Tourism Recreation Research

ISSN: 0250-8281 (Print) 2320-0308 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rtrr20

The new dynamics of tourism in South East Asia:

Economic development, political change and
destination competitiveness

Joan C. Henderson

To cite this article: Joan C. Henderson (2015) The new dynamics of tourism in South East Asia:
Economic development, political change and destination competitiveness, Tourism Recreation
Research, 40:3, 379-390, DOI: 10.1080/02508281.2015.1075725

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2015.1075725

Published online: 17 Aug 2015.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 437

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Citing articles: 3 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rtrr20

Download by: [University of Wyoming Libraries] Date: 06 December 2017, At: 13:44
 Tourism Recreation Research, 2015
Vol. 40, No. 3, 379390, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2015.1075725

The new dynamics of tourism in South East Asia: Economic development, political change
and destination competitiveness
Joan C. Henderson*

Nanyang Business School, Nanyang Technological University, Room S3-B1C-112, Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, Singapore
(Received 26 April 2013; accepted 16 February 2015)

The paper is concerned with tourism in South East Asia and the forces which are shaping its evolution by
Downloaded by [University of Wyoming Libraries] at 13:44 06 December 2017

consolidating established trends and introducing new directions. The important role of Asias rising middle
class in driving demand is acknowledged, alongside general economic growth and political developments
which are creating a more favourable business climate. Diversity and difference are also noted in terms of the
competitiveness of the member countries of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) as
destinations. Myanmar serves as an illustration of the key inuences on the ability to compete and how these
are affected by politics and economics. It was chosen as a case study because it is one of the later ASEAN
members in which there is growing interest from an industry and tourist perspective, spurred on by wider
changes, and its emergence is an expression of and contributor to the reshaping of the regions tourism dynamics.
Keywords: Asias middle classes; ASEAN; Myanmar; tourism competitiveness

Introduction ASEAN and the subject of increasing interest to the

Asia has risen to prominence in recent years as a gen-
erator of and destination for tourists, challenging the
traditional dominance of Europe and North
America. While the focus is frequently on China
and India, South East Asia is also seeing substantial
growth and a reshaping of demand and supply. Cir-
cumstances there illuminate tourism development
processes and underlying dynamics, affording
insights into key aspects of competitiveness and
how this is affected by economic advances and politi-
cal changes. These represent the themes of this paper
which discusses the consequences of a burgeoning
middle class and the performance and prospects of
states belonging to ASEAN. Particular reference is
made to Myanmar which appears to be undergoing
something of an economic and political transform-
ation. It is being re-admitted into the international
community after decades of isolation and has the
potential to be a leading regional destination, pro-
vided certain obstacles are overcome and competitive-
ness is enhanced. As one of the later members of
international tourism industry and tourists, Myanmar
is an appropriate choice for a review of the regions
new tourism dynamics.
Asian middle classes and Asian travellers
Middle class is a widely used phrase, but there are
denitional ambiguities and difculties of quanti-
cation (Banerjee & Duo, 2008; Dyck, Hansakul, &
Saxena, 2009). A paper by the Organization for Econ-
omic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
(Kharas, 2010) proposed that the emerging middle
class in developing countries constitute those living
in households with daily incomes of US$ 10100
per head, adjusted for local purchasing power.
According to Easterly (2001), people between the
20th and 80th percentile on the consumption distri-
bution scale can be dened as middle class, while
Birdsall, Graham, and Pettinato (2000) included
those with 75125% of median per capita income.
Whatever the income bands, middle class is generally

*Email: ahenderson@ntu.edu.sg

2015 Taylor & Francis

 380 J. C. Henderson
understood to refer to people occupying a position
between the richest and poorest. Interpretations there-
fore vary between each country and region of the
world, and there are dangers of reductionism
whereby socio-economic stratication and its impli-
cations are overlooked. This qualication applies in
Asia where middle classes might be a more apt label
given their diversity (Hattori, Funatsu, & Torii,
2003; Kessler, 2001) and the mosaic of markets
(Wiranto, 2012, p. 12).
Researchers have devoted much attention to the
ascendancy of a middle class in Asian nations
which is attributed to economic development, com-
Downloaded by [University of Wyoming Libraries] at 13:44 06 December 2017
monly state-led (King, 2008; Pinches, 1999; Shiraishi
& Phongpaichit, 2008), in combination with related
social and demographic trends. New found prosperity
is manifest in willingness to consume (Chua, 2000;
Robison & Goodman, 1996) and enthusiasm for
branded goods amongst the wealthiest. Asian tiger
economies such as South Korea led the way, but
the Chinese experience is now perhaps the most
remarked upon followed by that of India (Jaffrelot
& Van Der Veer, 2008). The middle-class phenom-
enon is also observed in South East and East Asia
as a whole (Hsiao, 1993; Kahn, 1991). The worlds
middle class is forecast to increase from 1.8 billion
to 3.2 billion in 2020 and reach 4.9 billion by 2030,
85% of this growth coming from Asia. The UN
(United Nations Development Programme [UNDP],
2013a) calculates that the proportion in the whole
global South has more than doubled to 58% over
20 years and most will be residents of developing
nations by 2030, responsible for 70% of all consumer
spending. China and India are expected to account for
41% of middle-class expenditure in 2030, compared
to just over 5% in 2009, yet South East Asian societies
will make a signicant contribution (Kerschner &
Huq, 2011).
Tourism in Asia has beneted from its enlarged
middle classes and participation is frequently
perceived to be a symbol of identity and status
(Kerschner & Huq, 2011; Ratanawaraha & Pritchard,
2011). Greater numbers are engaging in domestic
tourism and venturing abroad (Ghimere, 2001a), the
latter becoming more mobile and adventurous
(ASEAN Secretariat, 2012, p. 16) assisted by the our-
ishing budget airline business. Urbanization and mod-
ernization, together with increased disposable income,
have boosted activity as people seek to escape the
pressures of city life. The regions dependence on
distant Westernized markets is thus diminishing
(Ghimere, 2001b; Ratanawaraha & Pritchard, 2011),
although these are a source of much valued foreign
exchange unlike some softer Asian currencies.
Western spenders cannot be ignored and one policy
challenge is to nd the optimal balance amongst dom-
estic, intra-regional and long haul visitors. In addition,
despite achievements in raising living standards, indi-
gence still bars large numbers of residents from taking
part in tourism. Income disparities are particularly
marked in the more developed economies (Dyck
et al., 2009; Ghimere, 2001b), especially in cities
where poverty is rife (Dahiya, 2012). The persistence
of inequalities threatens to undermine sustainable
economic growth and its gains (United Nations
Development Programme [UNDP], 2013a), including
heightened travel propensity and investment in infra-
structure. Failure to properly manage the environ-
mental impacts of development and climate change is
another possible impediment (United Nations World
Tourism Organization [UNWTO] and United Nations
Development Programme [UNDP], 2012), as is the
corruption which is widespread in Asia (Asian Devel-
opment Bank [ADB], 2004).
ASEANs progress, tourism and destination
competitiveness
The manner in which the economic forces outlined
above operate within ASEAN and the ramications
for tourist arrivals are considered in this section,
together with the competitiveness of destination
countries and the political setting. The ASEAN organ-
ization dates from 1967 and is dedicated to economic
growth, social progress and cultural development in
the region (Association of South East Asian
Nations, 2013a) in accordance with a Charter agreed
in 2008. The Secretariat is based in the Indonesian
capital of Jakarta and there is a presidency which
rotates annually. ASEAN is home to 620 million,
10% of the global population, and is hailed as the
worlds seventh largest economy. An ASEAN Econ-
omic Community akin to the European Community
(excluding a single currency and parliament) was due
to be inaugurated in 2015, but an ofcial has said
that the alliance would label itself a single market at
the end of that year while big things like seamless
travel would be delayed until 2020 (Channel News
Asia, 2015). It is proving a formidable task to harmo-
nize very different economic and political regimes
and the goal may perhaps be unrealistic, especially
given protectionist tendencies. Nevertheless, tourism
 The new dynamics of tourism in south east Asia
is an arena for cooperation in alignment with organiz-
ational objectives and an ASEAN Tourism Association
(ASEANTA) exists that comprises National Tourism
Organizations. A four-year Tourism Strategic Plan
was adopted in 2011 and a three-year Marketing Plan
in 2012. These plans focus on motivating tourists to
visit more than one member country and also highlight
the importance of intra-regional and domestic activity
(ASEAN Secretariat, 2012). While there have been
some achievements (Ghimire, 2001b; Wong, Mistilis,
& Dwyer, 2011), movement on issues such as a
single visa has been slow and countries remain rival
destinations.
Downloaded by [University of Wyoming Libraries] at 13:44 06 December 2017
Membership has grown from 3 to 10, Myanmar
joined in 1997 with Laos and Vietnam, and key
facts about the states are presented in Table 1. They
range economically from prosperous Singapore and
the oil rich sultanate of Brunei, both ranked very
high in the UN Development Programmes Human
Development Index (HDI), to the much lower rated
poorest developing nations of Lao PDR and
Myanmar (United Nations Development Programme,
2013a). A degree of liberalization of previously cen-
tralized economies has reaped rewards, but the econ-
omic gap between Cambodia, Lao PDR and Myanmar
and the remaining countries is substantial (OECD,
2013). Vietnam is also comparatively undeveloped,
but it has a rising middle class (King, Phuong, &
Nguyen, 2008) alongside Indonesia (Crouch, 2001),
Malaysia (Embong, 2002), Thailand (Funatsu &
Kazuhiro, 2003) and the Philippines (Kimura,
2003). Singapores middle class is longer established
(Rodan, 1993; Tan, 2004) and, elsewhere, while per
capita incomes are modest, they are improving. Pre-
global nancial crisis average growth rates of
approximately 5.5% should be restored in 2013
2017. Indonesia could attain a gure of 6.4%,
double that of Singapore which has less scope for pro-
ductivity gains (OECD, 2013), and credit ratings are
being upgraded accordingly. Traditional export-
oriented strategies are undergoing revision after their
shortcomings were exposed by the crisis and models
founded on domestic consumption and investment
are preferred (OECD, 2013), although realization
depends upon ourishing domestic markets.
Economic progress, together with larger popu-
lations, has stimulated demand for outbound and
domestic travel for purposes of both leisure and
business. Reective of the presence of a middle
class with the means and motivation to travel for plea-
sure as well as thriving commercial opportunities,
381
almost 50% of ASEAN arrivals originate within its
boundaries and geographical proximity facilitates
cross-border travel. A further 25% of visitors are
from the rest of Asia (ASEAN Secretariat, 2012)
and the region is strategically located between the
two key markets of China and India. ASEAN
inbound tourism rose steadily from 20.2 million visi-
tors in 1991 to 76.9 million in 2010 (UNWTO, 2012)
and gures for individual countries can be found in
Table 2. Overall, it has been calculated that travel
and tourism earns approximately 10.9% of
ASEANs GDP when indirect and direct returns are
combined. It supports 25 million jobs and provides
direct employment for 9.3 million, or over 3% of
the workforce (World Economic Forum, 2012). The
sector is of importance to all economies and crucial
in instances such as Cambodia, as depicted in Table 2.
Looking ahead, most analysts agree that inbound
Asia Pacic international tourism will grow in forth-
coming decades and at a faster pace than in advanced
economy destinations; for example, UNWTO predicts
that arrivals will have increased by 331 million to 535
million in 2030 (UNWTO, 2012). Much of the growth
in ASEAN is likely to be from within, fuelled by rela-
tively resilient and robust economies (OECD, 2013).
However, countries will not benet equally from
this trajectory. Present differences are revealed in
Table 2, with Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore
clearly at the forefront in terms of visitor volume
and value. Economics is obviously a critical consider-
ation and impacts on performance in various ways,
but there are other factors at work, suggested by the
14-point World Economic Forum (WEF) travel and
tourism competitiveness index. Components are
grouped into three categories: regulatory environment
(policy rules and regulations; environmental sustain-
ability; safety and security; health and hygiene; and
prioritization of travel and tourism); business environ-
ment and infrastructure (air and ground transport;
tourism and ICT infrastructure; and price competitive-
ness); and human, cultural and natural resources.
ASEAN scores are noted in Table 3, the nal
column of which shows the position in the compre-
hensive list of 139 economies. Singapore is judged
the most competitive and surpassed only by Brunei
and Indonesia for price competitiveness and natural
resources, respectively. Malaysia and Thailand are
relatively good performers, albeit with certain
deciencies, while the Philippines and Cambodia
have consistently low scores. Indonesia is strong in
price competitiveness, natural heritage and travel
 382 J. C. Henderson

Table 1. ASEAN country facts 2011.

Country Land area (km2) Population (million) US$ per capita GDP per capita (US$) HDI ranking (out of 186)
Brunei 5765 0.4 613.5# 29,852# 30
Cambodia 181,035 15.0 112.6 753 138
Indonesia 1,890,754 237.6 33.5 2981 121
Lao PDR 235,800 6.4 59.3* 1004* 139
Malaysia 330,252 28.3 646.3 8418 64
Myanmar 676,577 61.2 1.2* 742* 149
Philippines 300,000 94.0 29.6 2123 114
Singapore 704 5.2 3470.3 43,865 18
Thailand 513,120 63.9 411.0 4992 103
Vietnam 329,315 88.3 63.7 1174 127
*2010; #2009.
Downloaded by [University of Wyoming Libraries] at 13:44 06 December 2017

Sources: Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN, 2013b); United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 2013a); World
Economic Forum (2012).

and tourism prioritization yet weak in environmental
sustainability, health and hygiene and infrastructure.
Although very price competitive and safe, Brunei
has one of the poorest environmental records of all
the 139 economies. The economic imperatives to
develop tourism are less pressing in the sultanate,
but travel and tourism is commonly prioritized and
ASEAN as a whole has a price advantage compared
with parts of the rest of Asia and elsewhere in the
world. General shortcomings, with the exception of
Singapore, include inadequate infrastructure, unsatis-
factory sanitation and environmental degradation
(World Economic Forum, 2012). Corruption aggra-
vates these problems and appears endemic (ASEAN
Affairs, 2012). Laos and Myanmar are omitted from
the WEF study because of incomplete data, but the
former appears to conform to the prevailing pattern
of strengths and weaknesses (Euromonitor, 2011);
conditions in the latter are examined in the next
section.
The political context affects tourism performance
and ASEAN encompasses Communist regimes,
soft authoritarian governments and parliamentary
democracies. Members have been prone to instability
and politics has exerted a considerable inuence over
the regions general and tourism development (Hen-
derson, 2010). Moves towards democratization in
some states and a reduced risk of military intervention
in government over the last few decades have,
however, promoted stabilization. Singapores attain-
ments in the eld of tourism and more widely are a
testimony to its stability and security, an efcient
ruling party which has held ofce since independence
and forward planning. Whether the citystate can
maintain its pre-eminence is a pertinent question in
view of the slowing economic growth rate, expanding
populations of citizens and migrant workers which are
putting extra pressure on scarce land and a more asser-
tive political opposition. It also cannot rely on dom-
estic tourist business because of its small size and

Table 2. ASEAN international arrivals and spending 2011.

Country Arrivals (thousands) Per 100 population Receipts (US$ million) % of GDP
Brunei 242 51.7 254# 1.8#
Cambodia 2882 19.3 1683 15.0
Indonesia 7650 3.2 7952 1.1
Lao PDR 2724 25.9 406 6.8*
Malaysia 24,714 87.5 18,259 7.7
Myanmar 391 0.6 166 0.2*
Philippines 3917 4.2 2783 1.7
Singapore 10,390 200.4 17,990 7.9
Thailand 19,098 29.9 26,256 8.2
Vietnam 6014 6.8 5620 5.4
*2010; #2009.
Sources: UNWTO (2012); World Economic Forum (2012).
 The new dynamics of tourism in south east Asia 383

Table 3. Competitiveness performance.

Country ASEAN ranking and score Global ranking
Singapore 1 5.2 10
Malaysia 2 4.6 35
Thailand 3 4.5 41
Brunei 4 4.1 67
Indonesia 5 4.0 74
Vietnam 6 3.9 80
Philippines 7 3.7 94
Cambodia 8 3.4 109
Source: World Economic Forum (2012).
Downloaded by [University of Wyoming Libraries] at 13:44 06 December 2017

stock of natural and cultural attractions. The inter-
actions between a countrys politics and economics
and its tourism industry are further demonstrated by
Myanmar, the competitive aspects of which are now
discussed after a brief account of the political back-
ground and scale of arrivals in order to set the scene.
Myanmars progress, tourism and destination
competitiveness
Tourism in Myanmar has been shaped by its modern
history under a military dictatorship with a very
poor human rights record. The regime abandoned
the name of Burma, and the capital of Rangoon was
renamed as Yangon, prior to the establishment of a
new administrative capital at Naypyitaw in 2005.
Many external bodies still use the older appellations
as an expression of opposition to the dictatorial
ruling while others refer to Burma/Myanmar or
Myanmar/Burma. The tourism industry outside of
Asia seems to prefer Burma, perhaps perceiving it
as more easily recognized and to have connotations
of a nostalgic colonial heritage which has a commer-
cial value (Peleggi, 2005). Between 1996 and 2011,
the country was ranked amongst the lowest globally
for standards of governance according to six indi-
cators of voice and accountability, political stability
and absence of violence, government effectiveness,
regulatory quality, rule of law and control of corrup-
tion (The World Bank Institute, 2013). Years of econ-
omic mismanagement led to a weak private sector
and under-developed nancial sector, misallocation
of public resources with relatively small public spend-
ing on basic services (The World Bank, 2013). The
economy became heavily reliant on China and other
Asian trading partners and remained agriculturally
dependent.
Its parlous situation reected and was com-
pounded by shunning on the part of much of the inter-
national community and imposition of trading
sanctions, but not by ASEAN which adopted a
policy it termed constructive engagement. A
turning point seemed to have been reached in 2010
when steps were taken towards greater democracy
and the charismatic opposition National League for
Democracy leader, Aung San Suu Kyi, was released
from house arrest. An executive headed by a presi-
dent, nominally civilian yet backed by the military,
took charge in 2011 and the State Peace and Develop-
ment Council, the title assumed by the junta, was dis-
solved. Severed diplomatic ties began to be restored
and Myanmar became more open to the outside
world, symbolized by the visit of the US President
in 2012. Commentators spoke about its re-branding
as one of Asias most promising emerging markets
(Economic Intelligence Unit [EIU], 2013, p. 30) and
the phrase New Myanmar started to be used by the
regions media. However, scepticism lingers and the
general election due in 2015 will be a test of the
incumbent regimes commitment to reform.
Incoming tourist ows have proved sensitive to
the political climate. Many visitors and tourism com-
panies heeded calls for a boycott as a form of political
protest against the regime (Henderson, 2003),
depressing demand which is now responding posi-
tively to events. According to UNWTO (2012) and
based on airport data, there were 311,000 arrivals in
2010 compared to 243,000 in 2009. The gure of
391,000 for 2011 (UNWTO, 2012) was adversely
affected by the repercussions of extensive ooding
in neighbouring Thailand, through which many
foreign visitors reach Myanmar and which itself is a
major market (Euromonitor, 2012). It is claimed that
numbers surpassed 1 million in 2012 (Citrinot,
2013) and reached almost 2 million in 2013 (The
 384 J. C. Henderson
Irrawaddy, 2014). There are inconsistencies in stat-
istics and some totals include land border crossings,
which can yield a misleading picture as they cover
locals making very short trips (TigerMine Research,
2013). Asia supplies approximately 64% of all tour-
ists and almost 24% originate in Europe (Ministry
of Hotels and Tourism, 2013a).
Euromonitor (2012) expected international leisure
and business travellers to increase by 81% and 72%,
respectively, in the period between 2011 and 2016.
Others have predicted that Myanmar will eventually
rival Thailand as a destination (Grant, 2012) and fore-
cast 9 million visitors by 2030 (Ghosh, 2013a). Auth-
Downloaded by [University of Wyoming Libraries] at 13:44 06 December 2017
orities cite a gure of 3 million in 2015 and 7.5
million by 2020 when receipts and tourist-related
jobs will be US$10.2 billion and 1.5 million, respect-
ively (Ministry of Hotels and Tourism, 2013b).The
feasibility of the more optimistic projections is deba-
table and realization will depend on the general situ-
ation and that pertaining specically in the tourism
industry, as well as the manner in which the stock
of tourism resources is exploited. These key determi-
nants correspond to the three broad measures of the
WEF competitiveness index which are applied to
Myanmar in the following sub-sections.
Regulatory environment
The regulatory environment for tourism has improved
since the new government took charge, demonstrated
by greater openness and attempts to strengthen inves-
tor condence. Sanctions are being suspended or
lifted and better access to capital and foreign
markets is likely to stimulate the tourism sector
(Economic Intelligence Unit [EIU], 2013). New
foreign investment laws offer assorted tax incentives,
longer land leases and the chance for overseas rms to
launch ventures without local partners in specied
industries (Reuters, 2013). Myanmar is receiving
advice and assistance from the International Monetary
Fund, Asian Development Bank and international aid
agencies which, alongside the waiving of almost 60%
of the countrys foreign debt, may help cultivate
security. The government should be able to reduce
its borrowing in order to nance infrastructure pro-
jects and some money could be released by a contrac-
tion in the military budget. Japan has provided loans
for infrastructure development and the European
Union proffered over US$ 100 million in aid in
2013 (BBC, 2013). Thailand and South Korea are
amongst those governments engaging in joint projects
and a deal was agreed with China Railway in 2011 to
construct new lines between the two countries (Euro-
monitor, 2012).
The old regime was appreciative of the monetary
returns from tourism and latterly generally supportive,
although anxious to exercise control over visitors and
what they saw. The Tourism Law of the early 1990s
marked a shift towards a more positive orientation
and the Ministry of Hotels and Tourism was founded
in 1992 (Henderson, 2003). A pro-tourism stance
continues and the sector is prioritized in ofcial econ-
omic planning, with a responsible tourism policy
drafted in cooperation with a German foundation in
2012. The document articulates nine sustainable
tourism development aims: as a national priority
sector; broad-based local social-economic develop-
ment; maintenance of cultural diversity and authen-
ticity; conservation and enhancement of the
environment; competition on product richness, diver-
sity and quality not just price; visitor health, safety
and security; institutional strengthening; a well-
trained and rewarded workforce; and minimizing
unethical practices (Ministry of Hotels and Tourism,
2012, p. 8). An ensuing Master Plan was devised
with technical assistance from the Asian Development
Bank and nanced by a Norwegian government grant.
Six strategic programmes are listed: strengthening
the institutional environment; building human
resource capacity and promoting service quality;
strengthening safeguards and procedures for destina-
tion planning and management; developing quality
products and services; improving connectivity and
tourism-related infrastructure; and building the
Tourism Myanmar image, position and brand. A total
of 38 projects are envisaged and execution of the
plan, running from 2013 to 2020, is expected to cost
US$ 486.6 million (Ministry of Hotels and Tourism,
2013b).
Myanmar Marketing Board was set up in 2011
with an aim to unite the Ministry of Hotels and
Tourism, the Myanmar Marketing Committee,
Myanmar Hotel Association and Union of Myanmar
Travel Association. Its objective is to cooperate with
private industry in a bid to enhance service quality.
Foreign investment in hotel accommodation, of
which there is a severe shortage, is actively encour-
aged by ofcials; for example, the Ministry of
Hotels and Tourism signed a BOT (Build-Operate-
Transfer) contract with a Vietnamese group in late
2012 for a US$ 300 million multi-purpose complex
in Yangon which will feature a ve-star hotel. The
 The new dynamics of tourism in south east Asia
government is also seeking to initiate new air routes to
boost international connectivity within Asia Pacic
and beyond. Visa rules are being relaxed, illustrated
by an extension of the new visa-on-arrival scheme
to 22 European countries in 2012 (Myanmar
Tourism Promotion Board, 2013) and introduction
of an electronic application scheme. Marketing is
increasing and a Visit Myanmar Year campaign is
planned for 2016 (The Irrawaddy, 2014).
At the same time, there are political and bureau-
cratic uncertainties, and observers have noted the
lack of transparency in government decision making.
The OECD anticipates that Myanmar will record an
Downloaded by [University of Wyoming Libraries] at 13:44 06 December 2017
average growth rate of 6.3% in forthcoming years,
but it seems a more comprehensive programme of
radical reform will be necessary to secure the long-
term health of the economy (Asian Development
Bank [ADB], 2011). An anti-corruption committee
was announced by the president in 2013, yet Transpar-
ency International deems Myanmar to be one of the
most corrupt countries in the world, on a par with
Afghanistan, North Korea and Sudan (Transparency
International, 2013). The army is a powerful force
behind the scenes and unlikely to be enthusiastic
about ceding its authority. Many large companies
have military connections and these, together with
inefcient state-owned businesses, are dominant in
some areas of the economy. Private enterprises are
subject to ofcial interference and certain rules and
regulations are unclear. Investors report difculties
moving money into and out of Myanmar and complain
about Central Bank attempts to contain outward ows
of its limited foreign currency reserves (Qi, 2013).
Environmental sustainability is also doubtful, and
issues of conservation are returned to later in the
paper. The tourism policy which has been formulated
is laudable in its aspirations and intentions and gives
due regard to the principles of sustainable tourism;
putting theories into practice, however, will be no
easy undertaking.
Business environment and infrastructure
Regulatory and business conditions overlap, and the
latter also exhibits recovery, accompanied by the per-
sistence of chronic problems. Many foreign compa-
nies, already well-established in Thailand, have
recognized Myanmar as a new business opportunity.
The rst tourism industry conference in early 2013
drew operators from 17 countries (Robinson, 2013).
Enterprises such as Western tour operators, which
385
were once reluctant to send customers to the destina-
tion for fear of appearing to endorse the military dic-
tatorship, no longer face this predicament.
Nevertheless, some are wary about the disreputable
background of prominent Burmese business owners
and their associations with the army (Hammer,
2012). As mentioned previously, there has been
investment in hotels and 30 properties had been com-
pleted by 2012, when a further ve were under con-
struction. Countries with organizations involved are
Singapore (12 projects), Thailand (10), Japan (6),
Hong Kong (4), Malaysia (2), the UK (1) and
Vietnam (1) (Ministry of Hotels and Tourism,
2013a). Best Western, Hilton and Accor have all
opened properties recently.
Another sign of liberalization is the privatization of
nationalized businesses which began in the mid-1990s
when there were accusations that it was the military
elite and its cronies who beneted most. The govern-
ment sold its majority share in Myanmar Airways
International in 2009, retaining a 20% stake, as well
as privatizing Yangon International Airport. Yangon
is the busiest airport ahead of Mandalay and Naypyi-
daw and collectively these can handle 9 million passen-
gers (Euromonitor, 2012). Regional low cost carriers
such as Jetstar Asia and Air Asia are ying into
Myanmar and Golden Myanmar budget airline made
its inaugural ight in 2013 (Myanmar Tourism Pro-
motion Board, 2013). Internet access is improving at
the same time as government censorship is loosening
(OpenNet Initiative, 2012). Myanmar Airways Inter-
national has started to offer online ticketing, and
branded credit cards are being issued and accepted
for the rst time after the award of licences to
Myanmar banks (Myanmar Tourism Promotion
Board, 2013).
However, international ights are relatively few in
number and of conned geographical coverage so that
a transit is necessary for many inbound visitors. There
are misgivings about the safety of passengers travel-
ling on certain carriers and using secondary airports
decient in modern technology (Centre for Aviation
[CAPA], 2013). Roads and railways are in urgent
need of upgrading and some routes are impassable
during the rainy season. Restrictions still apply on
entry and exit and only selected destinations are of-
cially approved. Hygiene standards are irregular and
poor sanitation can pose a health hazard (FCO,
2013). Internet penetration is low and usage is expens-
ive, thereby constraining electronic commerce. The
total stock of around 28,000 hotel rooms is
 386 J. C. Henderson
insufcient, Bangkok alone having three times as
many, and room rates have escalated from US$ 80
100 to US$ 200400. Land prices have also risen
sharply in central Yangon to match those of prime
New York and San Francisco real estate sites
(Ghosh, 2013a). The regulatory environment outlined
in the previous section implies several other impedi-
ments to doing business in Myanmar. Analysts at
the aforementioned conference cautioned that it was
premature for companies unfamiliar with the
country to be entering the market; those that choose
to do so should employ a local agent to help them
negotiate its complexities (Qi, 2013).
Downloaded by [University of Wyoming Libraries] at 13:44 06 December 2017
Human, cultural and natural resources
Myanmar has a large population in excess of 60
million and the smallest per capita income of all
ASEAN countries (United Nations Development Pro-
gramme [UNDP], 2013a). Many urban dwellers
struggle to survive (Dahiya, 2012) and an estimated
quarter of citizens are poor, with 9% of children
aged under ve classed as acutely malnourished
(World Food Programme [WFP], 2013). Data that
are available reveal a society enduring high levels of
deprivation, despite poverty alleviation efforts, and a
comparatively low average life expectancy of 65.7
years. It might be assumed that Myanmar has a size-
able labour force able to satisfy the requirements of
the tourism industry, but only half of all children com-
plete primary school (Australian Government, 2013)
and there is a scarcity of skills and lack of educated
Burmese to ll supervisory and middle management
positions (Grant, 2012). The workforce aim of the
aforementioned tourism policy calls for a capacity
building programme through continuing professional
development, training and education (Ministry of
Hotels and Tourism, 2012, p. 18), and there has
been news of the setting up of an international hospi-
tality school with support from the ADB and Thai and
Swiss agencies (Robinson, 2013), but much more will
need to be done.
Safety and security are questionable and visitors
are warned in formal advisories by their governments
about travelling to border territories in particular.
There is sporadic ghting against the Kachin Indepen-
dence Army and peace agreements brokered with
other rebel groupings are uneasy. Conict between
Rohingya Muslims and Buddhists in Rakhine state
in the west prompted a humanitarian crisis in 2012,
and Buddhist-Muslim clashes erupted again in 2013.
Ethnic tensions incite fears of fragmentation as min-
orities make up approximately one-third of the popu-
lation (Economic Intelligence Unit [EIU], 2013).
Terrorism is a possibility and there is anecdotal evi-
dence of heightened crime, occasionally directed at
foreigners, although there are no accurate crime stat-
istics (FCO, 2013). Human trafcking on a large
scale has been reported and Myanmar is reputed to
be a major producer of illicit drugs (Central Intelli-
gence Agency [CIA], 2013). Nevertheless, the
author has observed personally how foreigners are
generally welcomed and tourism is regarded as a
means of fostering the economic growth and reinte-
gration into the wider world which will help ordinary
people.
The country has much to offer the visitor and
Burmas long history as a prominent South East
Asian kingdom, later absorbed into the British
Empire, has left a rich heritage. The Buddhist religion
is followed by the majority of the Burmese people.
Places of worship include the Shwedagon Pagoda in
Yangon while the ancient capital of Bagan has over
2000 temples, stupas and pagodas. There are prep-
arations underway to nominate Bagans archaeological
monuments and three ancient Pyu city states for the
accolade of UNESCO World Heritage Site. The last
royal capital of Mandalay is on most tourist itineraries
and ethnic minorities too have their own traditions,
some of which appeal to visitors. Colonial era struc-
tures are a dening feature of central Yangon which
has been described as an exceptional living architec-
tural museum (Morley, 2013, p. 606). Stepping back
in time to experience Asia as it once was has been a
common message of companies selling Myanmar,
and advertising for the restored Strand Hotel, dating
from 1901, harks back to the imperial days when it
was amongst Asias most prestigious hotels (Peleggi,
2005; The Strand Yangon, 2013). Such romantic narra-
tives may, however, have to be revised in light of the
fast pace of modernization.
In terms of nature and as one of the largest South
East Asian nations, Myanmar has a variety of land-
scapes, from the foothills of the Himalayas in the
north, where tourists can enjoy trekking, to the Irra-
waddy delta in the south. The river ows through
the country and is the location for cruises while the
freshwater Inle Lake in the centre is also a focal
point for visitors. A long Bay of Bengal coastline
and 600 islands support beach tourism, which is not
yet well developed. There is mounting awareness of
the wealth of ecosystems and importance of
 The new dynamics of tourism in south east Asia
protecting biodiversity. Environmentalists are more
active and a presidential decision to halt construction
of a controversial dam at the headwaters of the Irra-
waddy was hailed as a victory. The new foreign
investment laws also mandate environmental impact
assessments for the largest projects (Clapp, 2013).
Alongside natural assets which are visitor attractions,
Myanmar has considerable reserves of offshore gas
and possibly oil. It is densely forested and is the
worlds principal teak exporter, and is also a
primary source of jade and gems (Asian Development
Bank [ADB], 2011). These are of interest to overseas
agencies and business travel demand will probably
Downloaded by [University of Wyoming Libraries] at 13:44 06 December 2017
grow from nations which formerly imposed barriers
to trade, although critics accuse some enterprises of
having evaded past restrictions in their pursuit of
prots. Prospects for the business travel, meetings,
incentives, conferences and exhibitions (BTMICE)
market as a whole are promising, demonstrated by
Myanmars hosting of the World Economic Forum
in 2013 and the 2014 ASEAN Summit.
Despite the abundance of cultural and natural heri-
tage, there are doubts about the adequacy of conserva-
tion measures and long-term sustainability. Myanmar
has adopted Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration and
cooperated with the UN on environmental matters,
but the number of international treaties to which it is
a signatory is restricted. Even if laws and policies
exist, they are not always implemented. Spending
on conservation is limited and priority is regularly
given to economic and commercial agendas, a
pattern commonly observed in developing countries.
There are fears about degradation of forest and land,
deteriorating water supply and quality, the vulner-
ability of biodiversity, inadequacies in solid waste
management, consequences of climate change and
damage due to mining (United Nations Development
Programme [UNDP], 2013b). Inle Lake, for example,
is polluted and in danger from unsustainable practices
(United Nations Development Programme [UNDP],
2013c) as well as inappropriate construction on the
shores. Land tenure is weak given the extent of state
ownership and disputes about control over natural
resources underlie many conicts in ethnic homelands
(The Burma Environment Working Group, 2011). The
country is also prone to natural disasters caused by
earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides, re, drought and
cyclones; the last is exemplied by Cyclone Nargis
which wreaked devastation when it struck in 2008.
Disaster response strategies have been found
wanting, delaying recovery and rehabilitation.
387
Safeguarding aspects of cultural heritage also
appears to be neglected and under-funded. Over-
hasty development in Yangon is threatening its built
heritage and social fabric in a way which predates
recent events, but has accelerated in the new era.
Numerous parties are competing for space and
seeking to maximize nancial returns. Historic struc-
tures are disappearing due to demolition for redeve-
lopment while those remaining are often in a state
of dereliction and decay. Zoning laws are set to be
introduced in the city to offer protection, but these
and proposals to curtail the height of buildings may
be too late (Ghosh, 2013b). Yangons special charac-
ter is thus being eroded by the erection of the high rise
shopping complexes, ofces and apartment blocks
which are ubiquitous in many South East Asian
cities (Morley, 2013). The tourism industry is an
additional hazard, with fears of uncontrolled expan-
sion harming both urban and rural landscapes and
the lives of local residents (Robinson, 2013).
Conclusion
This paper has sought to afford insights into the evol-
ving and shifting dynamics of tourism in South East
Asia by reviewing circumstances across ASEAN as a
whole and in Myanmar in particular. It argues that con-
ditions can be best understood within the framework of
broader economic and political change. The increas-
ingly important role of Asias emerging middle
classes in driving demand has been highlighted, and
is an outcome of economic progress which is augment-
ing disposable incomes and permitting unprecedented
levels of spending on discretionary items such as
leisure travel. Healthy economies are also a catalyst
for BTMICE trafc and allow investment by govern-
ment and business in the infrastructure and services
which are necessary for countries to function and our-
ish as international tourist destinations. Greater politi-
cal stability and movement towards a closer economic
union, albeit tentative, further serve to enable and
encourage cross-border tourism for different purposes.
However, poverty is still deeply rooted in the less
developed economies and acts as a brake on sustain-
able development overall, much as corruption
hampers tourism growth in public and private
domains.
Each ASEAN country has its own story, all of
which are worthy of attention, and performance as a
destination is not uniform. Competitiveness has
been shown to be a multifaceted concept in which
 388 J. C. Henderson
the regulatory environment, business environment
and infrastructure, and human, cultural and natural
resources are critical. Myanmar displays deciencies
in all three aspects which have a deleterious effect
on arrivals, although some efforts are underway to
rectify failings. The case of Myanmar is also instruc-
tive because of the very striking manner in which the
tourism development process there has been retarded
by the political situation combined with economic
mismanagement. Recently initiated reforms appear
to be reversing Myanmars fortunes, conrming
how a countrys politics and economics can both
facilitate and frustrate performance as a tourist desti-
Downloaded by [University of Wyoming Libraries] at 13:44 06 December 2017
nation and generator. At the same time, there are reser-
vations about the undue speed of development which
highlight the imperatives of stronger regulatory and
business environments, better infrastructure and stric-
ter resource protection. It is to be hoped that capacity
building and more general transformation continues,
allowing the troubled nation to realize its undoubted
potential.
Existing trends suggest further expansion of South
East Asian tourism, with movement concentrated
within the region. There may, however, be a refocus-
ing of activity as destinations rise and wane in popu-
larity. The decline in signicance of mature markets
such as Europe also seems set to continue and the
industry and authorities, often preoccupied with
attracting these travellers, must be prepared to revise
their marketing strategies. The sustainability of
tourism development is not guaranteed and will
depend upon ofcial action and commitment, the
acceptance and exercise of its responsibilities by the
tourism industry and the maintenance and enhance-
ment of stability in economies and domestic and inter-
national politics.
Disclosure statement
No potential conict of interest was reported by the
author.
Note on contributor
Joan C. Henderson is an Associate Professor at Nanyang
Business School, Nanyang Technological University, in
Singapore where she teaches on the Tourism and Hospital-
ity Management programme. Prior to moving to Singapore,
she lectured in Travel and Tourism in the UK after periods
of employment in the public and private tourism sectors
there.
References
ASEAN Affairs. (2012, December 10). ASEAN Countries
Fare Poorly in Corruption Index. Retrieved from http://
www.aseanaffairs.com/asean_news/economy/asean_
countries_fare_poorly_in_corruption_index
ASEAN Secretariat. (2012). ASEAN Tourism Marketing
Strategy (ATMS) 2012-2015. Jakarta: Author.
Asian Development Bank (ADB). (2004). Controlling cor-
ruption in Asia and the Pacic. Papers Presented at the
4th Regional Ant-Corruption Conference of the ADB/
OECD Anti-Corruption Initiative for Asia and the
Pacic. Manila: ADB.
Asian Development Bank (ADB). (2011). Asian
Development Bank and Myanmar fact sheet. Manila:
Author.
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN).
(2013a). Overview. Retrieved from http://www.asean.
org/asean/about-asean
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN).
(2013b). Selected basic ASEAN indicators. Retrieved
from http://www.aseansec.org
Australian Government. (2013). Education for the poorest
children in Myanmar. Retrieved from http://www.
ausaid.gov.au/HotTopics/Pages/Display.aspx?QID=
1016
Banerjee, A. H., & Duo, E. (2008). What is middle class
about middle classes around the world? Journal of
Economic Perspectives, 22(2), 328.
BBC. (2013). Burma prole. Retrieved from http://www.
bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacic-12990563?
Birdsall, S., Graham, N., & Pettinato, S. (2000). Stuck in
the tunnel: Is globalization muddling the middle
class? (Working Paper No. 14.). Retrieved from
http://www.brookings.edu/es/dynamics/papers/
middleclass/midclass.pdf
Central Intelligence Agency. (2013). The world factbook:
Myanmar. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/
publications/the- world-factbook/geos/bm.html
Centre for Aviation. (2013). Myanmar poised for more
rapid growth in 2013 as foreign carriers expand and
locals launch. Retrieved from http://centreforaviation.
com/analysis/myanmar-poised-for-more-rapid-growth-
in-2013 -
Channel News Asia. (2015). ASEAN to declare single
market, but delays deeper integration: Malaysia.
Retrieved from http://www.channelnewsasia.com/
news/business/international/asean-to-declare-single-
market
Chua, B. H. (Ed.). (2000). Consumption in Asia: Lifestyles
and identities. London and New York: Routledge.
Citrinot, L. (2013, January 28). Myanmar accelerating tourism
development. Travel Daily News. Retrieved from http://
www.traveldailynews.asia/news/article/51513
Clapp, P. (2013). Myanmar rises to challenge of environ-
mental conservation. Retrieved from http://asiasociety.
org/blog/asia/myanmar-rises-challenge-environmental-
conservation -
Crouch, H. (2001). The perils of prediction: Understanding
the Indonesian transition 1998-1999. In A. R. Embong
 The new dynamics of tourism in south east Asia
(Ed.), Southeast Asian middle classes: Prospects for
social change and democratisation (pp. 139157).
Malaysia: PenerbitUniversitiKebangsaan.
Dahiya, B. (2012). Cities in Asia: Demographics, econ-
omics, poverty, environment and governance. Cities,
29, S44S61.
Dyck, S., Hansakul, S., & Saxena, R. (2009). Emerging
Asias middle class: A force to be reckoned with.
Deutsche Bank Research, Current Issues, August 21.
Easterly, W. (2001). The middle class consensus and economic
growth. Journal of Economic Growth, 6(4), 317335.
Economic Intelligence Unit. (2013). Myanmar country
report. London: Author.
Embong, A. R. (2002). State-led modernisation and the
new middle class in Malaysia. Houndmills and
New York: Palgrave.
Downloaded by [University of Wyoming Libraries] at 13:44 06 December 2017
Euromonitor. (2011). Travel and tourism in Laos. London:
Author.
Euromonitor. (2012). Travel and tourism in Myanmar.
London: Author.
FCO. (2013). Burma travel advice. Retrieved from http://
www.gov.uk/foreign-travel-advice/burma
Funatsu, T., & Kazuhiro, K. (2003). The middle classes in
Thailand: The rise of the urban intellectual elite and
their social consciousness. The Developing Economies,
41, 243263.
Ghimere, K. B. (Ed.). (2001a). The native tourist: Tourism
development within developing countries. London:
Earthscan.
Ghimere, K. B. (2001b). Regional tourism and South-
South economic cooperation. The Geographical
Journal, 167(2), 99110.
Ghosh, N. (2013a, February 28). Myanmar rushing plan to
tackle drawbacks of tourism boom. The Straits Times.
Retrieved from http://www.newrebound88.com/
articles/details/776
Ghosh, N. (2013b, March 13). Hold it: Yangon aims to pre-
serve citys character with new zoning law. The Straits
Times, A1.
Grant, M. (2012, November 28). Myanmars tourism
industry to ourish. Euromonitor International.
Retrieved from http://www.portal.euromonitor.com
Hammer, J. (2012, August 3). Visiting Myanmar: Its com-
plicated. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://
www.nytimes.com/2012/08/05/travel/visiting-
myanmar-its-complicated.html?_r=0
Hattori, T., Funatsu, T., & Torii, T. (2003). Introduction: The
emergence of the Asian middle classes and their charac-
teristics. The Developing Economies, 41, 129139.
Henderson, J. C. (2003). The politics of tourism in
Myanmar. Current Issues in Tourism, 6(2), 97118.
Henderson, J. C. (2010). International tourism in South
East Asia from 1975 to 2009: A political perspective.
Tourism Recreation Research, 35(1), 514.
Hsiao, H. H. (Ed.). (1993). Discovery of the middle classes
in East Asia. Taipei: Institute of Ethnology Academic
Sinica.
Jaffrelot, C., & Van Der Veer, P. (Eds.). (2008). Patterns of
middle class consumption in India and China. New
Delhi and London: Sage.
389
Kahn, J. S. (1991). Constructing culture: Towards an
anthropology of the middle classes in Southeast Asia.
Asian Studies Review, 15, 5056.
Kerschner, E., & Huq, N. (2011, June 11). Asian afuence:
The emerging 21st century middle class. Thematic
Investing. Retrieved from http://www.morganstanleyfa.
com/public/projectles/35257b34-b160-45e4-980d-
8bca327db92b.pdf
Kessler, C. (2001). Alternative approaches, divided con-
sciousness: Dualities in studying the contemporary
Southeast Asian middle class. In A. R. Embong (Ed.),
Southeast Asian middle classes: Prospects for social
change and democratisation (pp. 3145). Malaysia:
PenerbitUniversitiKebangsaan.
Kharas, H. (2010). The emerging middle class in develop-
ing countries (Working Paper No. 285). Retrieved
from http://www.oecd.org/dev/44457738.pdf
Kimura, M. (2003). The emergence of the middle classes
and political change in the Philippines. The
Developing Economies, 41, 264284.
King, V. T. (2008). The middle class in Southeast Asia:
Diversities, identities, comparisons and the
Vietnamese case. IJAPS, 4(2), 73109.
King, V. Y., Phuong, A. N., & Nguyen, H. M. (2008).
Professional middle class youth in post-reform
Vietnam: Identity, continuity and change. Modern
Asian Studies, 42, 783814.
Ministry of Hotels and Tourism. (2012). Myanmar respon-
sible tourism policy. Yangon: Hanns Seidel Foundation
in Myanmar.
Ministry of Hotels and Tourism. (2013a). Myanmar
tourism statistics 2012. Retrieved from www.
myanmartourism.org
Ministry of Hotels and Tourism. (2013b). Myanmar
tourism master plan 2013-2020. Naypyitaw: Author.
Morley, I. (2013). City prole: Rangoon. Cities, 31, 601
614.
Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board. (2013). Tourism
news. Retrieved from http://tourismmyanmar.org/
myanmar-news/tourism-news
OECD. (2013). Southeast Asian economic outlook 2013:
With perspectives on China and India. Executive
Summary. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/
saeo-20123-5-en
OpenNet Initiative. (2012). Update on information controls
in Burma. Retrieved from https://opennet.net/blog/
2012/10/update-information-controls-burma
Peleggi, M. (2005). Consuming colonial nostalgia: The
monumentalisation of historic hotels in urban
South-East Asia. Asia Pacic Viewpoint, 46(3),
255265.
Pinches, M. (1999). Culture and privilege in capitalist
Asia. London and New York: Routledge.
Qi, L. P. (2013, March 14). Hotels should tread carefully in
Myanmar. TTG Asia. Retrieved from http://www.
ttgasia.com/article_print.php?article_id=20628
Ratanawaraha, A., & Pritchard, A. (2011). All aboard:
Growing middle class tourism in Southeast Asia.
Retrieved from http://trendsoutheast.org/2011/all-
issues/issue-20/all-aboard-growing-middle-class
 390 J. C. Henderson
Reuters. (2013). Myanmar parliament nalises rules on
foreign ownership of rms. Retrieved from http://
www.cnbc.com/id/100567256
Robinson, G. (2013, February 28). Hilton goes to Myanmar as
tourism takes off. Financial Times. Retrieved from http://
blogs.ft.com/beyond-brics/2013/02/28/hilton-goes-to-
myanmar-as-tourism-takes-off
Robison, R., & Goodman, D. S. (Eds.). (1996). The new
rich in Asia: Mobile phones, McDonalds and middle
class revolution. London and New York: Routledge.
Rodan, G. (1993). The growth of Singapores middle class
and its political signicance. In G. Rodan (Ed.),
Singapore changes guard (pp. 5271). New York: St
Martins Press.
Shiraishi, T., & Phongpaichit, P. (Eds.). (2008). The rise of
middle classes in Southeast Asia. Melbourne and
Downloaded by [University of Wyoming Libraries] at 13:44 06 December 2017
Kyoto: Trans Pacic Press and Kyoto University Press.
Tan, E. S. (2004). Does class matter? Social stratication
and orientations in Singapore. Singapore: World
Scientic.
The Burma Environmental Working Group. (2011).
Burmas environment: People, problems, policies.
Chiang Mai: Author.
The Irrawaddy. (2014). Govt plans visit Myanmar year in
2016, minister says, 3 October. Retrieved from http://
www.irrawaddy.org/business/govt-plans-visit-
myanmar-year-2016-minister-says.html
The Strand Yangon. (2013). Property overview. Retrieved
from http://www.lhw.com/Hotel/The-Strand-Yangon-
Yangon-Myanmar
The World Bank Institute. (2013). Worldwide governance
indicators: Country data report for Myanmar 1996-
2011. Retrieved from http://info.worldbank.org/
governance/wgi/pdf_country.asp
The World Bank. (2013). Myanmar overview. Retrieved
from http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/myanmar/
overview
Tigermine Research. (2013). Myanmar tourism statistics: A
close look at the numbers. Retrieved from http://www.
tigermine.com/2013/01/20/myanmar-tourism-statistics/
Transparency International. (2013). Corruption by country:
Myanmar. Retrieved from http://www.transparency.
org/country
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
(2013a). The rise of the South: Human progress in a
diverse world. New York: Author.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). (2013b).
The state of the environment in Myanmar. Retrieved from
http://accas.sean-cc.org/index.php?option=com_
msearch&c=content&id=3676&type =bot&Itemid=123
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
(2013c). Inle Lake conservation and rehabilitation
project. Retrieved from http://www.mm.undp.org/
environment/Inle%20project.html
United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO).
(2012). UNWTO tourism highlights 2012 edition.
Madrid: Author.
United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
and United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP). (2012). Tourism in the green economy:
Background report. Madrid: UNWTO.
Wiranto, W. (2012). The many faces of Asian consumers.
Barclays Wealth and Investment Management Global
Research & Investments, June 1219.
Wong, E., Mistilis, N., & Dwyer, L. (2011). A model of
ASEAN collaboration in tourism. Annals of Tourism
Research, 38(3), 882899.
World Economic Forum (WEF). (2012). The ASEAN travel
& tourism competitiveness report 2012. Geneva:
Author.
World Food Programme (WFP). (2013). Myanmar: over-
view. United Nations World Food Programme.
Retrieved from http://www.wfp.org/countries/
myanmar/overview