1.

WIRELESS TECHNOLOGIES

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this chapter the learner shall be able to;

i. Understand the various wireless technologies and devices

ii. Understand the WiFi

WiFi

If you've been in an airport, coffee shop, library or hotel recently, chances are you've been
right in the middle of a wireless network. Many people also use wireless networking, also
called WiFi or 802.11 networking, to connect their computers at home, and some cities are
trying to use the technology to provide free or low-cost Internet access to residents. In the near
future, wireless networking may become so widespread that you can access the Internet just
about anywhere at any time, without using wires.

WiFi has a lot of advantages. Wireless networks are easy to set up and inexpensive. They're
also unobtrusive -- unless you're on the lookout for a place to use your laptop, you may not
even notice when you're in a hotspot. In this article, we'll look at the technology that allows
information to travel over the air. We'll also review what it takes to create a wireless network
in your home.
What Is WiFi?

A wireless network uses radio waves, just like cell phones, televisions and radios do. In fact,
communication across a wireless network is a lot like two-way radio communication. Here's
what happens:

1. A computer's wireless adapter translates data into a radio signal and transmits it using
an antenna.
2. A wireless router receives the signal and decodes it. The router sends the information
to the Internet using a physical, wired Ethernet connection.

The process also works in reverse, with the router receiving information from the Internet,
translating it into a radio signal and sending it to the computer's wireless adapter.

The radios used for WiFi communication are very similar to the radios used for walkie-
talkies, cell phones and other devices. They can transmit and receive radio waves, and they
can convert 1s and 0s into radio waves and convert the radio waves back into 1s and 0s. But
WiFi radios have a few notable differences from other radios:

They transmit at frequencies of 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz. This frequency is considerably

higher than the frequencies used for cell phones, walkie-talkies and televisions. The
higher frequency allows the signal to carry more data.
They use 802.11 networking standards, which come in several flavors: 802.11a
transmits at 5 GHz and can move up to 54 megabits of data per second. It also uses
orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), a more efficient coding
technique that splits that radio signal into several sub-signals before they reach a
receiver. This greatly reduces interference. 802.11b is the slowest and least expensive
standard. For a while, its cost made it popular, but now it's becoming less common as
faster standards become less expensive. 802.11b transmits in the 2.4 GHz frequency
band of the radio spectrum. It can handle up to 11 megabits of data per second, and it
uses complementary code keying (CCK) modulation to improve speeds. 802.11g
transmits at 2.4 GHz like 802.11b, but it's a lot faster -- it can handle up to 54 megabits
of data per second. 802.11g is faster because it uses the same OFDM coding as
802.11a. 802.11n is the newest standard that is widely available. This standard
 significantly improves speed and range. For instance, although 802.11g theoretically
moves 54 megabits of data per second, it only achieves real-world speeds of about 24
megabits of data per second because of network congestion. 802.11n, however,
reportedly can achieve speeds as high as 140 megabits per second. The standard is
currently in draft form -- the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) plans to formally ratify 802.11n by the end of 2009.
Other 802.11 standards focus on specific applications of wireless networks, like wide
area networks (WANs) inside vehicles or technology that lets you move from one
wireless network to another seamlessly.
WiFi radios can transmit on any of three frequency bands. Or, they can "frequency
hop" rapidly between the different bands. Frequency hopping helps reduce
interference and lets multiple devices use the same wireless connection
simultaneously.

As long as they all have wireless adapters, several devices can use one router to connect to the
Internet. This connection is convenient, virtually invisible and fairly reliable; however, if the
router fails or if too many people try to use high-bandwidth applications at the same time,
users can experience interference or lose their connections.

WiFi Hotspots

If you want to take advantage of public WiFi hotspots or start a wireless network in your
home, the first thing you'll need to do is make sure your computer has the right gear. Most
new laptops and many new desktop computers come with built-in wireless transmitters. If
your laptop doesn't, you can buy a wireless adapter that plugs into the PC card slot or USB
port. Desktop computers can use USB adapters, or you can buy an adapter that plugs into the
PCI slot inside the computer's case. Many of these adapters can use more than one 802.11
standard.

Once you've installed your wireless adapter and the drivers that allow it to operate, your
computer should be able to automatically discover existing networks. This means that when
you turn your computer on in a WiFi hotspot, the computer will inform you that the network
exists and ask whether you want to connect to it. If you have an older computer, you may
need to use a software program to detect and connect to a wireless network.
Being able to connect to the Internet in public hotspots is extremely convenient. Wireless
home networks are convenient as well. They allow you to easily connect multiple computers
and to move them from place to place without disconnecting and reconnecting wires. In the
next section, we'll look at how to create a wireless network in your home.

Building a Wireless Network

If you already have several computers networked in your home, you can create a wireless
network with a wireless access point. If you have several computers that are not networked,
or if you want to replace your Ethernet network, you'll need a wireless router. This is a single
unit that contains:

1. A port to connect to your cable or DSL modem

2. A router
3. An Ethernet hub
4. A firewall
5. A wireless access point

A wireless router allows you to use wireless signals or Ethernet cables to connect your
computers to one another, to a printer and to the Internet. Most routers provide coverage for
about 100 feet (30.5 meters) in all directions, although walls and doors can block the signal. If
your home is very large, you can buy inexpensive range extenders or repeaters to increase
your router's range.

As with wireless adapters, many routers can use more than one 802.11 standard. 802.11b
routers are slightly less expensive, but because the standard is older, they're slower than
802.11a, 802.11g and 802.11n routers. Most people select the 802.11g option for its speed and
reliability.

Once you plug in your router, it should start working at its default settings. Most routers let
you use a Web interface to change your settings. You can select:

The name of the network, known as its service set identifier (SSID) -- The default
setting is usually the manufacturer's name.
 The channel that the router uses -- Most routers use channel 6 by default. If you live
in an apartment and your neighbors are also using channel 6, you may experience
interference. Switching to a different channel should eliminate the problem.
Your router's security options -- Many routers use a standard, publicly available
sign-on, so it's a good idea to set your own username and password.

Security is an important part of a home wireless network, as well as public WiFi hotspots. If
you set your router to create an open hotspot, anyone who has a wireless card will be able to
use your signal. Most people would rather keep strangers out of their network, though. Doing
so requires you to take a few security precautions.

It's also important to make sure your security precautions are current. The Wired Equivalency
Privacy (WEP) security measure was once the standard for WAN security. The idea behind
WEP was to create a wireless security platform that would make any wireless network as
secure as a traditional wired network. But hackers discovered vulnerabilities in the WEP
approach, and today it's easy to find applications and programs that can compromise a WAN
running WEP security.

To keep your network private, you can use one of the following methods:

WiFi Protected Access (WPA) is a step up from WEP and is now part of the 802.11i
wireless network security protocol. It uses temporal key integrity protocol (TKIP)
encryption. As with WEP, WPA security involves signing on with a password. Most
public hotspots are either open or use WPA or 128-bit WEP technology, though some
still use the vulnerable WEP approach.
Media Access Control (MAC) address filtering is a little different from WEP or
WPA. It doesn't use a password to authenticate users -- it uses a computer's physical
hardware. Each computer has its own unique MAC address. MAC address filtering
allows only machines with specific MAC addresses to access the network. You must
specify which addresses are allowed when you set up your router. This method is very
secure, but if you buy a new computer or if visitors to your home want to use your
network, you'll need to add the new machines' MAC addresses to the list of approved
addresses. The system isn't foolproof. A clever hacker can spoof a MAC address --
that is, copy a known MAC address to fool the network that the computer he or she is
using belongs on the network.
Wireless networks are easy and inexpensive to set up, and most routers' Web interfaces are
virtually self-explanatory.

WAP

You and millions of other people around the world use the Internet every day -- to
communicate with others, follow the stock market, keep up with the news, check the weather,
make travel plans, conduct business, shop, entertain yourself and learn. Staying connected has
become so important that it's hard to get away from your computer and your Internet
connection because you might miss an e-mail message, an update on your stock or some news
you need to know. With your business or your personal life growing more dependent on
electronic communication over the Internet, you might be ready to take the next step and get a
device that allows you to access the Internet on the go.

That's where wireless Internet comes in. You've probably seen news or advertising about cell
phones and PDAs that let you receive and send e-mail. This seems a logical next step, but
there are some questions that come up when you think about going mobile with the Internet.
Will you still be able to surf the Web? How fast will you be able to get the information you
need? You might have heard of the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) and wonder how
it works. Learn just what WAP is, why it is needed and what devices use it.

The Cellular Explosion

Probably the most important factor in the birth of wireless Internet has been the proliferation
of digital cell phones in the last few years. The expanding network of digital cellular and
personal communication services (PCS) has created a solid foundation for wireless Internet
services. It is estimated that there are more than 50 million Web-enabled cell phones in use. In
1997, Nokia, Motorola, Ericsson and Phone.com came together to create the WAP because
they believed that a universal standard is critical to the successful implementation of wireless
Internet. Since then, more than 350 companies have joined them in the WAP Forum.

Making a Web site accessible through a wireless device is quite a challenge. So far, only a
small portion of the more than a billion Web sites provide any wireless Internet content. As
the use of WAP-enabled devices grows, you can expect that many more Web sites will be
interested in creating wireless content.
WAP is designed to work on any of the existing wireless services, using standards such as:

Short Message Service (SMS)

High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (CSD)
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
Unstructured Supplementary Services Data (USSD)

Wireless Markup Language

WAP uses Wireless Markup Language (WML), which includes the Handheld Device
Markup Language (HDML) developed by Phone.com.

WML can also trace its roots to eXtensible Markup Language (XML). A markup language
is a way of adding information to your content that tells the device receiving the content what
to do with it. The best known markup language is Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).
Unlike HTML, WML is considered a meta language. Basically, this means that in addition to
providing predefined tags, WML lets you design your own markup language components.
WAP also allows the use of standard Internet protocols such as UDP, IP and XML.

There are three main reasons why wireless Internet needs the Wireless Application Protocol:

Transfer speed
Size and readability
Navigation

Most cell phones and Web-enabled PDAs have data transfer rates of 14.4 Kbps or less.
Compare this to a typical 56 Kbps modem, a cable modem or a DSL connection. Most Web
pages today are full of graphics that would take an unbearably long time to download at 14.4
Kbps. Wireless Internet content is typically text-based in order to solve this problem.

The relatively small size of the LCD on a cell phone or PDA presents another challenge. Most
Web pages are designed for a resolution of 640x480 pixels, which is fine if you are reading on
a desktop or a laptop. The page simply does not fit on a wireless device's display, which
might be 150x150 pixels. Also, the majority of wireless devices use monochrome screens.
Pages are harder to read when font and background colors become similar shades of gray.
Navigation is another issue. You make your way through a Web page with points and clicks
using a mouse; but if you are using a wireless device, you often use one hand to scroll keys.

WAP takes each of these limitations into account and provides a way to work with a typical
wireless device.

Wireless Application Protocol

Here's what happens when you access a Web site using a WAP-enabled device:

You turn on the device and open the minibrowser.

The device sends out a radio signal, searching for service.
A connection is made with your service provider.
You select a Web site that you wish to view.
A request is sent to a gateway server using WAP.
The gateway server retrieves the information via HTTP from the Web site.
The gateway server encodes the HTTP data as WML.
The WML-encoded data is sent to your device.
You see the wireless Internet version of the Web page you selected.

To create wireless Internet content, a Web site creates special text-only or low-graphics
versions of the site. The data is sent in HTTP form by a Web server to a WAP gateway. This
system includes the WAP encoder, script compiler and protocol adapters to convert the HTTP
information to WML. The gateway then sends the converted data to the WAP client on your
wireless device.

What happens between the gateway and the client relies on features of different parts of the
WAP protocol stack. Let's take a look at each part of the stack:

WAE - The Wireless Application Environment holds the tools that wireless Internet
content developers use. These include WML and WMLScript, which is a scripting
language used in conjunction with WML. It functions much like Javascript.
WSP - The Wireless Session Protocol determines whether a session between the
device and the network will be connection-oriented or connectionless. What this is
basically talking about is whether or not the device needs to talk back and forth with
the network during a session. In a connection-oriented session, data is passed both
 ways between the device and the network; WSP then sends the packet to the Wireless
Transaction Protocol layer (see below). If the session is connectionless, commonly
used when information is being broadcast or streamed from the network to the device,
then WSP redirects the packet to the Wireless Datagram Protocol layer (see below).
WTP - The Wireless Transaction Protocol acts like a traffic cop, keeping the data
flowing in a logical and smooth manner. It also determines how to classify each
transaction request: Reliable two-way Reliable one-way Unreliable one-way The WSP
and WTP layers correspond to Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) in the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
WTLS - Wireless Transport Layer Security provides many of the same security
features found in the Transport Layer Security (TLS) part of TCP/IP. It checks data
integrity, provides encryption and performs client and server authentication.
WDP - The Wireless Datagram Protocol works in conjunction with the network
carrier layer (see below). WDP makes it easy to adapt WAP to a variety of bearers
because all that needs to change is the information maintained at this level.
Network carriers - Also called bearers, these can be any of the existing technologies
that wireless providers use, as long as information is provided at the WDP level to
interface WAP with the bearer.

Once the information is received by the WAP client, it is passed to the minibrowser. This is a
tiny application built into the wireless device that provides the interface between the user and
the wireless Internet.

The minibrowser does not offer anything more than basic navigation. Wireless Internet is still
a long way from being a true alternative to the normal Internet. It is really positioned right
now for people who need the ability to connect no matter where they are. The WAP Forum is
continually working on the specifications of the WAP standard to ensure that it evolves in a
timely and useful manner.

The Evolution of Wireless Network Security

One of the first major complaints that arose from wireless networking was from the security
community. Quite rightly, the complaint was that with RF signals being broadcast over the
air, nothing can stop someone from reaching out and grabbing them. At least with wired
networking, a person had to be physically connected to the same hubs or switches to be able
to eavesdrop on a network conversation.

To deal with this issue, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) was introduced. The goal of WEP
was to provide the same level of privacy that you would have if you were still connected to a
wired network. WEP involved two sets of mechanisms:

* Authentication: You need to prove your identity before participating in the network.

* Encryption: You want everything you send over the airwaves to be encrypted.

The basis of WEP encryption is tied to an encryption key; today you typically see either 64-bit
WEP or 128-bit WEP encryption keys. With 64-bit WEP, you use a 40-bit key that is joined
with a 24-bit initialization vector (IV) to generate an RC4 (Rivest Cipher 4) stream cipher. A
128-bit WEP uses a 104-bit encryption key, which is then joined with the 24-bit IV to create
the RC4 cipher.

While this gives you a quick and efficient way to encrypt and decrypt traffic at high speed, it
has some serious flaws. Even if you cannot read the data, you can still capture data packets off
a wireless network because they are just traveling over the air. One of the issues is that the IV
must be unique for every packet that is sent over a time period, and because it is only 24 bits
long, it can start repeating in as little as 5,000 packets, making it not as random or secure as it
can be.

The goal of WEP was good, but as with a better-built mousetrap, you just end up with smarter
mice. These days, WEP can be broken with readily available software in less than a minute.
Given this, it is not considered reliably secure for networks. The Payment Card Industry
(PCI), which sets standards for credit and debit card transactions, prohibits the use of WEP in
any part of a credit card transaction.

Due to the limitations of WEP, Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) was developed. WPA uses
most of the recommendations that are included in the IEEE 802.11i specification, which lays
out security standards for wireless networks. WPA2 followed later, implementing all the IEEE
802.11i mandatory elements.
Rather than using a static encryption key, as is used with WEP, WPA uses the Temporal Key
Integrity Protocol (TKIP), which can easily be implemented because it is a minor but effective
upgrade to WEP. Rather than using a plain text IV, it combines the IV with a secret root key.
It also implements a sequence counter, so all packets must arrive at the AP in the correct order
or they are rejected. Finally, it provides a method of rekeying or updating the encryption key,
neutralizing people trying to break the key.

There are still many documented attacks that can be successfully carried out on a WPA
network using TKIP, and as such, it required additional updating. The implementation of AES
(Advanced Encryption Standard) increased encryption to a level that is still considered to be
the safest on the market.

How is PCS wireless different than cellular service?

Personal Communications Service (PCS) is very similar to digital cellular, and in some cases
the two terms are interchangeable. PCS is a wireless phone service that emphasizes personal
service, and it was developed especially for extensive mobility. Both systems operate through
a network of cells spread throughout each geographic area. Areas are divided into cells that
use different frequencies, so that the user can be traveling -- passing through different cells on
the communications network -- and get continuous phone connectivity. PCS also includes
other services in the same package, such as caller ID, email and paging.

Cell phones were originally developed for use as car phones. The PCS phone service was
designed from the start with mobility in mind. The cells that the network runs on are smaller,
with more antennas covering each area. The frequencies PCS uses, 1850-MHz to 1990-MHz
bands, are different than the ones that cellular phones in the U.S. typically operate in, which
are 824-MHz to 894-MHz. Digital cellular service usually has 30-kHz channel spacing and
three time slots, while PCS has 200-kHz channel spacing and eight time slots.

Cell phones have different options for operating modes. Multiple band phones operate in one
mode, but they can switch frequencies as needed. Multiple mode phones can switch between
modes, for example from TDMA to AMPS (analog). Other cell phone models offer multiple
frequency bands and transmission mode options, with the ability to switch transmission types
and frequencies automatically. PCS is based on TDMA technology, which is usually the
default option for cell phones. Connecting at the 1900-MHz TDMA frequency is usually tried
first; phones that support multiple modes will always try digital mode before analog. This is
important for people who need continuous uninterrupted phone service while traveling.

Wireless Mesh Networks

Wireless mesh networks, an emerging technology, may bring the dream of a seamlessly
connected world into reality.

Wireless mesh networks can easily, effectively and wirelessly connect entire cities using
inexpensive, existing technology. Traditional networks rely on a small number of wired
access points or wireless hotspots to connect users. In a wireless mesh network, the network
connection is spread out among dozens or even hundreds of wireless mesh nodes that "talk" to
each other to share the network connection across a large area.

Mesh nodes are small radio transmitters that function in the same way as a wireless router.
Nodes use the common WiFi standards known as 802.11a, b and g to communicate
wirelessly with users, and, more importantly, with each other.

Nodes are programmed with software that tells them how to interact within the larger
network. Information travels across the network from point A to point B by hopping
wirelessly from one mesh node to the next. The nodes automatically choose the quickest and
safest path in a process known as dynamic routing.

The biggest advantage of wireless mesh networks -- as opposed to wired or fixed wireless
networks -- is that they are truly wireless. Most traditional "wireless" access points still need
to be wired to the Internet to broadcast their signal. For large wireless networks, Ethernet
cables need to be buried in ceilings and walls and throughout public areas.

In a wireless mesh network, only one node needs to be physically wired to a network
connection like a DSL Internet modem. That one wired node then shares its Internet
connection wirelessly with all other nodes in its vicinity. Those nodes then share the
connection wirelessly with the nodes closest to them. The more nodes, the further the
connection spreads, creating a wireless "cloud of connectivity" that can serve a small office or
a city of millions.

Wireless mesh networks advantages include:

 Using fewer wires means it costs less to set up a network, particularly for large areas
of coverage.
The more nodes you install, the bigger and faster your wireless network becomes.
They rely on the same WiFi standards (802.11a, b and g) already in place for most
wireless networks.
They are convenient where Ethernet wall connections are lacking -- for instance, in
outdoor concert venues, warehouses or transportation settings.
They are useful for Non-Line-of-Sight (NLoS) network configurations where wireless
signals are intermittently blocked. For example, in an amusement park a Ferris wheel
occasionally blocks the signal from a wireless access point. If there are dozens or
hundreds of other nodes around, the mesh network will adjust to find a clear signal.
Mesh networks are "self configuring;" the network automatically incorporates a new
node into the existing structure without needing any adjustments by a network
administrator.
Mesh networks are "self healing," since the network automatically finds the fastest and
most reliable paths to send data, even if nodes are blocked or lose their signal.
Wireless mesh configurations allow local networks to run faster, because local packets
don't have to travel back to a central server.
Wireless mesh nodes are easy to install and uninstall, making the network extremely
adaptable and expandable as more or less coverage is needed.

In this article, we'll explain how wireless mesh networks work, how they increase network
access for a wide variety of industries, and how they might make our dream of a seamlessly
connected world come true.

Wireless Mesh Technology

The graphic below shows how a wireless mesh network functions when sharing an Internet
connection across a Local Area Network (LAN). As you see, only one node in the wireless
mesh network needs to be directly wired to the Internet. That wired node shares the Internet
connection wirelessly with the nearest cluster of nodes, which then share it with their nearest
cluster of nodes and so on.

That means that each individual node doesn't need to be wired to anything. It only needs a
power supply such as traditional AC plugs, batteries, or solar panels if outdoors. Outdoor
nodes are encased in a weatherproof, protective shield and can be mounted anywhere
including telephone pools, roofs, etc.

Wireless mesh networks are effective in sharing Internet connectivity because the more nodes
that are installed, the further the signal can travel. And the more nodes you have, the stronger
and faster the Internet connection becomes for the user.

How does the Internet connection become stronger and faster?

If your laptop computer is in the broadcast range of four nodes, you're tapping into
four times the bandwidth of one traditional wireless router.
Distance plays a huge role in wireless signal strength. If you reduce the distance
between your computer and the nearest wireless node by two, the signal strength is
four times as strong.
Nodes can also provide Internet connectivity to wired devices within the network like
VoIP phones, video cameras, servers, and desktop workstations using traditional
Ethernet cables. Most nodes come with two or more Ethernet ports, and through a
technology called Power Over Ethernet (PoE), the node can provide power to stand-
alone devices like surveillance cameras without having to plug the camera into an
electrical outlet.

Applications for Wireless Mesh Networks

Cities and Municipalities

With wireless mesh networks, cities can connect citizens and public services over a
widespread high-speed wireless connection.
A growing number of downtown areas are installing public WiFi hotspots. Mesh networks
allow cities to inexpensively and simply link all those hotspots together to cover the entire
municipality.

Some advantages of municipal mesh networks:

Commuters can check their e-mail on the train, in the park, at a restaurant.
Public works officials can monitor the diagnostics of the city's power and water supply
by installing wireless nodes in water treatment facilities, sewers and generators.
There's no need to dig trenches to run cables.
Public safety and emergency workers can access secure virtual networks within the
larger network to keep communication lines open, even when regular phone or cellular
service is down. With mesh nodes mounted on streetlights and stop lights, police and
firefighters can remain connected to the network, even while moving.

According to a report by MuniWireless.com in March 2007, 81 U.S. cities have already

installed citywide or region-wide municipal wireless networks and 164 more are actively
building such networks. The report also says that 38 U.S. cities already have municipal
wireless networks for the exclusive use of public safety and city employees.

Not all existing municipal wireless networks are mesh networks, however. Some are powered
by a technology called WiMAX which has the ability to broadcast signals over large distances
using powerful microwave transmissions. Other municipal networks use a combination of
mesh, WiMAX and others.

Developing CountriesWireless mesh networks are useful in countries without a widespread

wired infrastructure, such as telephone service or even electricity. Solar-powered nodes can be
connected to one cellular or satellite Internet connection, which could keep a whole village
online.

Isolated Locations, Rugged TerrainEven in developed countries, there are rugged locations
too far off the grid for traditional high-speed Internet service providers. Wireless mesh
networks are being considered for these areas. A series of nodes would be mounted from the
nearest available wired access point out to the hard-to-reach area.
EducationMany colleges, universities and high schools are converting their entire campuses
to wireless mesh networks. This solution eliminates the need to bury cables in old buildings
and across campuses. With dozens of well-placed indoor and outdoor nodes, everyone will be
connected all the time.

Mesh networks also have the capacity to handle the high-bandwidth needs required by
students who need to download large files.

Students can connect anywhere.

Schools can also rig their entire public safety system up to the network, monitoring security
cameras and keeping all personnel in constant communication in emergency situations.

HealthcareMany hospitals are spread out through clusters of densely constructed buildings
that were not built with computer networks in mind. Wireless mesh nodes can sneak around
corners and send signals short distances through thick glass to ensure access in every
operating room, lab and office.

The ability to connect to the network is crucial as more doctors and caregivers maintain and
update patient information -- test results, medical history, even insurance information -- on
portable electronic devices carried from room to room.

HospitalityHigh-speed Internet connectivity at hotels and resorts has become the rule, not the
exception. Wireless mesh networks are quick and easy to set up indoors and outdoors without
having to remodel existing structures or disrupt business.

Temporary VenuesConstruction sites can capitalize on the easy set-up and removal of
wireless mesh networks. Architects and engineers can stay wired to the office, and Ethernet-
powered surveillance cameras can decrease theft and vandalism. Mesh nodes can be moved
around and supplemented as the construction project progresses.

Other temporary venues like street fairs, outdoor concerts and political rallies can set-up and
tear down wireless mesh networks in minutes.

WarehousesThere is simply no effective way to keep track of stock and shipping logistics
without the types of Ethernet-enabled handheld scanners used in modern warehouses.
Wireless mesh networks can ensure connectivity throughout a huge warehouse structure with
little effort.

Future ApplicationsThe U.S. military, which helped develop wireless mesh technology,
foresees a day when thousands of microchip-size mesh nodes can be dropped onto a
battlefield to set up instant scouting and surveillance networks. Information can be routed to
both ground troops and headquarter personnel.

Carmakers and telecom companies are working to develop Intelligent Transport Systems
(ITS) powered by street and highway-based wireless mesh networks. Using an automated
network of surveillance cameras and in-car sensors, public safety officials can tightly monitor
traffic accidents and dangerous road conditions.

PC Magazine reports that there's even technology in the works that would alert a driver when
a nearby car deploys its airbag. Mobile mesh networks also promise upgrades for in-car
entertainment options like digital music and movie downloads.

Chipmakers and network software developers like Ember Corporation already sell automated
home and automated building solutions that employ mesh networks to control and remotely
monitor surveillance systems, climate control and entertainment systems. The future
applications for wireless mesh networks are limited only by our imaginations.
Wireless Internet Cards

Walk into any coffee shop and you'll see scores of people pecking away at their laptop
computers. If you feel like everywhere you go -- from college campuses and libraries to
Starbucks and McDonald's -- has wireless connectivity, you're not alone. Currently, 241,506
WiFi hot spots are scattered throughout 134 countries, and some of those "spots" are entire
cities

These hot spots usually connect to the larger Internet community by wires or cables and
broadcast the Internet signal wirelessly to individual computers using radio frequencies. Many
personal computers pick up that signal using a wireless Internet card, a small device about
the size of a credit card.

Wireless Internet cards, also known as Local Area Network, or LAN, cards, are one of the
many types of adapter cards that add capabilities to your computer. Other adapter cards can
enable teleconferencing, improve sound systems or download photos from a digital camera.

Wireless Internet cards come in several forms. Different cards exist for laptops, desktops and
PDAs. Many computers come with one preinstalled, but they can also be purchased relatively
inexpensively and self-installed or simply inserted into a slot on the side of the computer.
The sheer number of WiFi hot spots has made wireless Internet cards even more desirable.
Initially used mostly in homes or businesses so that multiple people could share an Internet
connection, they are a hot commodity for anyone with a computer, especially with entire cities
going wireless.

Wireless Internet Background

To understand the mechanism behind wireless Internet cards, you first have to grasp how the
wireless Internet itself works. Rather than transmitting data through a phone line, digital
subscriber line (DSL) or high-speed cable, a wireless Internet network transmits data the
same way that radios and cell phones do: radio waves.

A WiFi hot spot, usually a wireless router or access point, first receives information from the
Internet the old-fashioned way: through wires. It then translates that data from the binary
form (the computer code of 1s and 0s) into radio waves. Next it broadcasts those radio waves
into the surrounding area. Wireless signals typically travel between 75 feet and 150 feet (23
meters and 46 meters). In a wide open area with no obstacles, however, they have been known
to transmit up to 1,000 feet (305 meters) and, with optimal conditions, even a mile (1.6
kilometers). More on those optimal conditions in a little bit.
Wireless Internet cards within the range of the radio signal pick it up using a tiny antenna and
translate it back into binary code for your computer to read. The process also works in the
opposite direction, with the card translating your computer's information into radio waves to
send to the router, where it is put back into binary form and sent to the Internet over the wires.

The radio communication used by wireless networks is slightly different from that of radios
and cell phones. For instance, wireless Internet cards are designed to work at higher
frequencies to handle more data -- typically either 2.4 gigahertz or 5 gigahertz. In addition, the
cards and the routers can communicate on one of three different frequency channels. In cases
where many people are using the wireless signal, like an airport crowded with business
travelers, the cards and the routers can also jump between channels to reduce interference.

Wireless cards operate under networking standards that are a variation of the basic 802.11
standard. These standards were developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers to differentiate between the various technologies. The 802.11b and 802.11g
standards are the most common, while the faster 802.11n, which was recently released, is not
as widespread.

Although WiFi radio signals have some benefits over regular radio signals, they are still
subject to interference by physical obstacles. Interference happens when a signal is hampered
by distance or a physical obstacle. For instance, microwaves and many cordless phones
operate in the same frequency used by some WiFi networks, so you might notice a slowdown
in your service if you're trying to warm your latte while you sign on. Likewise, if you move to
another room or if an elephant comes to stand between you and the hot spot, the signal could
be lost.

Don't worry if you don't have your own wireless network at home or at work. You can
purchase prepaid wireless Internet cards in the U.S. from companies such as T-Mobile, which
allow you access to all the T-Mobile hot spots. This can get kind of pricey, though, so you
may want to kick in the cash to set up your own network or find a local spot that advertises a
free Wi-Fi connection.

Wireless Internet Cards for Laptops, Desktops and PDAs

If you've ever gone into a computer store and looked in the section devoted to adapter cards,
you're aware of how many different kinds await you. Cards labeled as PCI refer to the
specific language the card uses to communicate with the computer's central processor. PCI
stands for Peripheral Component Interconnect, which is an industry standard that refers to
the way an attached device talks to the computer through a central pathway called the bus.

PCI network adapters come in many different shapes and sizes called form factors. Two
common form factors are the mini PCI, which is a wireless network card that comes
embedded inside a laptop computer, and the PCI wireless adapter card for desktops. Since a
desktop computer's bus is located inside the computer, wireless Internet cards for desktops
have to be installed inside the unit, and most computers come with one preinstalled. If you
want an external Internet adapter, you need to look for one that connects through the USB.

Other labels you might see are the PC Card or ExpressCard designations. Whereas PCI
wireless network adapters communicate through a computer's bus, PC Card adapters just fit
into a slot on the side and are used mainly in laptops because of their thin design. The newer
ExpressCard technology has gradually been replacing PC Card adapters.

The PC Card and ExpressCard designations come from PCMCIA, the Personal Computer
Memory Card International Association, which is the organization that developed a
standard network adapter using the PC form factor. You'll sometimes see these cards labeled
as PCMCIA cards. Regardless of the name, they all insert into a slot on the laptop's side, and
typically stick out a little bit to better transmit and receive signals with their built-in WiFi
antennas.

You also can buy USB keys that plug in to use as wireless adapters. These devices, which
resemble the memory sticks or flash drives you stick into an available USB port on the side of
your computer, seem to be an increasingly popular choice.

Yet another type of wireless Internet card exists for PDAs. For people who haven't yet jumped
on the BlackBerry bandwagon, there is WCF. Wireless CompactFlash cards, like PC Cards,
fit into a slot on the side or back of a PDA and enable it to communicate with the Internet.

Comparing Wireless Internet Connection Cards

You'll need to pay attention to several things when purchasing a wireless Internet card, such
as the networking standard that the card uses. For example, 802.11b, which used to be the
dominant WiFi standard, is meant for wireless networks operating in the 2.4-gigahertz range.
It supports a bandwidth of 11 megabits of data per second. The bandwidth refers to how
much data can be transferred in a set amount of time. The higher the number, the faster the
rate of transfer. So 802.11g and 802.11n, which send data over the Internet at speeds of 54
and 140 megabits per second, respectively, are going to stream your video faster than the
clunkier 802.11b standard.

Paying attention to the network standard on the card you purchase is important because you
need it to be able to communicate with the other wireless products you'll be using. For
instance, if your home network uses the 2.4-gigahertz frequency, and you buy a card that just
works in the 5-gigahertz range, you'll be out of luck. However, if you buy a card that is WiFi-
certified for the same frequency band and with the same features (such as encryption codes) of
the other products you'll be using, you're good to go. If you want a card that works on
different frequencies, you can get a dual-band one, which will be compatible with all WiFi-
certified products.

In addition, don't forget to look at the card's transfer rate, range and the operating system it
requires. Also, consider whether you want a card with an external or internal antenna. Last but
not least is security. Wireless networks are notoriously easier to hack into than wired ones,
which means you have to take extra measures to protect yourself. The Wi-Fi Alliance suggests
always connecting through a trusted provider that uses encryption technologies, enabling
security if you have your own network and buying products that are WiFi-certified for WiFi
Protected Access (WPA).

Wireless technology shows no signs of stopping its quest to allow you to check your e-mail
anytime, anywhere. Soon you may even be able to surf the net while flying at 30,000 feet
(9,144 meters).

Wireless Networks

The easiest, least expensive way to connect the computers in your home is to use a wireless
network, which uses radio waves instead of wires. The absence of physical wires makes this
kind of network very flexible. For example, you can move a laptop from room to room
without fiddling with network cables and without losing your connection. The downside is
that wireless connections are generally slower than Ethernet connections and they are less
secure unless you take measures to protect your network.
If you want to build a wireless network, you'll need a wireless router. Signals from a wireless
router extend about 100 feet (30.5 meters) in all directions, but walls can interrupt the signal.
Depending on the size and shape of your home and the range of the router, you may need to
purchase a range extender or repeater to get enough coverage.

You'll also need a wireless adapter in each computer you plan to connect to the network.
You can add printers and other devices to the network as well. Some new models have built-
in wireless communication capabilities, and you can use a wireless Ethernet bridge to add
wireless capabilities to devices that don't. Any devices that use the Bluetooth standard can
also connect easily to each other within a range of about 10 meters (32 feet), and most
computers, printers, cell phones, home entertainment systems and other gadgets come
installed with the technology.

If you decide to build a wireless network, you'll need to take steps to protect it -- you don't
want your neighbors hitchhiking on your wireless signal. Wireless security options include:

Wired Equivalency Privacy (WEP)

WiFi Protected Access (WPA)
Media Access Control (MAC) address filtering

You can choose which method (or combination of methods) you want to use when you set up
your wireless router. The IEEE has approved each of these security standards, but studies
have proven that WEP can be broken into very easily. If you use WEP, you may consider
adding Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) to your operating system. TKIP is a
wrapper with backward compatibility, which means you can add it to your existing security
option without interfering with its activity. Think of it like wrapping a bandage around a cut
finger -- the bandage protects the finger without preventing it from carrying out its normal
functions.

Chapter Review Questions

i. Discuss the wireless technologies
ii. Explain how is PCS wireless different than cellular service?

References
1. Rogers G.S & Edwards J. S, Wireless technology, Prentice Hall (ISBN 0-13-09486)
Martin J. (2001) Telecommunications and the computing
 2. SATELLITES

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this chapter the learner shall be able to;

i. Understand the satellite communication

ii. Understand the different types of satellite orbits

Introduction to Satellites

Not so long ago, satellites were exotic, top-secret devices. They were used primarily in a
military capacity, for activities such as navigation and espionage. Now they are an essential
part of our daily lives. We see and recognize their use in weather reports, television
transmission by DIRECTV and the DISH Network, and everyday telephone calls. In many
other instances, satellites play a background role that escapes our notice:

Some newspapers and magazines are more timely because they transmit their text and
images to multiple printing sites via satellite to speed local distribution.
Before sending signals down the wire into our houses, cable television depends on
satellites to distribute its transmissions.
The most reliable taxi and limousine drivers are sometimes using the satellite-based
Global Positioning System (GPS) to take us to the proper destination.
The goods we buy often reach distributors and retailers more efficiently and safely
because trucking firms track the progress of their vehicles with the same GPS.
Sometimes firms will even tell their drivers that they are driving too fast.
Emergency radio beacons from downed aircraft and distressed ships may reach search-
and-rescue teams when satellites relay the signal (read this page for details).

What Is a Satellite?

A satellite is basically any object that revolves around a planet in a circular or elliptical path.
The moon is Earth's original, natural satellite, and there are many man-made (artificial)
satellites, usually closer to Earth.
 The path a satellite follows is an orbit. In the orbit, the farthest point from Earth is the
apogee, and the nearest point is the perigee.
Artificial satellites generally are not mass-produced. Most satellites are custom built
to perform their intended functions. Exceptions include the GPS satellites (with over
20 copies in orbit) and the Iridium satellites (with over 60 copies in orbit).
Approximately 23,000 items of space junk -- objects large enough to track with radar
that were inadvertently placed in orbit or have outlived their usefulness -- are floating
above Earth. The actual number varies depending on which agency is counting.
Payloads that go into the wrong orbit, satellites with run-down batteries, and leftover
rocket boosters all contribute to the count. This online catalog of satellites has almost
26,000 entries!

Although anything that is in orbit around Earth is technically a satellite, the term "satellite" is
typically used to describe a useful object placed in orbit purposely to perform some specific
mission or task. We commonly hear about weather satellites, communication satellites and
scientific satellites.

Whose Satellite Was the First to Orbit Earth?

The Soviet Sputnik satellite was the first to orbit Earth, launched on Oct. 4, 1957.

Because of Soviet government secrecy at the time, no photographs were taken of this famous
launch. Sputnik was a 23-inch (58-centimeter), 184-pound (83-kilogram) metal ball. Although
it was a remarkable achievement, Sputnik's contents seem meager by today's standards:

Thermometer
Battery
Radio transmitter - changed the tone of its beeps to match temperature changes
Nitrogen gas - pressurized the interior of the satellite

On the outside of Sputnik, four whip antennas transmitted on short-wave frequencies above
and below what is today's Citizens Band (27 MHz). According to the Space Satellite
Handbook, by Anthony R. Curtis:
After 92 days, gravity took over and Sputnik burned in Earth's atmosphere. Thirty days after
the Sputnik launch, the dog Laika orbited in a half-ton Sputnik satellite with an air supply for
the dog. It burned in the atmosphere in April 1958.

How Is a Satellite Launched into an Orbit?

All satellites today get into orbit by riding on a rocket. Many used to hitch a ride in the cargo
bay of the space shuttle. Several countries and businesses have rocket launch capabilities, and
satellites as large as several tons make it safely into orbit regularly.

For most satellite launches, the scheduled launch rocket is aimed straight up at first. This gets
the rocket through the thickest part of the atmosphere most quickly and best minimizes fuel
consumption.

After a rocket launches straight up, the rocket control mechanism uses the inertial guidance
system to calculate necessary adjustments to the rocket's nozzles to tilt the rocket to the
course described in the flight plan. In most cases, the flight plan calls for the rocket to head
east because Earth rotates to the east, giving the launch vehicle a free boost. The strength of
this boost depends on the rotational velocity of Earth at the launch location. The boost is
greatest at the equator, where the distance around Earth is greatest and so rotation is fastest.

How big is the boost from an equatorial launch? To make a rough estimate, we can determine
Earth's circumference by multiplying its diameter by pi (3.1416). The diameter of Earth is
approximately 7,926 miles (12,753 kilometers). Multiplying by pi yields a circumference of
something like 24,900 miles (40,065 kilometers). To travel around that circumference in 24
hours, a point on Earth's surface has to move at 1,038 mph (1,669 kph). A launch from Cape
Canaveral, Florida, doesn't get as big a boost from Earth's rotational speed. The Kennedy
Space Center's Launch Complex 39-A, one of its launch facilities, is located at 28 degrees 36
minutes 29.7014 seconds north latitude. The Earth's rotational speed there is about 894 mph
(1,440 kph). The difference in Earth's surface speed between the equator and Kennedy Space
Center, then, is about 144 mph (229 kph). (Note: The Earth is actually oblate -- fatter around
the middle -- not a perfect sphere. For that reason, our estimate of Earth's circumference is a
little small.)

Considering that rockets can go thousands of miles per hour, you may wonder why a
difference of only 144 mph would even matter. The answer is that rockets, together with their
fuel and their payloads, are very heavy. For example, the Feb. 11, 2000, lift-off of the space
shuttle Endeavour with the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission required launching a total
weight of 4,520,415 pounds (2,050,447 kilograms). It takes a huge amount of energy to
accelerate such a mass to 144 mph, and therefore a significant amount of fuel. Launching
from the equator makes a real difference.

Once the rocket reaches extremely thin air, at about 120 miles (193 kilometers) up, the
rocket's navigational system fires small rockets, just enough to turn the launch vehicle into a
horizontal position. The satellite is then released. At that point, rockets are fired again to
ensure some separation between the launch vehicle and the satellite itself.

Orbital Velocity and Altitude

A rocket must accelerate to at least 25,039 mph (40,320 kph) to completely escape Earth's
gravity and fly off into space (for more on escape velocity, visit this article at
kidsplanet.com).

Earth's escape velocity is much greater than what's required to place an Earth satellite in orbit.
With satellites, the object is not to escape Earth's gravity, but to balance it. Orbital velocity is
the velocity needed to achieve balance between gravity's pull on the satellite and the inertia
of the satellite's motion -- the satellite's tendency to keep going. This is approximately 17,000
mph (27,359 kph) at an altitude of 150 miles (242 kilometers). Without gravity, the satellite's
inertia would carry it off into space. Even with gravity, if the intended satellite goes too fast, it
will eventually fly away. On the other hand, if the satellite goes too slowly, gravity will pull it
back to Earth. At the correct orbital velocity, gravity exactly balances the satellite's inertia,
pulling down toward Earth's center just enough to keep the path of the satellite curving like
Earth's curved surface, rather than flying off in a straight line (read this page for details on
orbits).

The orbital velocity of the satellite depends on its altitude above Earth. The nearer Earth, the
faster the required orbital velocity. At an altitude of 124 miles (200 kilometers), the required
orbital velocity is just over 17,000 mph (about 27,400 kph). To maintain an orbit that is
22,223 miles (35,786 kilometers) above Earth, the satellite must orbit at a speed of about
7,000 mph (11,300 kph). That orbital speed and distance permits the satellite to make one
revolution in 24 hours. Since Earth also rotates once in 24 hours, a satellite at 22,223 miles
altitude stays in a fixed position relative to a point on Earth's surface. Because the satellite
stays right over the same spot all the time, this kind of orbit is called "geostationary."
Geostationary orbits are ideal for weather satellites and communications satellites.

The moon has an altitude of about 240,000 miles (384,400 kilometers), a velocity of about
2,300 mph (3,700 kph) and its orbit takes 27.322 days. (Note that the moon's orbital velocity
is slower because it is farther from Earth than artificial satellites.)

To get a better feel for orbital velocities at different altitudes, check out NASA's
orbital velocity calculator.
To learn more about orbits and other topics in space flight, check out JPL's Basics of
Space Flight Learners' Workbook.
A detailed technical treatment of orbital mechanics can be found at this site.

In general, the higher the orbit, the longer the satellite can stay in orbit. At lower altitudes, a
satellite runs into traces of Earth's atmosphere, which creates drag. The drag causes the orbit
to decay until the satellite falls back into the atmosphere and burns up. At higher altitudes,
where the vacuum of space is nearly complete, there is almost no drag and a satellite can stay
in orbit for centuries (take the moon as an example).

Satellites usually start out in an orbit that is elliptical. The ground control station controls
small onboard rocket motors to provide correction. The goal is to get the orbit as circular as
possible. By firing a rocket when the orbit is at the apogee of its orbit (its most distant point
from Earth), and applying thrust in the direction of the flight path, the perigee (lowest point
from Earth) moves farther out. The result is a more circular orbit.

What Is a Satellite Launch Window?

A launch window is a particular period of time in which it will be easier to place the satellite
in the orbit necessary to perform its intended function.

With the space shuttle, an extremely important factor in choosing the launch window was the
need to bring down the astronauts safely if something went wrong. The astronauts had to be
able to reach a safe landing area with rescue personnel standing by. For other types of flights,
including interplanetary exploration, the launch window must permit the flight to take the
most efficient course to its very distant destination. If weather is bad or a malfunction occurs
during a launch window, the flight must be postponed until the next launch window
appropriate for the flight. If a satellite were launched at the wrong time of the day in perfect
weather, the satellite could end up in an orbit that would not pass over any of its intended
users. Timing is everything!

What Is Inside a Typical Satellite?

Satellites come in all shapes and sizes and play a variety of roles. For example:

Weather satellites help meteorologists predict the weather or see what's happening at
the moment. Typical weather satellites include the TIROS, COSMOS and GOES
satellites. The satellites generally contain cameras that can return photos of Earth's
weather, either from fixed geostationary positions or from polar orbits.
Communications satellites allow telephone and data conversations to be relayed
through the satellite. Typical communications satellites include Telstar and Intelsat.
The most important feature of a communications satellite is the transponder -- a radio
that receives a conversation at one frequency and then amplifies it and retransmits it
back to Earth on another frequency. A satellite normally contains hundreds or
thousands of transponders. Communications satellites are usually geosynchronous.
Broadcast satellites broadcast television signals from one point to another (similar to
communications satellites).
Scientific satellites perform a variety of scientific missions. The Hubble Space
Telescope is the most famous scientific satellite, but there are many others looking at
everything from sun spots to gamma rays.
Navigational satellites help ships and planes navigate. The most famous are the GPS
NAVSTAR satellites.
Rescue satellites respond to radio distress signals (read this page for details).
Earth observation satellites observe the planet for changes in everything from
temperature to forestation to ice-sheet coverage. The most famous are the LANDSAT
series.
Military satellites are up there, but much of the actual application information
remains secret. Intelligence-gathering possibilities using high-tech electronic and
sophisticated photographic-equipment reconnaissance are endless. Applications may
include relaying encrypted communication, nuclear monitoring, observing enemy
movements, early warning of missile launches, eavesdropping on terrestrial radio
 links, radar imaging, photography (using what are essentially large telescopes that take
pictures of militarily interesting areas)

Despite the significant differences between all of these satellites, they have several things in
common. For example:

All of them have a metal or composite frame and body, usually known as the bus. The
bus holds everything together in space and provides enough strength to survive the
launch.
All of them have a source of power (usually solar cells) and batteries for storage.
Arrays of solar cells provide power to charge rechargeable batteries. Newer designs
include the use of fuel cells. Power on most satellites is precious and very limited.
Nuclear power has been used on space probes to other planets (read this page for
details). Power systems are constantly monitored, and data on power and all other
onboard systems is sent to Earth stations in the form of telemetry signals.
All of them have an onboard computer to control and monitor the different systems.
All of them have a radio system and antenna. At the very least, most satellites have a
radio transmitter/receiver so that the ground-control crew can request status
information from the satellite and monitor its health. Many satellites can be controlled
in various ways from the ground to do anything from change the orbit to reprogram
the computer system.
All of them have an attitude control system. The ACS keeps the satellite pointed in
the right direction.

The Hubble Space Telescope has a very elaborate control system so that the telescope can
point at the same position in space for hours or days at a time (despite the fact that the
telescope travels at 17,000 mph/27,359 kph!). The system contains gyroscopes,
accelerometers, a reaction wheel stabilization system, thrusters and a set of sensors that watch
guide stars to determine position.

What Are the Types of Satellite Orbits?

There are three basic kinds of orbits, depending on the satellite's position relative to Earth's
surface:
 1. Geostationary orbits (also called geosynchronous or synchronous) are orbits in
which the satellite is always positioned over the same spot on Earth. Many
geostationary satellites are above a band along the equator, with an altitude of about
22,223 miles, or about a tenth of the distance to the Moon. The "satellite parking strip"
area over the equator is becoming congested with several hundred television, weather
and communication satellites! This congestion means each satellite must be precisely
positioned to prevent its signals from interfering with an adjacent satellite's signals.
Television, communications and weather satellites all use geostationary orbits.
Geostationary orbits are why a DSS satellite TV dish is typically bolted in a fixed
position.
2. The scheduled space shuttles used a much lower, asynchronous orbit, which means
they passed overhead at different times of the day. Other satellites in asynchronous
orbits average about 400 miles (644 kilometers) in altitude.
3. In a polar orbit, the satellite generally flies at a low altitude and passes over the
planet's poles on each revolution. The polar orbit remains fixed in space as Earth
rotates inside the orbit. As a result, much of Earth passes under a satellite in a polar
orbit. Because polar orbits achieve excellent coverage of the planet, they are often
used for satellites that do mapping and photography.

How Are Satellite Orbits Predicted?

Special satellite software, available for personal computers, predicts satellite orbits. The
software uses Keplerian data to forecast each orbit and shows when a satellite will be
overhead. The latest "Keps" are available on the Internet for amateur radio satellites, too.

Satellites use a variety of light-sensitive sensors to determine their position. The satellite
transmits its position to the ground station.

Satellite Altitudes

Looking up from Earth, satellites are orbiting overhead in various bands of altitude. It's
interesting to think of satellites in terms of how near or far they are from us. Proceeding
roughly from the nearest to the farthest, here are the types of satellites whizzing around Earth:
80 to 1,200 miles -- Asynchronous Orbits

Observation satellites, typically orbiting at altitudes from 300 to 600 miles (480 to 970
kilometers), are used for tasks like photography. Observation satellites such as the Landsat 7
perform tasks such as:

Mapping
Ice and sand movement
Locating environmental situations (such as disappearing rainforests)
Locating mineral deposits
Finding crop problems

Search-and-rescue satellites act as relay stations to rebroadcast emergency radio-beacon

signals from a downed aircraft or ship in trouble.

The space shuttle was the familiar manned satellite, usually with a fixed duration and number
of orbits. Manned missions often have the task of repairing existing expensive satellites or
building future space stations.

The "glass cockpit" on space shuttle Atlantis, March 1, 2000

Teledesic, with the financial backing of Bill Gates, promises broadband (high-speed)
communications using many planned low Earth orbiting (LEO) satellites.
3,000 to 6,000 miles -- Asynchronous Orbits

Science satellites are sometimes in altitudes of 3,000 to 6,000 miles (4,800 to 9,700
kilometers). They send their research data to Earth via radio telemetry signals. Scientific
satellite applications include:

Researching plants and animals

Earth science, such as monitoring volcanoes
Tracking wildlife
Astronomy, using the Infrared Astronomy Satellite
Physics, by NASA's future study of microgravity and the current Ulysses Mission
studying solar physics

6,000 to 12,000 miles - Asynchronous Orbits

For navigation, the U.S. Department of Defense built the Global Positioning System, or
GPS. The GPS uses satellites at altitudes of 6,000 to 12,000 miles to determine the exact
location of the receiver. The GPS receiver may be located:

In a ship at sea
In another spacecraft
In an airplane
In an automobile
In your pocket

As consumer prices for GPS receivers come down, the familiar paper map may face tough
competition. No more getting lost leaving the rental car agency at an unfamiliar airport!

The U.S. military and the forces of allied nations used more than 9,000 GPS receivers
during Operation Desert Storm.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) used GPS to measure
the exact height of the Washington Monument.
Taken while the Clementine spacecraft was orbiting the moon

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite, launched in 1993, used multiple

antennas for narrow-beam transmissions.

22,223 Miles - Geostationary Orbits

Weather forecasts visually bombard us each day with images from weather satellites, typically
22,223 miles over the equator. You can directly receive many of the actual satellite images
using radio receivers and special personal-computer software. Many countries use weather
satellites for their weather forecasting and storm observations.
Data, television, image and some telephone transmissions are routinely received and
rebroadcast by communications satellites. Typical satellite telephone links have 550 to 650
milliseconds of round-trip delay that contribute to consumer dissatisfaction with this type of
long-distance carrier. It takes the voice communications that long to travel all the way up to
the satellite and back to Earth. The round-trip delay forces many to use telephone
conversations via satellite only when no other links exist. Currently, voice over the Internet is
experiencing a similar delay problem, but in this case due to digital compression and
bandwidth limitations rather than distance.

Communications satellites are essentially radio relay stations in space. Satellite dishes get
smaller as satellites get more powerful transmitters with focused radio "footprints" and gain-
type antennas. Subcarriers on these same satellites carry:

Press agency news feeds

Stock market, business and other financial information
International radio broadcasters moving from short-wave to (or supplementing their
short-wave broadcasts with) satellite feeds using microwave uplink feeds
Global television, such as CNN and the BBC
Digital radio for CD-quality audio

What Is AMSAT?

AMSAT is a non-profit organization of ham radio operators worldwide that uses its own
membership-supported satellites. The official name for AMSAT is the Radio Amateur
Satellite Corporation. Hams that belong to AMSAT participate in:

The actual development and assembly of over 40 satellites to date

Ground control after the satellite is in orbit
Conversations using the satellite and listening to others using the satellite as a radio
relay link

AMSAT satellites can often be heard by use of a short-wave receiver or a radio scanner. Ham
operators make use of the satellites during natural disasters when terrestrial links and cell
phone systems may be down or overloaded.
The AMSAT-built satellites "hitch" a rocket launch on a "payload-space-available" basis. The
first AMSAT satellite orbited in 1961 and was called OSCAR (Orbiting Satellite Carrying
Amateur Radio). Tracking software is available for personal computers. Various AMSAT
satellites have a combination of data, image and voice capabilities.

What Causes Space Junk?

Debris in orbit can come from many sources:

Exploding rockets - This leaves behind the most debris in space.

The slip of an astronaut's hand - Suppose an astronaut doing repair in space drops a
wrench -- it's gone forever. The wrench then goes into orbit, probably at a speed of
something like 6 miles per second. If the wrench hits any vehicle carrying a human
crew, the results could be disastrous. Larger objects like a space station make a larger
target for space junk, and so are at greater risk.
Jettisoned items - Parts of launch canisters, camera lens caps, etc.

Items initially placed into high orbits stay in space the longest.

The European Space Agency tracks more than 7,500 orbiting items with a width of 4 inches
(10 centimeters) or more. Space debris may also be a reason why space shuttles typically
orbited with their windows to the rear. This protected the astronauts onboard, at least to some
degree.

A special NASA satellite called Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) was put in orbit to
study the long-term effects of collisions with space junk. The LDEF was later brought back to
Earth via a space shuttle for analysis.

Satellite Internet

How do you access the Internet other than dial-up if you live too far from a phone company
office for DSL and there is no cable TV on your street? Satellite Internet access may be worth
considering. It's ideal for rural Internet users who want broadband access. Satellite Internet
does not use telephone lines or cable systems, but instead uses a satellite dish for two-way
(upload and download) data communications. Upload speed is about one-tenth of the 500
kbps download speed. Cable and DSL have higher download speeds, but satellite systems are
about 10 times faster than a normal modem.
Firms that offer or plan to offer two-way satellite Internet include StarBand, Pegasus Express,
Teledesic and Tachyon. Tachyon service is available today in the United States, Western
Europe and Mexico. Pegasus Express is the two-way version of DirecPC.

Two-way satellite Internet consists of:

Approximately a two-foot by three-foot dish

Two modems (uplink and downlink)
Coaxial cables between dish and modem

The key installation planning requirement is a clear view to the south, since the orbiting
satellites are over the equator area. And, like satellite TV, trees and heavy rains can affect
reception of the Internet signals.

Two-way satellite Internet uses Internet Protocol (IP) multicasting technology, which means
up to 5,000 channels of communication can simultaneously be served by a single satellite. IP
multicasting sends data from one point to many points (at the same time) by sending data in
compressed format. Compression reduces the size of the data and the bandwidth. Usual dial-
up land-based terrestrial systems have bandwidth limitations that prevent multicasting of this
magnitude.

Some satellite-Internet service still requires you to have a dial-up or cable modem connection
for the data you send to the Internet. The satellite data downlink is just like the usual
terrestrial link, except the satellite transmits the data to your computer via the same dish that
would allow you to receive a Pay-Per-View television program.
Global Positioning System (GPS)

Our ancestors had to go to pretty extreme measures to keep from getting lost. They erected
monumental landmarks, laboriously drafted detailed maps and learned to read the stars in the
night sky.

Things are much, much easier today. For less than $100, you can get a pocket-sized gadget
that will tell you exactly where you are on Earth at any moment. As long as you have a GPS
receiver and a clear view of the sky, you'll never be lost again.

In this article, we'll find out how these handy guides pull off this amazing trick. As we'll see,
the Global Positioning System is vast, expensive and involves a lot of technical ingenuity, but
the fundamental concepts at work are quite simple and intuitive.

When people talk about "a GPS," they usually mean a GPS receiver. The Global Positioning
System (GPS) is actually a constellation of 27 Earth-orbiting satellites (24 in operation and
three extras in case one fails). The U.S. military developed and implemented this satellite
network as a military navigation system, but soon opened it up to everybody else.

Each of these 3,000- to 4,000-pound solar-powered satellites circles the globe at about 12,000
miles (19,300 km), making two complete rotations every day. The orbits are arranged so that
at any time, anywhere on Earth, there are at least four satellites "visible" in the sky.
A GPS receiver's job is to locate four or more of these satellites, figure out the distance to
each, and use this information to deduce its own location. This operation is based on a simple
mathematical principle called trilateration. Trilateration in three-dimensional space can be a
little tricky, so we'll start with an explanation of simple two-dimensional trilateration.

2-D Trilateration

Imagine you are somewhere in the United States and you are TOTALLY lost -- for whatever
reason, you have absolutely no clue where you are. You find a friendly local and ask, "Where
am I?" He says, "You are 625 miles from Boise, Idaho."

This is a nice, hard fact, but it is not particularly useful by itself. You could be anywhere on a
circle around Boise that has a radius of 625 miles, like this:

You ask somebody else where you are, and she says, "You are 690 miles from Minneapolis,
Minnesota." Now you're getting somewhere. If you combine this information with the Boise
information, you have two circles that intersect. You now know that you must be at one of
these two intersection points, if you are 625 miles from Boise and 690 miles from
Minneapolis.
If a third person tells you that you are 615 miles from Tucson, Arizona, you can eliminate one
of the possibilities, because the third circle will only intersect with one of these points. You
now know exactly where you are -- Denver, Colorado.

This same concept works in three-dimensional space, as well, but you're dealing with spheres
instead of circles. In the next section, we'll look at this type of trilateration.

3-D Trilateration

Fundamentally, three-dimensional trilateration isn't much different from two-dimensional

trilateration, but it's a little trickier to visualize. Imagine the radii from the previous examples
going off in all directions. So instead of a series of circles, you get a series of spheres.

If you know you are 10 miles from satellite A in the sky, you could be anywhere on the
surface of a huge, imaginary sphere with a 10-mile radius. If you also know you are 15 miles
from satellite B, you can overlap the first sphere with another, larger sphere. The spheres
intersect in a perfect circle. If you know the distance to a third satellite, you get a third sphere,
which intersects with this circle at two points.

The Earth itself can act as a fourth sphere -- only one of the two possible points will actually
be on the surface of the planet, so you can eliminate the one in space. Receivers generally
look to four or more satellites, however, to improve accuracy and provide precise altitude
information.
In order to make this simple calculation, then, the GPS receiver has to know two things:

The location of at least three satellites above you

The distance between you and each of those satellites

The GPS receiver figures both of these things out by analyzing high-frequency, low-power
radio signals from the GPS satellites. Better units have multiple receivers, so they can pick
up signals from several satellites simultaneously.

Radio waves are electromagnetic energy, which means they travel at the speed of light (about
186,000 miles per second, 300,000 km per second in a vacuum). The receiver can figure out
how far the signal has traveled by timing how long it took the signal to arrive. In the next
section, we'll see how the receiver and satellite work together to make this measurement.

GPS Calculations

On the previous page, we saw that a GPS receiver calculates the distance to GPS satellites by
timing a signal's journey from satellite to receiver. As it turns out, this is a fairly elaborate
process.

At a particular time (let's say midnight), the satellite begins transmitting a long, digital pattern
called a pseudo-random code. The receiver begins running the same digital pattern also
exactly at midnight. When the satellite's signal reaches the receiver, its transmission of the
pattern will lag a bit behind the receiver's playing of the pattern.

The length of the delay is equal to the signal's travel time. The receiver multiplies this time by
the speed of light to determine how far the signal traveled. Assuming the signal traveled in a
straight line, this is the distance from receiver to satellite.

In order to make this measurement, the receiver and satellite both need clocks that can be
synchronized down to the nanosecond. To make a satellite positioning system using only
synchronized clocks, you would need to have atomic clocks not only on all the satellites, but
also in the receiver itself. But atomic clocks cost somewhere between $50,000 and $100,000,
which makes them a just a bit too expensive for everyday consumer use.

The Global Positioning System has a clever, effective solution to this problem. Every satellite
contains an expensive atomic clock, but the receiver itself uses an ordinary quartz clock,
which it constantly resets. In a nutshell, the receiver looks at incoming signals from four or
more satellites and gauges its own inaccuracy. In other words, there is only one value for the
"current time" that the receiver can use. The correct time value will cause all of the signals
that the receiver is receiving to align at a single point in space. That time value is the time
value held by the atomic clocks in all of the satellites. So the receiver sets its clock to that
time value, and it then has the same time value that all the atomic clocks in all of the satellites
have. The GPS receiver gets atomic clock accuracy "for free."

When you measure the distance to four located satellites, you can draw four spheres that all
intersect at one point. Three spheres will intersect even if your numbers are way off, but four
spheres will not intersect at one point if you've measured incorrectly. Since the receiver makes
all its distance measurements using its own built-in clock, the distances will all be
proportionally incorrect.

The receiver can easily calculate the necessary adjustment that will cause the four spheres to
intersect at one point. Based on this, it resets its clock to be in sync with the satellite's atomic
clock. The receiver does this constantly whenever it's on, which means it is nearly as accurate
as the expensive atomic clocks in the satellites.

In order for the distance information to be of any use, the receiver also has to know where the
satellites actually are. This isn't particularly difficult because the satellites travel in very high
and predictable orbits. The GPS receiver simply stores an almanac that tells it where every
satellite should be at any given time. Things like the pull of the moon and the sun do change
the satellites' orbits very slightly, but the Department of Defense constantly monitors their
exact positions and transmits any adjustments to all GPS receivers as part of the satellites'
signals.

Differential GPS

So far, we've learned how a GPS receiver calculates its position on earth based on the
information it receives from four located satellites. This system works pretty well, but
inaccuracies do pop up. For one thing, this method assumes the radio signals will make their
way through the atmosphere at a consistent speed (the speed of light). In fact, the Earth's
atmosphere slows the electromagnetic energy down somewhat, particularly as it goes through
the ionosphere and troposphere. The delay varies depending on where you are on Earth, which
means it's difficult to accurately factor this into the distance calculations. Problems can also
occur when radio signals bounce off large objects, such as skyscrapers, giving a receiver the
impression that a satellite is farther away than it actually is. On top of all that, satellites
sometimes just send out bad almanac data, misreporting their own position.

Differential GPS (DGPS) helps correct these errors. The basic idea is to gauge GPS
inaccuracy at a stationary receiver station with a known location. Since the DGPS hardware at
the station already knows its own position, it can easily calculate its receiver's inaccuracy. The
station then broadcasts a radio signal to all DGPS-equipped receivers in the area, providing
signal correction information for that area. In general, access to this correction information
makes DGPS receivers much more accurate than ordinary receivers.

The most essential function of a GPS receiver is to pick up the transmissions of at least four
satellites and combine the information in those transmissions with information in an electronic
almanac, all in order to figure out the receiver's position on Earth.

Once the receiver makes this calculation, it can tell you the latitude, longitude and altitude (or
some similar measurement) of its current position. To make the navigation more user-friendly,
most receivers plug this raw data into map files stored in memory.

You can use maps stored in the receiver's memory, connect the receiver to a computer that can
hold more detailed maps in its memory, or simply buy a detailed map of your area and find
your way using the receiver's latitude and longitude readouts. Some receivers let you
download detailed maps into memory or supply detailed maps with plug-in map cartridges.

A standard GPS receiver will not only place you on a map at any particular location, but will
also trace your path across a map as you move. If you leave your receiver on, it can stay in
constant communication with GPS satellites to see how your location is changing. With this
information and its built-in clock, the receiver can give you several pieces of valuable
information:

How far you've traveled (odometer)

How long you've been traveling
Your current speed (speedometer)
Your average speed
A "bread crumb" trail showing you exactly where you have traveled on the map
 The estimated time of arrival at your destination if you maintain your current speed

Chapter Review Questions

i. Discuss the types of satellite orbits

ii. Discuss how satellite internet works

iii. Discuss how Global Positioning System (GPS)works

References
1. Rogers G.S & Edwards J. S, Wireless technology, Prentice Hall (ISBN 0-13-09486)

2. Martin J. (2001) Telecommunications and the computer, Prentice Hall International