EXAM PREPARATION OCTOBER/NOVEMBER 2017

EXAM DATE: 18/10/2017 TIME: 14:30-16:30

1. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

STEPS/PROCESSES
Quantitative research
emphasise quantification in the collection and analysis of data
Adopt a deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, in
which the emphasis is placed on the testing of theories.
Incorporate the practices and norms of the model of the natural sciences and of
positivism in particular.
Embody a view of social reality as an external, objective reality.
Qualitative research
Usually emphasise words rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of
data.
Predominantly emphasise an inductive approach to the relationship between theory
and research, in which the emphasis is placed on generating rather than proving
theories.
Reject the practices and norms of the natural scientific model and of positivism in
particular, in preference for an emphasis on the ways in which individuals interpret
their social world.
View social reality as both constantly shifting and emergent as interpreted by
individuals.
Areas Quantitative Qualitative
Principal orientation Deductive, empirical Inductive,
to the role of theory testing of theory generation of theory
in relation to from data
research
Epistemological Natural science Interpretivist
orientation model, in particular
positivism
Ontological Objectivism Constructionist
orientation

Quantitative research is based on a positivist approach. In other words, it is an approach

where research must be limited to what can be observed and measured objectively.
Quantitative research further considers causality, generalisation and replication.
Qualitative research (the anti-positivist approach) is characterised by a resistance to the
view that the natural-scientific method is the only norm in human behavioural research.
Qualitative researchers base their approach on phenomenology, which means that
researchers cannot detach themselves from research objects because the scientists are
actually members of the group being studied.

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Discuss the main steps to be used in qualitative research? Pg. 41.
1. Decide on topic and general research questions
2. Conduct a background literature review
3. Choose a qualitative research design
4. Select relevant step (s) and subjects
5. Initial data collection
6. Analyse and interpret data
7. Conceptual and theoretical work
7.1 Refine research question (s)
7.1 Further data collection
8. Prepare and write your report

Discuss the main steps to be used in a quantitative research approach. pg. 32-33
1. Develop a theoretical/conceptual framework- indicates that quantitative research takes
a broadly deductive approach. Theory forms the basis for the definition of research
questions and hypothesis.
2. Define specific research questions (s) and hypothesis- the specification of hypothesis
is most likely to be found in experimental and survey research. In practice, however, much
quantitative research does not involve the specification of a hypothesis.
3. Select research design- entails selection of a research design, which has implications for
a variety of issues, such as the external validity of findings and researchers ability to
attribute causality to their findings.
4. Devise measures of concepts- involves arriving at measures of the concepts in which
the researcher is interested. This process is often referred to as operationalization.
5. Select research site (s) - entails the selection of a research site or sites as well as the
selection of subjects or respondents.
6. Select research subjects/respondents- entails the selection of a research site or sites
as well as the selection of subjects or respondents.
7. Administer research instruments/collect data- involves the administration of the
research instruments. In experimental research, this involves pre-testing, manipulating the
independent variable for the experimental group and post-testing respondents.
8. Process data- the information that has been collected must be prepared so that it can be
quantified and transformed into data. Some information-such things as peoples ages,
incomes can be captured directly from the questionnaires.

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9. Analyse data- the researcher uses quantitative data analysis techniques to summarise
the data collected, to test for relationships between variables and to develop ways of
presenting the results.
10. Develop findings/conclusions- the researcher will consider the relationship between
his or her findings and the various questions raised at the beginning of the research.
11. Write up finding/conclusions- then the research must be written up to enter the public
domain as a conference paper, research report, or as a book or journal article for academic
business researchers.

Steps in research processes

1. Identify research topic
2. background/introduction to the study
3. Identify research problems or hypothesis
4. Compile a literature study
5. Decide on a research design
6. Gather and select information regarding the goal
7. Analyse data and interpret the information
8. Write a report with conclusion and recommendations.

2. UNDERSTAND DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN:

A research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data. Research
design is a detailed plan to be followed to get respondents or objects from where we will get
the required data or information. The framework includes experimental design, cross-
sectional design, longitudinal design and case studies, comparative.
Experimental design- We distinguish between two types of experiment: a laboratory
experiment and field experiment: a laboratory experiment takes place in a laboratory or in
contrived setting, whereas a field experiment occurs in a real-life setting, such as in a
workplace or retail space. In order to conduct an experiment, the researcher must be able to
manipulate the independent variable. However, most independent variables with which
business researchers are concerned, cannot be manipulated. For instance, if we wish to
study how gender affects experiences at work, we cannot assign a gender to people at
random.
Cross-sectional design- Involves the collection of data on more than one case and at a
single point in time. This is usually done in order to collect a body of quantitative or
quantifiable data in connection with two or more variables. Cross-sectional designs may also
involve the collection of qualitative data. These variables are then examined to detect
patterns of association. The cross- sectional design is associated primarily with social
surveys but includes many other research methods, such as structured observation, content
analysis, official statistics and diaries.
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Longitudinal design- Is used to map change and contextualise the mechanisms and
processes through which changes in organisations are created. This contextualist research
design analyses phenomena vertically and horizontally to establish interconnections
between those levels through time. Partly because of the time and cost involved, longitudinal
design is used rarely in business and management research. Longitudinal design is found as
an extension of social survey research based on self-completion questionnaires or
structured interview research within a cross-sectional design. With longitudinal design, a
sample is surveyed and is then surveyed again on at least one further occasion.
Two types of longitudinal design: panel study- data is collected on atleast two occasions.
Data may be collected from different types of respondentfor example, individuals and
organisations-within a panel study framework. And cohort study- select either an entire
cohort of people or randomly selected sample of them as the focus of data collection.
Case study design- Involves the detailed and intensive analysis of one or more cases
which the researcher aims to study in-depth. Case research is concerned with the
complexity nature of the case. The design is popular and widely used in business research.
A case can be: a single organisation, a single location and a single event. The most
common use of term case associates the case study with a geographical location, such as a
workplace or organisation.
Comparative design- Involves using more or less identical methods or two or more
contrasting cases. It embodies the logic of comparison, in that it implies that we can
understand social phenomena better when comparisons are made between two or more
meaningfully contrasting cases or situations. A common form of comparative research is
cross-cultural or cross-national research. Such research occurs when researchers examine
the intention of comparing their manifestations in different sociocultural settings.

3. UNDERSTAND THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

(PROBABILITY AND NON-PROBABILITY) YOU NEED TO KNOW THE TYPES UNDER
EACH TECHNIQUE I.E. UNDER PROBABILITY STRATIFIED SAMPLING.
Probability sampling- A sample that has been selected using random sampling and in
which each unit in the population has a known probability of being selected.
Non-probability sampling- A sample that has not been selected using a random sampling
method. Essentially, this implies that some units in the population are more likely to be
selected than others.

Four types of probability sampling pg.172-174.

Simple random sample- is the most basic form of probability sample. Each unit of the
population has an equal probability of inclusion. Two points about this process: firstly it is
mechanical and there is almost no space for human bias as a result of subjective criteria.
Secondly, the process is not independent on the employees availability. The selection
process is done without their knowledge.
Systematic sampling- is a variation on simple random sampling where you start with a
random number and then select every nth record thereafter directly from the sampling fame.

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It is important to ensure there is no inherent ordering of the sampling frame, since this may
bias the resulting sampling.
Stratified random sampling- in our study of employees, we may want our sample to
contain a proportional representation of the different departments of the company. It might
be that the department an employee works in is relevant to a wide range of attitudinal
features that are relevant to our study of skills development and training. Generating a
simple random sample or a systematic sample might yield such a representative but some
departments may be under or-over represented.
Multi-stage cluster sampling- if we wanted to create a national sample of employees who
are dispersed throughout the country, interviewers would then have to travel the length and
breadth of the country. This would be extremely costly and time consuming. Cluster
sampling is one way of dealing with this potential problem. The primary sampling unit is not
the units of the population to be sampled but groups or cluster of those units.

Types of non-probability sampling? 178-186

Convenience sampling- involves a lot of preparation, so it is frequently because of the
difficulty and costs involved. Is available to the researcher by virtue of its accessibility. A kind
of context in which it may be at least fairly acceptable to use a convenience sample is when
an opportunity too good to miss presents itself to gather data from a convenience sample. It
is relatively common for business researchers to make use of the opportunities they have to
draw a sample from their own organisation, usually a university when carrying out research.
Snowball sampling- the researcher makes initial contact with a small group of people who
are relevant to the research topic and then uses these people to establish contacts with
others. In certain respects, snowball sampling is a form of convenience sampling. A
snowball sample is not random, because there is no way of knowing the precise extent of
the population from which it would have been drawn. In other words, there is no accessible
sampling frame for the population from which the sample is to be taken.
Quota sampling- is used intensively commercial research, such as market research and
political opinion polling. The aim is to produce a sample that reflects a population in terms of
the relative proportions of people in different categories, such as gender and region of
residence. However, unlike a stratified sample, the sampling of individuals is not carried out
randomly, since the final selection of people is left up to the interviewer. In a manner similar
to stratified sampling, the population may be divided into strata, in terms of, for example,
gender, social glass, age and ethnicity, age groups and etc.
Purposive sampling- Is a non-probability form of sampling so the researcher cannot
generalise to population. The researcher does not seek to sample research participants on a
random basis. The goal is to sample cases/participants in a strategic way, so that those
sampled are relevant to the research questions. The researcher wants to ensure that there is
a good deal of variety so that members differ from each other in terms of key characteristics.
Self-selection sampling- occurs when we allow a case, usually an individual, to identify
their desire to take part in the research. We therefore do the following:
- publicise our need for cases, either by advertising through appropriate media or by asking
them to take part.
-collect data from those who respond.
Accidental sampling-pg.68 (Welman). Is the most convenient collection of members of the
population (units of analysis) that are near and readily available for research purpose.
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Researchers should consider accidental samples only if they have no other option. Insofar
as the conclusions obtained inductively are based on accidental samples, they need not
necessarily be typical of the relevant population of individuals and universe of
circumstances.

4. UNDERSTAND THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POPULATION AND SAMPLE

Population
When conducting research, the researcher needs to identify whom she/he wants
to investigate. This is the population (also called universe). Population refers to
the totality of people, organisations, cities or units. Instead of involving an entire
population (e.g. all the employees of a large enterprise), the research could rather
be carried out on a relatively small sample (e.g. 60 employees) of the total
population

Sample
A sample is the segment or subject of the population that is selected for
investigation. A sample requires less time and financial expenditure. However, if
the number of participants (units of analysis) in a research project is too small, it
will influence the significance of the results and may not be representative of the
population. In other cases it does not make scientific sense to collect data from
few people and suggest that it is the view of the entire organisation they are
employed at.

5. UNDERSTAND THE DATA COLLECTION METHODS IN RESEARCH, AS WELL AS

THEIR ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Qualitative data collection methods:
1. Unstructured interview
The researcher uses a brief set of prompts to deal with a range of topics. There may be just
a single question, and the interviewee is then allowed to respond freely, with the interviewer
simply responding to points that seem worthy of being followed up.
Advantages: are very useful in cases where the researcher wants to launch an explorative
investigation as well as pre-testing a questionnaire. They help to clarify concepts and
problems and allow the establishment of a list of possible answers and solutions.
Disadvantages: the researchers are directly involved and in control of the respondents. The
researcher may therefore display bias in the interview situation. Can be time consuming as
some interview sessions can last for up to three or four days.
2. Semi-structured interview
The researcher has a list of questions on fairly specific topics to be covered, often referred to
as an interview guide, but the interviewee has leeway in how to reply. Questions may not
follow the exact order outlined on the schedule by the interviewer. Questions that are not
included in the guide may be asked as the interviewer picks up on responses by
interviewees.

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3. Focus groups: is a qualitative method that is concerned with studying how participants
express their view and perspectives on an issue as members of a groups. The moderator is
expected to guide a fairly unstructured discussion without being too intrusive.
Advantages: focus groups provide sources of information that can be obtained rapidly and
at a low cost. Enable participants in the group to discuss their opinions and experiences in
such a way that a consensus of opinion regarding research problems can be reached.
Disadvantages: focus groups often inhibits the response of participants. Some respondents
are not able to express their feelings freely because they are intimidated by the presence of
other respondents in the group.
Quantitative data collection methods:
1. Questionnaires- are the most popular instrument used to gather data in a survey study. It
can be mailed or posted to participants. This method is relatively cheap and simple to
administer as compared to other methods. This method is mostly used in a quantitative
research approach where the sample is big. A questionnaire method has its own advantages
and disadvantages that should always be observed. Research must always have a plan on
how to deal with the disadvantages of the questionnaire method. Thus, research must
always have a plan on how to deal with the disadvantages of the questionnaire method. In
using questionnaires, the researcher can adopt previously used questionnaires or design his
or her own instrument. pg. 21 (SG) pg.192-193 (PS)
Advantages
Cheaper to administer- the cheapness of the self-completion questionnaire is especially
advantageous if you have sample that is geographically dispersed.
Quicker to administer-self completion questionnaires can be sent by post or otherwise in
very large quantities at the same time.
Absence of interviewer effects- since there is no interviewer present when a self-
completion questionnaire is being completed, possible interviewer effects such as age,
ethnicity are eliminated.
No interview variability- self-completion questionnaires do not suffer from the problem of
interviews asking questions in a different order or in different ways.
Convenience for respondents- self-completion questionnaires are more convenient for
respondents, because they can complete a questionnaire when they want to and at the
speed that they want to go.

Disadvantages
Cannot prompt- there is no-one present to help respondents if they are having difficulty
answering a question.
Cannot probe- there is no opportunity to probe respondents to elaborate on an answer.
Difficulty of asking other kinds of questions- it is also important to avoid asking many
open questions because respondents dislike having to write a lot.

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Do-not-know who answers- with postal questionnaires, you can never be sure that the
right person has answered the questionnaire.
Difficult to ask a lot of questions- long questionnaires are rarely feasible and often results
in a greater tendency for questionnaires not to be answered in the first place.
2. Structured interviews
Involves the use of standardised interview scheduled by an interviewer so that all
interviewers are given exactly the same questions. Interviewers are supposed to read out
questions exactly and in the same order as they are printed on the schedule. The goal is to
ensure that interviewees replies can be aggregated.
Advantage: standardised questions make the process more efficient.
Disadvantage: the interviewer is restricted to the questions, their wording and their order as
they appear on the schedule with relatively little freedom to deviate from it.
3. Structured Observation- is a method for systematically observing the behaviour of
individuals according to a schedule of categories. The researcher uses explicit rules to
directly observe and record behaviour. Structured observation therefore also finds the
researcher in the presence of the person or persons being studied. Is generally understood
as a quantitative method because of the positivistic prescribed observation schedule. Pg.258
(PS)

Advantages
Allows the researcher to observe the behaviour of managers and other employees
directly.
Researchers do not have to depend on participants possibly misleading reports
about the relevant behaviour, but instead observe it directly. pg.172 (Welman)

Disadvantages
The presence of the observer, usually a stranger to the respondent, may influence
the behaviour to be observed, resulting in reactive measurement.
The observers prejudices may affect their observation and consequently the validity
of their ratings. pg.172 (Welman)

6. UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPTS; VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY INCLUDING THEIR

TYPES.
Measurement validity has to do with whether or not a measure of a concept really
measures the concept it is intended to measure.
Types of validity reflect different ways of gauging the validity of a measure of a
concept:
Face validity
A measurement should appear to reflect the content of the concept in question. Face validity
might be established by asking other people, possibly those with experience in the field,

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whether or not the measure seems to capture the concept that is the focus of attention.
Establishing validity is an essentially intuitive process.
Concurrent validity
The researcher employs a criterion on which cases (for example, people) are known to differ
and that is relevant to the concept in question. A new measure of job satisfaction can serve
as an example. A criterion might be absenteeism because some people are more often
absent from work than others. In order to establish the concurrent validity of a measure of
job satisfaction, we might see if people who are satisfied with their jobs are less likely than
those who are not satisfied to be absent from work.

Predictive validity
The researcher uses a future criterion measure rather than a contemporary one. The
researchers takes future levels of absenteeism as the criterion against which the validity of a
measure of job satisfaction would be examined. The difference from concurrent validity is
that a future rather than simultaneous criterion measure is employed.

Construct validity
The degree to which a test or other measure assesses the underlying theoretical construct it
is supposed to measure. If a test is designed to assess knowledge of facts concerning rate,
time and distance and their interrelationship with one another, then perhaps reading skills
are inadvertently being measured instead of factual knowledge of basic algebra. Requires
the compilation of multiple sources of evidence. In order to demonstrate construct validity,
evidence that the test measures what it purports to measure as well as evidence that test
does not measure irrelevant attributes are both required.

Convergent validity
Some methodologists argue that validity of a measure ought to be gauged by comparing it to
other measures of the same concept. For example, if we develop a questionnaire to
measure how much time managers spend on various activities, we might examine its validity
by tracking a number of managers and using a structured observation schedule to record
how much time is spent in various activities and their frequency.

Discriminant validity
Consists of testing whether concepts or measurements that are supposed to be unrelated
are, in fact, unrelated and do not correlate strongly.

Explain the importance of reliability in research. PG.36 (PS)

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure of a concept. Reliability is concerned with
the question whether the results of a study are repeatable. Is the criterion for evaluating
quantitative research. The following are three prominent factors involved when considering
whether a measure is reliable.

Stability are we confident that a measure is stable over time and that it does not
vary or fluctuate if we administer a measure and re-administer it?

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 Internal reliability are the indicators that make up the scale or index consistent? In
other words do respondents scores on any one of the indicator relate to the scores
on the other indicator?
Inter-observer consistency when more than one is involved are the different
observers involved in recording observations consistent in what they record?

Briefly distinguish between internal and external validity/reliability

Internal validity- a concern with the question of whether or not a finding that
incorporates a causal relationship between two or more variables is sound.
External validity- a concern with the question of whether or not the results of a study
can be generalised beyond the specific research context in which it was conducted.

Internal reliability- means whether or not, when there is more than one observer,
members of the research team agree about what they see and hear.
External reliability- the degree to which a study can be replicated. It is a difficult
criterion to meet in qualitative research.
In many ways, the most important criterion of research is validity. Validity is
concerned with the integrity of the conclusions that are generated from a piece of
research. It is important to be aware of the main types of validity: pg. 25-26 (PS).
Measurement validity- this criterion applies primarily to quantitative research and to the
search for measures of social scientific concepts. Measurement validity, which is often called
construct validity, addresses the question of whether or not a measure really reflects the
concept that it is supposed to capture.
Internal validity- a concern with the question of whether or not a finding that incorporates a
causal relationship between two or more variables is sound.
External validity- A concern with the question of whether or not the results of a study can
be generalised beyond the specific research context in which it was conducted.
Ecological validity- this criterion is concerned with the question of whether or not the
findings of social research are applicable to peoples every day, natural social setting. This
criterion is concerned with the question of whether business research sometimes produces
findings that may be technically valid but have little to do with what happens in peoples
everyday lives.

Describe five threats to internal validity. Jan/Feb 2017 (10) pg.102-103 (PS)
Testing- The threat arises if subjects become sensitised to the aims of the experiment.
History- this threat arises if events in the experimental environment, unrelated to the
manipulation of the independent variable, have caused the observed changes.
Maturation- the ways in which people change naturally over time, may have implications for
the independent variable.
Selection- if the experimental and control groups are selected at random, variations
between the groups could be attributed to pre-existing differences in their membership.

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Ambiguity about the direction of causal influence- the concept of an independent
variable and dependent variable presupposes a direction of causality

Identify and discuss threats to the external validity? Pg.102-103(PS)

Interaction of selection and treatment- can a finding be generalised to other social and
psychological group who might be differentiated by gender, ethnicity, social class and
personality?
Interaction of setting and treatment- how confident can we be that the results of a study
can be applied to other settings?
Interaction of history and treatment- can the findings be generalised to the past and to the
future?
Interaction effects of pre-testing- as a result of being pre-tested, subjects in an
experiment may become sensitised to the experimental treatment.
Hawthorne effect- participants may react differently than they would in real life simply
because they know they are participating in a research study, an effect known as reactivity.

7. UNDERSTAND ETHICAL PRINCIPLES INCLUDED IN CHAPTER 7 OF YOUR

PRESCRIBED BOOK
There are four ethical considerations to which the researcher should pay attention:
Informed consent- the researcher should obtain the necessary permission from the
respondents after they were thoroughly informed about the purpose of the interview and the
investigation.
The respondents should be assured of their right of their privacy. For instance, they should
be informed that the identity of the respondent will remain anonymous.
Protection from harm- the respondents should be given the assurance that they will be
indemnified against any physical and emotional plan
Involvement of the researcher- researchers should guard against manipulating
respondents or treating them as objects or numbers rather than individual beings.

8. UNDERSTAND THE IMPORTANCE OF CONDUCTING LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature review-pg.379- A scholarly review in a focused and goal-orientated way of prior
work in an area of interest. A literature review is a search and evaluation of the available
literature in your given subject or chosen topic area. It documents the state of the art with
respect to the subject or topic you are writing about. A literature review surveys books,
scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or
theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these
works in relation to the research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed
to provide an overview of sources you have explored while researching a particular topic and
to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within a larger field of study.
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Why review literature? - To know what is already known about your area of interest so that
you do not simply reinvent the wheel. With your literature review, you can demonstrate that
you are able to engage in scholarly review of prior work in a focused and goal orientated
way. A competent review affirms that you are knowledgeable in interpreting what others
have written. Using existing literature on a topic is a means of developing an argument about
the significance of your research and where it is.

More specifically, in terms of planning your research, a literature review should

identify the following issues:
What is already known about this area?
What concepts and theories are relevant to this area?
What research methods and strategies have been employed in studying this area?
Are there any inconsistencies in findings that you could investigate?
How can you revise and refine your research questions?

Significance of literature review, pg.39 (Welman)

A review of related literature can provide the researcher with important facts and
background information about the subject under study.
Such review also enables the researcher to avoid duplicating previous research.
If a study on the same topic has been conducted before, a review provides the
researcher with information about aspects of the problem which have not been
investigated.
A review can also help a researcher develop various parts of the study.
Insights regarding the weaknesses and problems of previous studies can be gained.
The researcher can get ideas on how to proceed with the investigation.
A review often provides motivation.

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