REFRIGERATION:

Types >> Cyclic & Non-Cyclic

Cyclic: It consists of a refrigeration cycle, where heat is removed from low temp space/source
and rejected to a high temp sink with the help of external work, and its inverse.
Non-Cyclic: Here refrigeration is accomplished by melting ice or by subliming dry ice.
Used for small scale refrigeration like workshops and portable coolers.

Subliming or Sublimation: The transition of a substance from Solid phase directly to the
Vapour state, such that it does not pass through intermediate liquid phase.

refrigeration cycle: A refrigeration cycle describes the changes that take place in the
refrigerants as it alternately absorbs and rejects heat as it circulates through refrigerator.

Basic Refrigeration Cycle:

Evaporator > Accumulator > Compressor> Condenser> Drier > Expansion valve > Evaporator

Accumulator: The refrigeration compressor is designed to compress vapor only. A suction line
accumulator prevents compressor damage from a sudden surge of liquid refrigerant and oil that could
enter the compressor from the suction line.

The suction line accumulator is a temporary reservoir for this mixture, designed to meter both
the liquid refrigerant and oil back to the compressor at an acceptable rate. This prevents damage to
the reed valves, pistons, rods, and crankshafts.

Accumulators have a metering ejector device that picks up liquid, vaporizes it, and returns it
to the compressor. This prevents liquid slugging and controls oil return. It is particularly important on
hot gas defrost systems, heat pumps, etc., where surges of liquid refrigerant frequently go back down
the suction line.

Types of Accumulators:

Vertical Accumulator, which is further classified into 2 accumulators with heat exchanger and
without heat exchanger.
 Accumulator without heat exchanger consists of U tube. Connect the suction line from the
evaporator to the inlet of the accumulator. Connect the outlet of the accumulator to the
suction line of the compressor.
In Accumulator with the heat exchanger and reversing valve the accumulator should be
installed between the compressor and the reversing valve. The pump-down cycle should
precede all compressor shutdowns.

Horizontal Accumulator

Drier: Filter driers are devices used in a HVAC system that are a combination of filter and dryer
(or drier). A filter is used to remove any particle such as dirt, metal or chips from entering the
refrigerant flow control. The refrigerant flow control device could be thermostatic expansion
valve or simply a capillary tube.
The filter is sometimes also referred to as a strainer. It is critical that these particles
are filtered out and prevented from going into the metering device. It can cause blockage to
the passage flow of the refrigerant in the expansion valve and cause improper operation to
the system.
A drier as its name imply is used to remove the moisture from the refrigerant.
Sometimes it is also referred to as dehydrator or dryer. It is necessary to remove moisture
from the system otherwise it may freeze inside the tube causing the flow of refrigerant to be
restricted. The moisture will also cause the formation of acids and sludge when in contact
with oil in the system.
These devices are usually used in bigger system where the refrigerant circuit is
designed for field service. Residential units that are charged with refrigerant at factory level
and hermetically sealed do not use these devices as the possibility of moisture and particles
entering the system is minimal.
Types of Driers
Liquid Line Type is placed after the condenser coil and before the expansion valve.
The liquid refrigerant that flows from the condenser to the expansion valve is filtered from
particles and moisture before entering it. Good filter will filter out particles that are 20
microns or above from the system. Some high-end Driers can remove moisture and acid from
the liquid refrigerant.
Suction Line Type is placed after the evaporator and before the compressor. This
device is used to protect the compressor especially after any failure that contaminates the
system.
Motor failure in the compressor usually cause acid and other contaminants to be
introduced into the refrigerant system hence it is important to have the suction line filter
dryer installed.
Condensers:
Condensers are the devices used to condense hot vapour discharged from compressor
into liquid.
Types: Air cooled, Water cooled and Evaporative
Air cooled condensers and water-cooled condensers are most commonly used
whereas evaporative types are used where low-quality water and its disposal
make the use of circulating water-cooled types impractical.
Types of water cooled condenser:
Double pipe or Double Tube condenser
Shell and Coil condenser
Shell and Tube condenser
Double pipe condenser:

Shell and Coil type:

Shell and Tube Type Condenser:

Evaporative Condenser:
Evaporative condenser operates on the principle that heat can be
removed from condensing coils by evaporation of water into an air
stream travelling across the condensing coil.

Compressors:
A Gas Compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by
reducing its volume.
Types of Compressors:
Centrifugal Compressor:
Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas
to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of gas.
Their application can range from 100 1000 hp. Multi staging leads to almost 70 Mpa
output pressure.

Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors:

Axial-flow compressor:
Reciprocating compressor:

Rotary screw compressor:

Rotary vane compressor:

A scroll compressor:

A diaphragm compressor:

Expansion valves:
A thermal expansion valve (often abbreviated as TEV, TXV, or TX valve) is a component
in refrigeration and air conditioning systems that controls the amount of refrigerant flow into the
evaporator thereby controlling the superheat at the outlet of the evaporator. Thermal expansion
valves are often referred to generically as "metering devices".
Function of Expansion valves:
Expansion valves are flow-restricting devices that cause a pressure drop of the working fluid.
The valve needle remains open during steady state operation. The size of the opening or the position
of the needle is related to the pressure and temperature of the evaporator. There are three main parts
of the expansion valve that regulate the position of the needle. A sensor bulb, at the end of the
evaporator, monitors the temperature change of the evaporator. This change in temperature creates
a change in pressure on the diaphragm.
For example, if the temperature in the evaporator increases, the pressure in the diaphragm
increases causing the needle to lower. Lowering the needle allows more of the working fluid into the
evaporator to absorb heat. The pressure at the inlet of the evaporator affects the position of the
needle and prevents the working fluid from flowing back into the compressor. Since the pressure
before the valve is higher than the pressure after the valve, the working fluid naturally flows into the
evaporator. The pressure at the inlet of the evaporator acts on the diaphragm. There is also a spring
providing a constant pressure closing the valve needle. The spring constantly restricts the amount of
working fluid entering the evaporator.
 The pressure spring can be adjusted to increase or decrease pressure based on temperature
needs. The pressure created by the spring acts on the opening of the valve. When the pressure of the
sensor bulb acting on the diaphragm is greater than the combined pressure of the evaporator and
spring, the valve opens to increase the flow rate of the working fluid. An increase of flow rate lowers
the temperature of the evaporator and allows for more heat absorption.

Types:
There are two main types of thermal expansion valves: internally or externally equalized. The
difference between externally and internally equalized valves is how the evaporator pressure affects
the position of the needle.
In internally equalized valves, the evaporator pressure against the diaphragm is the pressure
at the inlet of the evaporator, whereas in externally equalized valves, the evaporator pressure against
the diaphragm is the pressure at the outlet of the evaporator. Externally equalized thermostatic
expansion valves compensate for any pressure drop through the evaporator.
Internally equalized valves can be used on single circuit evaporator coils having low pressure
drop. Externally equalized valves must be used on multi-circuited evaporators with refrigerant
distributors. Externally equalized TXVs can be used on all applications; however, an externally
equalized TXV cannot be replaced with an internally equalized TXV.

Evaporator:
Bare tube type of evaporators
 Plate type of evaporators

Finned evaporators

Refrigerants and Brines:

A refrigerant is a fluid that is used in air conditioners and refrigerators, to take heat from the
contents of a refrigerator or the room (in the case of ACs) and throw the heat out in the atmosphere.
A refrigerant undergoes phase changes from a liquid to gas (on absorbing heat) and back to liquid
(when a compressor compresses it). The choice of ideal refrigerant is made based on its favourable
thermodynamic properties, non-corrosive nature, and safety (non-toxic and non-flammable).
Although many fluids can be used to act as a refrigerant, but in 20th century, CFCs became the most
popular refrigerants.
Types of Refrigerants:
Refrigerants are mainly classified unto two types: primary and secondary.
PRIMARY REFRIGERANTS
Natural refrigerants
CO2
H2O
NH3 (SOMETIMES ONLY NH3 WILL BE UNDER USAGE)
Synthetic refrigerants (Halocarbons or freons)
CFC (R11, R12, R113, R114, R115..etc)
HCFC(R2,R123..etc)
HFC (R134a, R404a, R407C, R410a..etc)
 Mixtures
AZEOTROPICS
ZEOTROPICS
SECONDARY REFRIGERANTS
Water
Brains (Ethyl Glycol solution).
CFCs and HCFCs causes ozone depletion as they have high ODP. CFCs are faster to deplete the
ozone than HCFCs.

The most common types of refrigerants in use nowadays are presented below:

- halocarbons or freons.
- azeotropic refrigerants.
- zeotropic refrigerants.
- inorganic refrigerants like carbon dioxide, ammonia, water and air.
- hydrocarbon refrigerants.
ODP & GWP:
In general, all refrigerants are characterised by two numbers: Ozone Depletion Potential
(ODP) and Global Warming Potential (GWP).
ODP values range from 0 to 1: the closest the ODP value is to 1, the more harmful the
refrigerant is for the ozone layer.
GWP values range from 0 to several thousands. the bigger the GWP value is, the more
harmful the refrigerant is for the global warming effect.
Below are some of the refrigerants with their ODP:

AZEOTROPIC MIXTURE:
The mixture of refrigerants having different boiling points. The vapour and liquid phases of
the refrigerants retain identical compositions over a wide range of temperatures
Example:
R-502: 8.8% R22 and 51.2% R115
R-503: 40.1% R23 and 59.9% R13
ZEOTROPIC MIXTURE:
The mixture of refrigerants having same boiling point. Here liquid phase of refrigerants
differs to that in vapour phase.
Example:
R404a: R125/143a/134a (44%, 52%, 4%)
R407c: R32/125/134a (23%, 25%,
R410a: R32/125 (50%, 50%)
Desired Properties of a Refrigerant:
1. Vapor density:
To enable use of smaller compressors and other equipment the refrigerant should have
smaller vapor density.
2. Enthalpy of vaporization:
To ensure maximum heat absorption during refrigeration, a refrigerant should have high enthalpy of
vaporization.
3. Thermal Conductivity:
Thermal conductivity of the refrigerant should be high for faster heat transfer during condensation
and evaporation.
4. Dielectric strength:
In hermetic arrangements, the motor windings are cooled by refrigerants vapor on its way to the
suction valve of the compressor. Therefore, dielectric strength of refrigerant is important property in
hermetically sealed compressor units.
5. Critical temperature:
In order to have large range of isothermal energy transfer, the refrigerant should have critical
temperature above the condensing temperature.
6. Specific heat:
To have minimum change in entropy during the throttling process, the specific heat should be
minimum. For this, liquid saturation line should be almost vertical.
7. Leak tendency:
The refrigerant may leak out of the system. The problems with leakage are wearing out of joint or
the material used for the fabrication of the system. A denser refrigerant will have fewer tendencies
to leak as compared to higher density refrigerant. The detection of leaks should be easy to loss of
refrigerant. Leakage can be identified quickly if the refrigerant has distinct color or odour.
8. Toxicity:
The refrigerant used in air conditioning, food preservation etc. should not be toxic in nature as they
will come into contact with human beings. refrigerants will affect human health if they are toxic.
9. Cost of refrigerants:
The quantity of refrigerant used in industries is very less. The cost of the refrigerants is generally
high when compared to other chemicals in the industry. Very low industry professional will not take
necessary action to control the leaks.
10. Availability:
Refrigerants should be available near the usage point. It must be sourced and procured within a
short period to enable the user in case of leaks, maintenance schedules etc.
Properties of Commonly Used Refrigerants:
1. Carbon dioxide:
Carbon dioxide is widely as refrigerant in mechanical systems refrigerant, marine services, hospitals
etc. due to its excellent safety properties. It is odourless, non-toxic, non-flammable, non-explosive
and non-corrosive.
2. Sulphur dioxide:
Sulphur dioxide was widely used as refrigerant during early 20th century. However its use has been
restricted now-a-days because of its many inherent disadvantages. It is highly toxic, non-flammable,
non-explosive, non-corrosive and works at low pressures
3. Ammonia:
Ammonia is one of the earliest type of refrigerants which is still widely used in many applications
due to its inheritance excellent thermal properties, It is toxic in nature, flammable explosive under
certain conditions, it has low specific volume high refrigerating effect, low piston displacement in
case of reciprocating compressors make it an ideal refrigerant for cold storages, ice plants, packing
plants, skating rinks breweries etc.
4. Freon-11:
Freon-11 (Trichloro fluoromethane) is used under low operating pressures; it is non-toxic, non-
corrosive and non-flammable. Due to low operating pressure and high displacement, it is used in
systems employing centrifugal compressors. It is used for air-conditioning applications.
5. Freon-12:
Freon-12 (Dichloro difluoromethane) is non-flammable, non-toxic and non-explosive. It is highly
chemically stable. If it is brought into contact with open flame or heater elements, it decomposes
into highly toxic constituents. It has not only excellent safe properties but also condenses at
moderate pressure under normal atmospheric conditions.
6. Cryogenic refrigerants:
Cryogenic refrigerants are those refrigerants which produce minus temperature in between range -
157C to -273C in the refrigerated space. The cryogenic refrigerants have exceptionally low boiling
point at atmospheric pressure. Some of the widely used cryogenic refrigerants are Helium, Nitrogen,
Oxygen, Hydrogen.
Brine:
Brine is a common fluid used as a secondary refrigerant in large refrigeration installations for
the transport of thermal energy from place to place. Being inexpensive, most common refrigerant
brines are based on calcium chloride, sodium chloride and glycols.
It is used because the addition of salt to water lowers the freezing temperature of the solution
and the heat transport efficiency can be greatly enhanced for the comparatively low cost of the
material. The lowest freezing point obtainable for NaCl brine is 21.1 C (6.0 F).

PSYCHROMETRY:
Psychrometry is the study of air and water vapour in the mixture.
SENSIBLE HEAT RATIO:

The total heat of air is the sum of SH & LH. The SHF is the ratio of sensible heat to the total
heat.

SHF = SH/TH
For example, an SHR value of 100 % would mean that an evaporator would only cool the air, i.e., a
purely sensible load. On the other hand, an SHR value of 80% would mean that 80 % of an evaporator
load is used for cooling air (sensible load), while the remaining 20 % would provide dehumidification
(latent load)
General Design Values
Auditoriums, Theaters - SHR: 0.65 - 0.75
Apartments - SHR: 0.80 - 0.95
Banks, Court Houses, Municipal Buildings - SHR: 0.75 - 0.90
Churches - SHR: 0.65 - 0.75
Dining Halls - SHR: 0.65 - 0.80
Computer Rooms - SHR: 0.80 - 0.95
Cocktail Lounges, Bars, Taverns, Clubhouses, Nightclubs - SHR: 0.65 - 0.80
Jails - SHR: 0.80 - 0.95
Hospital Patient Rooms, Nursing Home, Patient Rooms - SHR: 0.75 - 0.85
Kitchens - SHR: 0.60 - 0.70
Libraries, Museums - SHR: 0.80 - 0.90
Malls, Shopping Centers - SHR: 0.65 - 0.85
Medical/Dental Centers, Clinics and Offices - SHR: 0.75 - 0.85
Motel and Hotel Public Areas - SHR: 0.75 - 0.90
Motel and Hotel Guest Rooms - SHR: 0.80 - 0.95
Police Stations, Fire Stations, Post Offices - SHR: 0.75 - 0.90
Precision Manufacturing - SHR: 0.80 - 0.95
Restaurants - SHR: 0.65 - 0.80
Residences - SHR: 0.80 - 0.95
Retail, Department Stores - SHR: 0.65 - 0.90
Other Shops - SHR: 0.65 - 0.90
School Classrooms - SHR: 0.65 - 0.80
Supermarkets - SHR: 0.65 - 0.85
Air-Conditioning Equipment`s
Classification of AC:

Window AC:
Capacity 1-2 TR ; Sound level 50 DB

Split AC:

Single split is used for domestic consisting of one out door unit and one indoor unit.
Ex: domestic split ac
Capacity: 1 to 4 TR
 Multi split acs generally used for centralized conditioning having one outdoor unit and
multiple indoor units.
Ex: VRF or VRV System.
Capacity: 3 to 15 TR and can be increased based on requirement using combinations.

Hide away ac:

Hide away ac are fitted between ceiling and false ceiling providing a grill like space for
circulation of conditioned air.

Capacity 1-5 TR

Ductable AC:

Where air is circulated by using ducts.

Mainly classified into two types Ductable split and Ductable packaged.

Ductable split Ac:

Fan Coil Unit:

The fan coil units shall be floor/ wall/ ceiling mounted draw through type complete with finned
coil, fan with motor, insulated drain pan, cleanable air filters and fan speed regulator and other
controls as described. It is part of an HVAC system found in residential, commercial, and industrial
buildings. A fan coil unit is a diverse device sometimes using ductwork, and is used to control the
temperature in the space where it is installed, or serve multiple spaces.
` Due to their simplicity and flexibility, fan coil units can be more economical to install than
ducted 100% fresh air systems or central heating systems with air handling units or chilled beams.
Various unit configurations are available, including horizontal (ceiling mounted) or vertical (floor
mounted).
Fan type: Forward bent impeller mounted on shaft

FCU is classified into two types based on fan position

Blow through, where fan is placed before evaporator which most commonly used.
Draw through, where fan is placed after the evaporator. Though they make better use of the
heat exchanger. However, they are more expensive, as they require a chassis to hold the fans
whereas a blow-through unit typically consists of a set of fans bolted straight to a coil.

DX system or Direct Expansion system:

A direct expansion air conditioning (DX) system uses a refrigerant vapour

expansion/compression (RVEC) cycle to directly cool the supply air to an occupied space.
DX systems (both packaged and split) directly cools the air supplied to the building because the
evaporator is in direct contact with the supply air.

Packaged Systems Packaged DX units contain all 4 parts of the RVEC system, as well as fans
and internal ducting. These units are designed to be installed easily to serve local zones cooling
needs; multiple units can be installed to service multiple zones in a building.
Split Systems These systems generally have the evaporator and fans inside the building,
while the rest of the RVEC system components are a separate unit placed outside the building.
This allows system designs that are more flexible, allowing performance that can satisfy
greater variations on system demands. Split units are made to an incremental performance
scale, meaning only certain working load sizes are available.
Benefits:
DX systems are less expensive to install, and uses less space in mechanical and electrical
rooms than centralized cooling systems
DX systems can be expanded in an incremental fashion to match changing building
requirements
Packaged Systems have standardized operating performances per unit, allowing more
precise system sizing
Packaged Systems generally require less ventilation, and do not require dedicated
condensate lines
Packaged Systems occupy less space than comparable split systems
Split Systems tend to be larger allowing for fewer units, and therefore less maintenance
costs than a comparable Packaged system
Split Systems have lower noise levels because the compressor unit is located further away
from the cooling load area
Split Systems may allow vertical duct shafts to be smaller in size.
Packaged ac:

Package air conditioner is a bigger version of the window air conditioner. However,
unlike window air conditioner, it has a higher cooling or heating capacity and is usually able to cool an
entire house or a commercial building. The nominal capacities ranges from 3 ton to 15 ton. which are
used in places where centralized ac of 20 ton cannot be used.

As the name implies, in the packaged air conditioners all the important components of the air
conditioners are enclosed in a single casing like window AC. Thus, the compressor, cooling coil, air
handling unit and the air filter are all housed in a single casing and assembled at the factory location.

Floor mounted ductless:

Ductable Packaged:

Floor mounted ducted > both water cooled and air cooled
Water cooled where condenser is water cooled and Air cooled where refrigerant in condenser
coil is cooled using outside air.

Ceiling mounted ducted:

VRV or VRF SYSTEM:

Variable refrigerant flow (VRF), also known as variable refrigerant volume (VRV), is
an HVAC technology invented in Japan by Daikin company in 1982. Like ductless minisplits VRFs
use refrigerant as the cooling and heating medium. This refrigerant is conditioned by a single outdoor
condensing unit, and is circulated within the building to multiple fan-coil units (FCUs).

VRFs come in two system formats, two-pipe and three pipe systems. In a heat pump 2 pipe
system all the zones must either be all in cooling or all in heating. Heat Recovery (HR) systems have
the ability to simultaneously heat certain zones while cooling others; this is usually done through a
three-pipe design, with the exception of Mitsubishi and Carrier who are able to do this with a 2-pipe
system using a BC controller to the individual indoor evaporator zones. In this case the heat extracted
from zones requiring cooling is put to use in the zones requiring heating. This is made possible because
the heating unit is functioning as a condenser, providing sub-cooled liquid back into the line that is
being used for cooling. While the heat recovery system has a greater initial cost, it allows for better
zoned thermal control of a building and overall greater efficiencies.

Capacity: 8 TR to 16 TR and ranges up to 64 TR using combinations.

2-Pipe System with BC Controller:

BC Controller:

The BC Controller is the technological heart of the VRV System. It works in simultaneously
with the outdoor unit to provide simultaneous cooling and heating, something no other two-pipe
system can do. The BC Controller is connected to the outdoor unit by two pipes and to each indoor
unit by a series of two refrigerant pipes, depending on the indoor unit count. The BC Controller is
required for all VRV System installations. It comes in 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, and 16-branch options. The BC
Controller you select depends on how many indoor units will be operated from each outdoor unit and
your total capacity requirements.
3-Pipe System:
CENTRALIZED AIR CONDITION SYSTEM:

Centralized air conditioning is nothing but providing cooling or heating to the entire space or
building.

Centralized air condition is further categorized as

Constant Air Volume (CAV) System.

Variable Air Volume (VAV) System.
CAV and VAV system comes under All-Air System.
Centralized System with Fan Coil Units (All-Water system).

ALL-AIR SYSTEM:

All-air systems transfer cooled or heated air from a central plant via ducting, distributing air
through a series of grilles or diffusers to the room or rooms being served. It normally comprises the
cheapest equipment cost, but is not necessarily easy or cheap to install in a building due to the size of
ducting required and the cost to install. It can be a problem to control temperature properly, and the
system may be energy inefficient. All-air is generally rated in second place compared to other systems
in relation to the amount of energy used to achieve the desired result.

Constant air volume system (CAV):

Constant Air Volume (CAV) is a type of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
system. In a simple CAV system, the supply air flow rate is constant, but the supply air temperature
is varied to meet the thermal loads of a space.
Most CAV systems are small, and serve a single thermal zone. However, variations such as
CAV multizone can serve multiple zones and larger buildings.
 In mid- to large-size buildings, new central CAV systems are somewhat rare. Due to fan
energy savings potential, variable air volume (VAV) systems are more common. However, in small
buildings and residences, CAV systems are often the system of choice due to their simplicity, low
cost, and reliability. Such small CAV systems often have on/off control, rather than supply air
temperature modulation, to vary their heating or cooling capacities.

Variable air volume (VAV) system:

Variable Air Volume (VAV) is a type of heating, ventilating, and/or air-conditioning (HVAC)
system. Unlike constant air volume (CAV) systems, which supply a constant airflow at a variable
temperature, VAV systems vary the airflow at a constant temperature. The advantages of VAV systems
over constant-volume systems include more precise temperature control, reduced compressor wear,
lower energy consumption by system fans, less fan noise, and additional passive dehumidification.

In a single zone, to meet a space cooling load, a CAV unit operates the fan and compressor at
full capacity until the temperature drops to a specified limit, and then the compressor turns off. This
on/off cycling causes the temperature to fluctuate above and below the temperature setpoint. In a
single-zone VAV unit, the fan speed varies depending on the actual space temperature and the
temperature setpoint, while the compressor modulates the refrigerant flow to maintain a constant
supply air temperature. The result is more precise space temperature control.

In multi zone, the air blower's flow rate is variable. For a single VAV air handler that serves multiple
thermal zones, the flow rate to each zone must be varied as well.
A VAV terminal unit, often called a VAV box, is the zone-level flow control device. It is basically
a calibrated air damper with an automatic actuator. The VAV terminal unit is connected to either a
local or a central control system. Historically, pneumatic control was commonplace, but
electronic direct digital control systems are popular especially for mid- to large-size applications.
Hybrid control, for example having pneumatic actuators with digital data collection, is popular as well
 In the cooling mode of operation, as the temperature in the space is satisfied, a VAV box closes
to limit the flow of cool air into the space. As the temperature increases in the space, the box opens
to bring the temperature back down. The fan maintains a constant static pressure in the discharge
duct regardless of the position of the VAV box. Therefore, as the boxes closes, the fan slows down or
restricts the amount of air going into the supply duct. As the boxes open, the fan speeds up and allows
more air flow into the duct, maintaining a constant static pressure.
ALL-WATER SYSTEM:

Water based systems use a single chiller plant or chiller plus boiler to produce water which is
then pumped around a building to, most commonly, fan coil units; a fan blows air over a coil
containing the water, which then cools or heats the room air. The heat rejected from the room to
the water is then pumped back to the chiller unit where it is rejected by a condenser to external air.
The water is then chilled or heated again and pumped back to the room units.

This type of system is generally the most expensive to install and own, and is classed as the
least energy efficient in terms of transfer of energy.

Basically, fan coil units with chilled water cooling comes under all-water system.

CHILLER:

A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via a vapor-compression or absorption
refrigeration cycle. This liquid can then be circulated through a heat exchanger to cool equipment, or
another process stream (such as air or process water). As a necessary by product, refrigeration creates
waste heat that must be exhausted to ambient or, for greater efficiency, recovered for heating
purposes.

Chilled water is used to cool and dehumidify air in mid- to large-size commercial, industrial,
and institutional facilities. Water chillers can be water-cooled, air-cooled, or evaporatively cooled.
Water-cooled systems can provide efficiency and environmental impact advantages over air-cooled
systems.
 In air conditioning systems, chilled water is typically distributed to heat exchangers, or coils,
in air handling units or other types of terminal devices which cool the air in their respective space(s).
The water is then re-circulated back to the chiller to be cooled again. These cooling coils
transfer sensible heat and latent heat from the air to the chilled water, thus cooling and usually
dehumidifying the air stream. A typical chiller for air conditioning applications is rated between 15 and
2000 tons, and at least one manufacturer can produce chillers capable of up to 5,200 tons of
cooling. Chilled water temperatures can range from 35 to 45 F (2 to 7 C), depending upon application
requirements.

The refrigerants used in the chillers sold in Europe are mainly R410a (70%), R407c (20%) and R134a
(10%).Their coefficients-of-performance (COPs) are very high; typically, 4.0 or more.
COP: The coefficient of performance or COP (sometimes CP or CoP) of a heat pump, refrigerator or
air conditioning system is a ratio of useful heating or cooling provided to work required. Higher COPs
equate to lower operating costs. The COP usually exceeds 1, especially in heat pumps, because,
instead of just converting work to heat, it pumps additional heat from a heat source to where the heat
is required.

COP =

where

Q is the useful heat supplied by the considered system.

W is the work required by the considered system
Chillers are further divided as

Water cooled chillers

Air cooled chillers
Evaporative cooled chillers

Working of a chiller:

The cycle begins in the evaporator where a liquid refrigerant flows over the evaporator tube
bundle and evaporates, absorbing heat from the chilled water circulating through the bundle. The
refrigerant vapor is drawn out of the evaporator by the compressor. The compressor then pumps
the refrigerant vapor to the condenser raising its pressure and temperature. The refrigerant
condenses in the condenser tubes, giving up its heat to the cooling water or air. The high-pressure
liquid refrigerant from the condenser then passes through the expansion device that reduces the
refrigerant pressure and temperature as it enters the evaporator. The refrigerant again flows over
the chilled water coils absorbing more heat and completing the cycle.

Water cooled chillers:

In a water-cooled condenser, the chilled water used to absorb the heat from the hot
refrigerant is obtained from cooling towers at a temperature of approximately 35-40oF.
Air-cooled chiller:

In air cooled chiller, the refrigerant is cooled my means of air where condenser coil is
exposed with the fan which forces air on to coil and cools the refrigerant.

Evaporative cooled chiller:

Evaporative cooled chillers are an efficient alternative to air or water condensed
chillers. Cooling Technology offers evaporative condensed chillers from 15 to 200+ tons and can select
a system best suited for the specific application.
Evaporative cooled chiller with more Energy Efficient Ratio are mostly used where there is less
water source.
Cooling Tower:
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through
the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling tower cools the water by breaking the
water droplets and outside air carries the unwanted heat to atmosphere.
Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid structures that
can be up to 200 metres (660 ft) tall and 100 metres (330 ft) in diameter, or rectangular structures
that can be over 40 metres (130 ft) tall and 80 metres (260 ft) long. The hyperboloid cooling towers
are often associated with nuclear power plants,[1] although they are also used in some coal-fired
plants and to some extent in some large chemical and other industrial plants. Although these large
towers are very prominent, the vast majority of cooling towers are much smaller, including many units
installed on or near buildings to discharge heat from air conditioning.
Heat load calculation
Principle of Heat Transfer:
Heat energy cannot be destroyed; it can only be transferred to another substance principle
of Conservation of Energy .
Heat always flows from higher temperature substance to lower temperature substance.
Heat energy is transferred from one substance to another by one of three basic process:
Conduction, Convection and Radiation.
Sources of Heat:
Sources of heat inside a space can be sunlight, heat emitting from human body or
equipments or light etc..

Indoor Design conditions:

Human comfort zone generally lies in between 70oF-80oF(21.2oC-26.7oC) DBT and 30-60% RH.

Sensible and Latent Gain:

Sensible heat is heat energy, when added to or removed from a substance, result in a
measurable change in dry-bulb temperature.
Change in Latent heat occurs when content of a substance is associated with the addition or
removal of moisture.
 These load components contribute sensible and/or latent heat to the space. Conduction
through the roof, exterior walls, windows, skylights, ceiling, interior walls, and floor, as well as the
solar radiation through the windows and skylights, all contribute only sensible heat to the space.
The people inside the space contribute both sensible and latent heat. Lighting contributes only
sensible heat to the space, while equipment in the space may contribute only sensible heat (as is the
case for a computer) or both sensible and latent heat (as is the case for a coffee maker). Infiltration
generally contributes both sensible and latent heat to the space.
The cooling coil must handle the additional components of ventilation and system heat gains.
Ventilation contributes both sensible and latent heat to the coil load. Other heat gains that occur in
the HVAC system (from the fan, for example) generally contribute only sensible heat.

Time of Peak cooling load:

One of the more difficult aspects of estimating the maximum cooling load for a space is
determining the time at which this maximum load will occur. This is because the individual
components that make up the space cooling load often peak at different times of the day, or even
different months of the year.
For example, the heat gain through the roof will be highest in the late afternoon, when it is
warm outside and the sun has been shining on it all day. Conversely, the heat gains due to the sun
shining through an east-facing window will be highest in the early morning when the sun is rising in
the east and shining directly into the window.
Determining the time that the maximum total space cooling load occurs will be discussed later in this
clinic.
Generally, Time of peak cooling load is taken based on the survey over the location of work.,
 External Loads:
External cooling loads consist of the following:
Sensible loads through opaque envelope assemblies (roofs, walls, floors)
Sensible loads through transparent or translucent envelope assemblies (skylights, windows,
glazed openings)
Sensible loads through ventilation and infiltration (air leakage)
Latent loads through ventilation and infiltration.
Because of the inherent differences in these types of heat flows, they are calculated (estimated)
using four different equations.
1. Roofs, External Walls & Conduction through Glass
The equation used for sensible loads from the opaque elements such as walls, roof, partitions and
the conduction through glass is:
Conduction- shaded:
Q = U * A * T
Q = heat gain by conduction, Btu/hr
U = overall heat-transfer coefficient of the surface, Btu/hr.ft2.oF. See 1997 ASHRAE
Fundamentals, Chapter 24 or 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals, chapter 25.
A = area of roof, wall or glass calculated from building plans, ft2.
T= dry-bulb temperature difference across the surface, oF.

Time Lag:
The walls and roof that make up a buildings envelope have the capacity to store heat
energy. This property delays the heat transfer from outdoors to the space. The time required for
heat to be transferred through a structure into the space is called the time lag.
For example, the heat that is transferred through a sunlit wall into a space is the result of
sunlight that fell on the outer surface of the wall earlier in the day. Curve A shows the magnitude of
the solar effect on the exterior wall. Curve B shows the resulting heat that is transferred through the
wall into the space. This delay in the heat gain to the space is the time lag. The magnitude of this
time lag depends on the materials used to construct the particular wall or roof, and on their capacity
to store heat.
 Thermal Lag:
Thermal lag describes a body's thermal mass with respect to time. A body with high thermal
mass (high heat capacity and low conductivity) will have a large thermal lag. Thermal lag is the delay
of heat transmitted through a wall. It's a measurement of the ability of walling material to slowly
absorb and release heat energy.

1
Thermal lag:
2
Where = Thermal diffusivity (m2/s)
= External angular frequency (s1)
L = thickness (m)

Conduction- sunlight surfaces Exposed:

Q = U * A * (CLTD)
Q = heat gain by conduction, Btu/hr
U = Thermal Transmittance for roof or wall or glass, Btu/hr.ft2.oF. See 1997 ASHRAE
Fundamentals, Chapter 24 or 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals, chapter 25.
A = area of roof, wall or glass calculated from building plans
CLTD = Cooling Load Temperature Difference for roof, wall or glass. Refer 1997 ASHRAE
Fundamentals, Chapter 28, tables 30, 31, 32, 33 and 34.
2. Solar Load through Glass
The equation used for radiant sensible loads from the transparent/translucent elements such as
window glass, skylights and plastic sheets is:
Q = A * (SHGC) * (CLF)
A = area of roof, wall or glass calculated from building plans
SHGC = Solar Heat Gain Coefficient. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, table 35
CLF = Solar Cooling Load Factor. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, and Table 36.

3. Partitions, Ceilings & Floors

The equation used for sensible loads from the partitions, ceilings and floors:
Q = U * A * (Ta - Trc)
U = Thermal Transmittance for roof or wall or glass. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals,
Chapter 24 or 2001
ASHRAE Fundamentals, and Chapter 25.
A = area of partition, ceiling or floor calculated from building plans
Ta = Temperature of adjacent space (Note: If adjacent space is not conditioned and
temperature is not available,
use outdoor air temperature less 5F)
Trc = Inside design temperature of conditioned space (assumed constant)
4. Ventilation & Infiltration Air
Ventilation air is the amount of outdoor air required to maintain Indoor Air Quality for the occupants
(sees ASHRAE Standard 62 for minimum ventilation requirements) and makeup for air leaving the
space due to equipment exhaust, exfiltration and pressurization.
Q sensible = 1.08 * CFM * (To Tc)
Q latent = 4840 * CFM * (Wo Wc)
Q total = 4.5 * CFM * (ho hc)
CFM = Ventilation airflow rate.
To = Outside dry bulb temperature, F
Tc = Dry bulb temperature of air leaving the cooling coil, F
Wo = Outside humidity ratio, lb (water) per lb (dry air)
Wc = Humidity ratio of air leaving the cooling coil, lb (water) per lb (dry air)
ho = Outside/Inside air enthalpy, Btu per lb (dry air)
hc = Enthalpy of air leaving the cooling coil Btu per lb (dry air)
Refer to 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 25, for determining infiltration

Internal Loads:
Internal cooling loads consist of the following:
1) Sensible & latent loads due to people
2) Sensible loads due to lighting
3) Sensible loads due to power loads and motors (elevators, pumps, fans & other machinery)
4) Sensible & latent loads due to appliances
An internal load calculation is the area of engineering judgment. The internal loads are sometimes
about 60% of the load; however, these data are generally the least amount of information available
to you at the design stage and therefore the generic rules are most often employed to fix the
variables. The equations used in estimating internal loads are:

People
Q sensible = N * (QS) * (CLF)
Q latent = N * (QL)
N = number of people in space.
QS, QL = Sensible and Latent heat gain from occupancy is given in 1997 ASHRAE
Fundamentals Chapter 28, Table 3
CLF = Cooling Load Factor, by hour of occupancy. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter
28, table 37.
Note: CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or of cooling is off at night or during weekends.
Lights
The lights result in sensible heat gain.
Q = 3.41 * W * FUT * FBF * (CLF)
W = Installed lamp watts input from electrical lighting plan or lighting load data
FUT = Lighting use factor, as appropriate
FBF = Blast factor allowance, as appropriate
CLF = Cooling Load Factor, by hour of occupancy. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter
28, Table 38.
Note: CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or if cooling is off at night or during weekends.

Power Loads & Motors

Three different equations are used under different scenarios:
Heat gain of power driven equipment and motor when both are located inside the space to be
conditioned
Q = 2545 * (P / Eff) * FUM * FLM
P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturers data
Eff = Equipment motor efficiency, as decimal fraction
FUM = Motor use factor (normally = 1.0)
FLM = Motor load factor (normally = 1.0)
Note: FUM = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours

Heat gain of when driven equipment is located inside the space to be conditioned space and the
motor is outside the space or air stream
Q = 2545 * P * FUM * FLM
P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturers data
Eff = Equipment motor efficiency, as decimal fraction
FUM = Motor use factor
FLM = Motor load factor
Note: FUM = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours

Heat gain of when driven equipment is located outside the space to be conditioned space and the
motor is inside the space or air stream
Q = 2545 * P * [(1.0-Eff)/Eff] * FUM * FLM
P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturers data
Eff = Equipment motor efficiency, as decimal fraction
FUM = Motor use factor
FLM = Motor load factor
Note: FUM = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours
Appliances
Q = 3.41 * W * Fu * Fr * (CLF)
W = Installed rating of appliances in watts. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28;
Table 5 thru 9 or use manufacturers data. For computers, monitors, printers and
miscellaneous office equipment, see 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 29, Tables 8, 9, &
10.
Fu = Usage factor. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, Table 6 and 7
Fr = Radiation factor. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, Table 6 and 7
CLF = Cooling Load Factor, by hour of occupancy. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter
28, Table 37 and 39.
Note: CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or of cooling is off at night or during weekends.

Heat Gain from HVAC System

Supply Fan Heat Load
The heat energy is calculated as follows:
Q = 2545 * [P / (Eff1 * Eff2)]
P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturers data
2545 = conversion factor for converting horsepower to Btu per hour
Eff1 = Full load motor and drive efficiency
Eff2 = Fan static efficiency
By adding all individual heat gains we will give us the total heat load of the system (Btu/hr).
1 TR = 12000 Btu/hr
1TR = 400 cfm