operant conditioning Phrase applied by Burrhus Skinner to a process in which behavioral change (and presumably learning) occurs due to reinforcing (reward- ing) certain desired behavior and withholding rewards or punishing undesired behavior. Examples are teaching a dog to do tricks by giving it a treat when it does what is wanted; behavioral change in psychiatric pa- tients by giving them candy or cigarettes when they act as the therapist wants. Also known as instrumental condi- tioning. See BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION, LOGICAL CON- SEQUENCES, NATURAL CONSEQUENCES, SHAPING. operant conditioning chamber See SKINNER BOX. operant learning —_A form of learning that takes place as a result of presentation of a reward following the re- sponse to be strengthened. See OPERANT CONDITION- ING. operant level Baseline of behavior as it occurs naturally prior to reinforcement, such as the amount of lever-pressing (if any) that occurs before a study begins. operant paradigm A learning model that assumes most relevant human behavior is controlled by the consequences. operant reserve The number of responses made in an Operant-conditioning program after the reinforcement has been withdrawn. It is a measure of the strength of conditioning. operant response Any action by an organism that has an effect upon the environment, for example, a pigeon in a training box pecks a button which in turn provides food for the bird. operant score (H. B. English) A measurement ofthe alteration in the physical and social environment caused by a participant or animal subject's behavior. See INTERACTIVE SCORE. operant therapy —_A form of psychotherapy based on rewards given by the therapist to the client when the client shows improvement of thinking or behaving. operating characteristic A curve showing the prob- ability of accepting the null hypothesis at different levels of a parameter. operation —_1. Any surgical procedure. See SHAM OP- ERATION. 2. The act, or process of functioning. 3. As used by Jean Piaget, a mental act; the derivation of log- ical relationships in the process of manipulating either physical objects or symbols, as in the manipulation of symbols to solve an equation. The process of performing operations, according to Piaget, is entra in the building orrimellect. intellect. See CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE, FOR- MAL OPERATIONAL STAGE. Other kinds of operation include: COMBINATORIAL, CONVERGENT, CONVERG- ING, DIALECTICAL, SECURITY. operational analysis The process of evaluating the relationship between input and output in a system. operational definition 1. A concept introduced by Percy Bridgman of a definition that specifies the precise operations (methods) by which any phenomenon or construct is created, determined, or measured, as in stating the operational definition of “intelligence” is “the score on the intelligence test.” 2. A definition that depends on exact facts and directs exact conditions to attain a desired result. operational evaluation _ process evaluationoperationalism A doctrine positing that a concept’s meaning and validity depend upon the procedures used to define or establish it, that each concept must take as its meaning a single observable and measurable operation. Operationalism might define an emotional disorder as @ score on a diagnostic test. Sometimes known as operationism. See OPERATIONAL DEFINITION. operational research — Application of scientific meth- ods to the study of complex organizations and to the so- lution of complex problems involving conflicting goals, and decisions. Also known as operations re- search (OR). operationism —_|. (P. Bridgman) A system or doctrine of developing definitions from the way things work (op- eration). 2. Scientific movement, the major assumption of which is that the adequate (operational) definition of variables is critical for progress. Sometimes known as operationalism. See OPERATIONAL DEFINITION. operations research (OR) 1. Generally. an approach to analyzing a complex system (an individual, group, or- ganization, or machine) to determine its overall function- ing and to maximize its effectiveness, 2. (R. L. Ackoff) An approach to problem solving that includes: (a) The formulation of a problem; (b) Developing a mathemati- cal model to represent the system; (c) Deriving a solution from the model; (d) Testing the model and the solution from the model; (e) Establishing controls over the solu- tion; and (f) Implementation of the solution. operative knowledge —_(J. Piaget) Knowledge acquired in the process of cognitive-based behavior. According to Piagetians, operative knowledge should be more strongly emphasized in intelligence tests and schools as it iscentral to the development of intellect. See FIGURATIVE KNOWLEDGE, OPERATION, operators = (R. Gelman) Mental processes involved in comprehending the effect of different numerical manipulations, for example, knowing that adding an orange to a bow! of oranges changes the number, but rearranging the oranges does not. See ESTIMATORS. Abnormal fascination with snakes. See SNAKE SYMBOL. Morbid fear of snakes. Also known as ophiciophobia, ophiophobia. See HERPETOPHOBIA, SNAKE SYMBOL. ophthalmic artery A branch of the internal carotid artery that arises near the point where it enters the skull. The numerous small branches of the ophthalmic artery supply blood to the various tissues of the ocular orbit, the eyeball, and the muscles of the eye, internal and external. It also supplies the eyelids and lacrimal glands. ophthalmic nerve = (T. Willis) A division of the trigeminal nerve that passes forward from the trigeminal ganglion of the cavernous sinus through the superior orbital fissure. Supplies sensation to the orbit, the anterior part of the nasal cavity, and skin of the nose and forehead. Also known as nervus ophthalmicus. ophthalmometer = An instrument for detecting and measuring the amount of astigmatism in the eye. ophthalmoscope An optical instrument for the exam- ination of the eye’s fundus and refractive errors. May be direct permitting examination of the eye at close range ‘SO as to observe an erect image, or indirect by use of a Jens that produces an inverted image of the fundus. Also known as funduscope.