by the collective
effect of several genes (which interact with each other). The genes that make up a polygene
are located on different chromosomes.
Examples of gene and environmental interactions:
1. Human height- height and weight are controlled by polygenes. Height is determined
genetically by interactions of alleles of several genes, probably located at loci on different
chromosomes. Nutrition both affects height and weight
2. Skin colour- is under polygenic control. It depends on how much melanin (produced by cells-
melanocytes) produced. Melanocyte cells activate the catalytic actions of tyrionaise (an
enzyme) with amino acid tyrosine. The more melanin, the darker you are. UV light can
increase the enzyme activity within the melanosomes and the melanyocytes are stimulated
to transfer the melanosomes to skin cells more quickly
 3. Hair shaft is the product of germinal layer (Malpighian layer) that forms the outer cells.
Animal colour changes due to brain leads to selective modulation of the impact of the
individual alleles determining hair colour due to seasonal environmental changes or another
reason for hair colour change is that they may have a mutation for the enzyme tryosisane
that is heat sensitive.
4. Cancers- is caused by cells dividing repeatedly by mitosis and causing tumours. So cancer
arises when the cell cycle operates without its normal control. Cancer is caused by damage
of DNA due to physical e.g. UV light or chemical e.g. carcinogens factors. It could also be
caused by mutations but this occurs in older people. 2 types of genes that a part in
triggering cancer:
1. Oncogenes- genes that code for proteins that stimulate the cell cycle. Mutations in the
oncogenes result the cell dividing forever.
2. Tumour suppressing genes- codes for proteins that stops a cell cycle. Mutation in this
results inactivation of gene, allowing damaged genes to replicate.
Another cause for cancer is a specific virus infection which can trigger cancer when its DNA
becomes investigated which that of the cell has been infected. Inheritance is another factor
2 gene- BCA1 and BRCA2 can be inherited- each with a mutant allele and this involves the
risk of 60% of the healthy allele to mutate
5. The strange cause of monoamine oxidase (MAO A) - MAO A limits/exceeds the amine-
containing neurotransmitters, resulting with neurological disorders and leads to violent
criminal behaviour and it is found on the x-chromosome a mutation acting on it.

The hallmark of cancer cells:

Cells amplify external growth factors or generate their own
Cells have lost their natural cell cycle suppression system
Cell suicide system, a naturally healthy component in cells are disabled or overridden
Cells evade their natural restriction system limiting the number of times division occurs
Cells emit signals that develop new and expanding nutrient supply channels
Cells over rule forces restricting movement- allowing survival among other body tissues.

Biodiversity Biodiversity and the plant cell components

Plant cells Animal cells
Similarities
Contains cytoplasm surrounded Cytoplasm membrane Contains cytoplasm surrounded
by plasma membrane by plasma membrane
Contains nucleus surrounded nucleus Contains nucleus surrounded
by nuclear membrane and by nuclear membrane and
contains chromatin and nucleus contains chromatin and
nucleus.
Cytoplasm contains all these Mitochondria Cytoplasm contains all these
organelles Endoplasmic rectilium (smooth organelles
and rough)
Golgi apparatus
Ribosomes
lysosomes
Differences
No centrosome present
Large, fluid filled vacuole
normally present
Cells may contain chloroplasts-
the site of photosynthesis (the
basics of autrophic nutrition of
green plants)
Carbohydrates typically stored
as starch, present in organelles
called amyloplasts
Cell wall present , largely
composed of cellulose and laid
down by the cell around the
outside of plasma membrane
A centrosome of 2 centrioles
present outside the nucleus
vacuole No large permeant vacuoles
chloroplasts No chloroplasts present- animal
cells are unable to carry out
photosynthesis
Carbohydrate storage Carbohydrate stored as
glycogen, often present
Cell wall No cell wall- the plasma
membrane forms the outer
surface of the cell

Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are members of a larger group of organelles called plastids which are found
only in plant cells
Colourless plastids are known as amyloplasts
Chloroplasts are large plastids, green in colour, biconvex in shape, 4-10m long and 2-3m
wide and are found in mesophyll cells and herbaceous stems
A mesophyll cell may be packed with 50+ chloroplasts
The chloroplast, like all plasmids have a double membrane and have an inner layer with a
tucked informs called lamella/thylakoids. The thylakoids are arranged in flattened circular
patterns called grana where chlorophylls are located
The stroma (a part of chloroplast) is in the aqueous matrix between the large number of
grana present
The chloroplast has a double membrane
A large, permeant vacuole
 Vacuoles are bounded by a single membrane, the tonoplast
Young plant cells have several vacuoles which have 80% of the cell volume.
The plant cell has the cell sap- an aqueous solution with dissolved food materials, ions,
waste products and water soluble pigments
The plant cell wall
The wall is external to the cell and surrounds the plasma membrane
Cellulose is a straight, unbranched chain polymer of 2000-3000 glucose units with 1-4
glycosidic linkages
The long, straight chains are headed together by hydrogen bonds, known as microfibrils. The
strength from cellulose comes from the bonds between the glucose monomers and the
hydrogen bonds between the chains
The physical properties of cellulose are its insoluble, tough, durable, slightly elastic and can
be chemically hydrolysed to glucose
Herbivore animals dont produce cellulose, but harbour in their gut, a vast population of
their symbolic bacteria
Cellulose makes up 50% of all organic carbon
Formation of cell wall
A growing plant cell divides by mitosis and divides contents as part of cytokensis
The steps involve:
- The middle lamella delivered and deposited to Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic
rectilum
- The vesicles coaslease along the midline of dividing cell (first layer of wall to be
deposited)
- Some endoplasmic rectilium of parent cell becomes trapped across middle lamella,
persisting and becoming cytoplasmic connection between the new cell- plasmodestmata
On the middle lamella are deposited layers of cellulose microfibrils, which are deposited
transversely as they form the primary cell wall
As the cell grows, the primary wall microfibrils slide past each other and lengthen cell
More layers of cellulose are added to form secondary cell wall where the microfibrils are
deposited in different layers at right angles which are added to the cell growth size and
increases strength of cell wall
Cell walls may have lignin which strengthens cell walls. Lignified walls are seen in xylem
vessels and fibres
Pits that form in xylem vessels are the main channels which water enters and leave xylem
vessels during movement through, the plant root, stem and leaves

Biodiversity the working plant

The stem supports the leaves in the sunlight and transports organic materials, ions and
water between the roots and leaves
At top of stem and axil of each leaf are growing plants in buds. New cells are produced at
these growing points at certain times of year
A leaf consists of a leaf blade connected to stem by a leaf stalk. The leaf is an organ
specialized for photosynthesis
The root anchors the plant and is the site of absorption of water and ions from soil
The distribution of tissues in sunflower
You can show the distribution of tissues in a plant by using a tissue map
Stem
The stem is an organ surrounded or contained by a single layer of cells called the epidermis
and contains vascular tissue (xylem and phloem tissues).
In stem, the vascular bundles are arranged in a ring positioned towards the outside to stem
Vascular bundles have a support role in the stem and leaves and another role of stem tissues
is intended transport water is transported in the xylem from the roots to the whole aerial
system.
Dissolved inorganic ions are carried up in the water in the xylem too. (xylem tissue= a system
of hollow tubes)
Organic solutes are distributed in phloem (in growth points in plant) and it consists of intact
cells with living contents.
Leaf
The leaf is connected by a single layer of cells, epidermis and has vascular tissue in a system
of vascular bundles.
The vascular bundles in leaves are known as veins. The bulk of leaf is taken up by mesophyll
and cells are supported by veins arranged in a branching network.
The leaf in an organ is specialised for photosynthesis
Support in the plant stem
Support from plants come from the turgidity of all cells of packing tissue- parenchyma. Plant
cells are turgid, vacuoles engorged with dilute cell sap and their cell contents pushed hard
against the walls.
The walls push against each other (turgor pressure) and generate rigidity. All packing cells
are tightly contained within the tough epidermis
Below the epidermis is the collenchyma, which differ from the parenchyma- it has additional
layers of cellulose at the corner of cells.
Collenchyma consists of flexible supporting cells and the stem is also supported by the tiny
vascular bundles and leaf traces.
This vascular tissue has 2 types of cells with lignified walls:
- Xylem tissue- are hollow tubes with walls with additional layers of cellulose with lignin
during development
- Fibres (sclenechyma) - from outer caps of vascular bundles and strengthens bundle.

The importance of water to plants:

Makes up 80% of a plant cell
It is the environment for all the chemical reactions of life
The turgidity of living cells of the plant plays an important part in support
The pores in leaves (stomata) which permit the diffusion of carbon dioxide required for
photosynthesis, are open only when they are turgid
Water readily evaporates from most surfaces within the plant under a wide range of
external conditions; it must be constantly replaced if wilting is to be avoided
Water loss and water uptake
 The stem and leaves are covered by a waxy cuticle which prevents water vapour loss by
evaporation from the cells of the outer surface of aerial system.
But water does evaporate from the cell walls of all mesophyll cells of leaf and this results the
water vapour taking all the spaces of the plant
Stomata are open in light and water vapour diffuse within. Evaporation of water cools leaf
cells because if temperature of cells is raised, evaporation speeds up.
Transpiration is the process by which the water is lost as vapour from the aerial parts of
plant
As a result, water is drawn from xylem vessels of leaf veins to replace the lost water from
leaf cells.
A steam of water is drawn up through plant cells from roots. The water column doesnt pull
or break apart

The importance of inorganic ions to plants

Inorganic ions are macronutrients which may be needed for structure/activity of cells e.g.
water uptake by osmosis
Trace elements e.g. calcium are macronutrients and they may be needed for catalytic
activity of particular elements
Absorption of mineral ions for plant metabolism
The source of mineral ions for plants is the soil solution. Plants take up ions from the soil
solution through their roots. Region of root hairs is where all the soil absorption takes place.
Root hairs form behind the region where growth in length of root hairs takes place. Water
uptake from soil and absorption of mineral ions occurs at root hairs using energy from
respiration
The uptake process occurs by means of protein pumps in the plasma membrane of root
cells.
Proteins pump form specific ions; only if a particular transport protein is produced by cells
and built into the cell membranes can uptake occur.

Biodiversity Plants with economically important roles

How we use plants
Other industries/uses Food industries
Scientific/technical purposes e.g. oil seed Stimulants e.g. coffee
Timber/ wood e.g. oak Herbs e.g. parsley
Rubber Fruits e.g. apples
Fibre- production e.g. cotton Vegetables e.g. carrots
Perfumes e.g. lavender Sugar sources e.g. wheat, barely
Medicine e.g. foxglove, quinine Fodder plants e.g. clover, grass

Case 1 study- Application of plant fibres

Below shows a table of economically important plant fibres and their uses. Note that the term
fibres is used in commercial circles for fibre-like structures- not all are sclerenchyma tissue.
Category of fibre Examples Rational origins Uses
Surface fibres; from Cotton Hair on seeds Textile fibres to weave
fruits and seeds (non- cotton
lignified cells) Kapok Hair within capsules Filling fibres used for
stuffing
Bast fibres from Flax Stem Textile fibres to wave
around vascular tissue/ cloth
under the epidermis of Hemp Stem and leaves Brush fibres, for carpet
stems/in leaves backing
(sclerenchyma) Cordage fibres, for
marine ropes and
twine (string)
Jute Stem sclerenchyma Brush fibres, to weave
mats and sacking
Hard fibres of whole Manila hemp Leaves Brush fibres, to weave
vascular strands from mats and sacking,
monocotyledonous making baskets and
stems or leaves or brooms
fruits (sclerenchyma) Coconut Outer wall of coconut Brush fibres, to weave
fruit mats and sacking
Wood fibres of Poplar Woody stem Paper making
shredded or ground-up
woods (often soft Spruce and many other Miscellaneous fibres,
wood species) softwood and some for mulches in
(sclerenchyma) hardwood tree woods horticulture,
cardboards or
compression into
chipboards and other
construction materials

Composite plastics may contain plant fibres which have many building work uses
Ethanol fuel or electricity may be generated from agricultural waste fibre which results in
sugar solutions that may be used

Case study 2- Starch as a result in place of oil derived chemicals

Starch is a cheap natural polymer extracted from cereal crops and used in cardboard, paper
etc.
Starch may be an alternative to oil-based chemicals that have similar properties
Starch can be used as an alternative for plastics from petrochemical sources but its partially
water soluble, hydrophilic and its not thermoplastic
Also, starch is an expensive alternative because starch must be compounded with other
biodegradable sources

Case study 3- chemical warfare by plants

Because plants are an easy target for animals, they have developed defence mechanisms
which involves storing harmful substances that may poison animals
One example is the bracken frond leaf which contains a variety of compounds that can kill
animals
Several relatives of the garden chrysanthemum contain tepene which harms insects tissues
when they bite the plant
 The active compound in tepene is pyrethrum which can be insect repellents and may
damage the nervous systems and insects
Most plant diseases are due to microorganisms and are caused by parasitic fungi
There are benefits when plants live closely to soil microorganisms such as:
- The microorganisms make essential inorganic ions more readily available to the plant
- The vigorous growth of the huge population of harmless microorganisms occurs at the
expense of others, including pathogenic microorganisms, the presence of which might
harm the plant.

Case study 4- Drugs from plants

Drugs are made from plants which can kill or cure. Placebos are fake treatments which are
used to see the psychological effects of the drug.
Modern drug testing routines are:
1. Pre-clinical stage of drug development- the drug is tested on cells and then on animals. If
successful, then it will be tested on humans
2. Phase 1 clinical studies- 20-100 healthy volunteers were then tested on. They will be
fully monitored for 1 year (or less)
3. Phase 2 clinical studies- Sickly volunteers with the condition are then tested on. The
patients are divided into 3 groups, one with the new drug, previous drug and placebo.
This takes place under double blind trials
4. Phase 3 clinical studies- the above is continued with more patients for 4 years. If results
are satisfactory, drug may be approved for a marketing license
5. Post approval studies- results i.e. side effects need to be reversed.
Witherings story of drug development:
1. As a doctor, Withering heard of a herbal remedy for dropsy (now known as oedema
which is a painful condition that causes excess fluid in body causing death)
2. Withering found a woman who heated herself from dropsy using the Digitalis soup. He
paid her money for the recipe and correctly guessed that foxglove was the key
ingredient)
3. He tested on some patients 1 survived and 1 died
4. Withering met many suffers from dropsy and gave all of them the digitalis soup- some
died, others survived
5. He realised that the concentration of the foxglove was the key so he developed a
concentration that was low enough for no side effects to develop
6. His results were then recorded in his book A treatise on Foxglove in 1755 and we later
found that the element digitalis was the key substance for curing oedema.

Biodiversity Biodiversity and the environment

Biological diversity means the different types of species in the world.
Species means a particular type of living thing. Its defined as a group of individuals of
common ancestry that closely resemble each other and are normally capable of
interbreeding with each other.
Classification is essential because there are too many living things to sort out and compare
unless if they are organised in manageable categories
 The process if classification involves:
- Giving an organism an agreed name
- Imposing a scheme upon the diversity of living things
To name an animal its the generic name + specific name. In Latin, the first noun is the genus
and the second is the species (so all the animals names are in Latin)
The scheme of classification involves:
1. Kingdom- the largest and most inclusive grouping e.g. plants, animals
2. Phylum- organisms constructed on a similar pattern
3. Class- a grouping of orders within a phylum
4. Order- a group of apparently related families
5. Family- a group of apparently related genera
6. Genus- a group of similar and closely related species
7. Species- a group of organisms capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring.
(King Peter Called Out For Genuine Scientists)

Biodiversity and the environment

Biological hotspots are where the majority of the species occur.
Endemic is used for a particular living organism that only exists in 1 area
The process of underlying endemism are:
- Movement of tectonic plates causing isolated evolution of species
- Islands formed by volcanic activity, evolving species
- Islands formed by existing islands creating evolution of new endemic species.
A population of organisms are usually dominated by abiotic factors. An abiotic factor is a non
biological factor e.g. temperature that is part of an organism
Species richness means as the total number of diffrent species within a given area or
community. The diversity of species present in a habitat index is the
Simpson diversity index =
Where N= total number of organisms of all species found
Where n= number of individuals of each species
In a population- a group of individuals of a species living close together and able to
interbreed- the alleles of the genes located in the reproductive cells of those individuals
make up a gene pool.
A very small population can be described as an interbreeding group- the individuals are
closely related
The consequence of an interbreeding group leads to homozygosity- the alleles would be
homozygous so the gene population isnt varied.

Niche- a concept of central to ecology

Ecology is the study of living things within an environment.
An ecosystem is defined as a community of organisms and their surroundings, the
environment in which they live.
Habitat means the environment in which they live
 A niche defines how an organism feeds, where it lives, how it behaves in relation to other
organisms feeds, where it lives, how it behaves in relation to other organisms in its habitat
and identifies the precise conditions a species needs
Competition refers to the interaction between 2 organisms striving for the same resource. It
is best when animals have different niches to avoid competition
Adaption is the process by which an organism becomes filled for its environment
3 types of adaptations are:
- Psychological adaptation
- Behavioural adaptation
- Anatomical adaptation
Evolution means the process by which life has been changed from its earliest beginnings to
the diversity of organisms we know about today, living and extinct
Evidence and arguments for natural selection are as follows:
1. Organisms produce many more offspring than survive to be mature individuals
2. The individual in a species are not all identical, but show variation in their charactestics.
Genetic variations arise by:
- Random assortment of paternal and maternal chromosomes in meiosis-
- Cross over of segments of individual maternal and paternal homologous chromosomes
that result in new combination of genes
- Random fusion of male and female gametes
3. Natural selection results in offspring with favourable charactestics. When genetic
variation has arisen in organisms:
- The favourable charactestics are expressed and organism is more likely to survive and
reproduce.

Biodiversity and taxonomy

The living world is divided into 2 kingdoms:
- Plants- photosynthetic organisms (autophic nutrition), mostly rooted, stationary
- Animals- organisms that ingest complex food (hetephtropic nutrition) typically mobile
The living things in 5 kingdoms:
1. Prokaryote- the prokaryote kingdom, the bacteria and cynaobacteria (photosynthetic
bacteria), pre dominantly unicellular organisms
2. Protoctisa- the protocitisan kingdom (eukaryotes), pre dominantly unicellular
3. Fungi- the fungal kingdom (eukaryotes), mulitcellular organisms, non-mobile
4. Planate- the plant kingdom (eukaryotes), mulitcellular organisms, non-motile with
autrophic nutrition.
5. Animalia- the animal kingdom (eukaryotes), mulitcellular organisms, motile with
hetetrophic nutrition
Systematic hunts for life forms in extreme places are known as extemophiles.
Extremophiles have microorganisms that:
- Are salt loving
- Need alkaline conditions above PH10
- Survive in abnormally high temperatures
- Withstand 250 atp
 - Survive in extremely cold temperatures
The 3 domains are:
- The archea/archea bacteria
- The bacteria
- The eukarya
The cellular charactestics of the 3 domains:
Archeabacterial cell Eubacterial cell Eukayotic cell
Ribosomes- size and 70S size- unique 70S size- unique 80S size- unique
chemical analysis biochemistry biochemistry biochemistry
Histones- with the absent absent absent
nucleic acid of
chromosome(s)
Plasmids with Few present Many present Typically absent
cytoplasm
Introns within absent absent Present, between
chromosome(s) exons
Cell walls- present Present- chemically Present- chemically Present in green plant
or absent and different from those of different from those of cells (cellulose) and in
chemistry eubacteria archeacteria fungi (chitin), but
absent in animal cells
Cell membranes- Contains glycolipids Contains lipids with Contains lipids with
composition of with hydrocarbon fatty acids, in plasma fatty acids, in plasma
lipids chains in plasma membrane membrane
membrane

Biodiversity and conservation

Extinction of dodo bird- due to human activity
Saving rainforests has:
- Ecological reasons- are outdoor laboratories
- Economic reasons- trees wont grow with continued cropping
- Aesthetic reasons- beautiful places
- Ethical reasons- are homes for many people
Red data books list endangered species and identify special conservations
The collection and preparation of seed banks:
- Seed drying (to below 7% H20)
- Packaging (in moist proof containers)
- Storage (at temp of 180)
- Periodic germination tests
- Restorage or replacement.

Pros and cons of in-situ and ex-situ conservation of animals:

In-situ:
- Habitats are vunerable to natural disaster
- When habitats disappears, the total number of species becomes endangered
- A refugee allows endangered wildlife to be in natural environment
Ex-situ:
- Captive breeding maintains general stock
- Zoo animals have a longer life expectancy
- They lose their natural instincts.