A Location Predictor

05/11/2017 A Location Prediction Algorithm with Daily Routines in Location-Based Participatory Sensing SystemsInternational Journal of Distributed S
International Journal of Distributed Sensor

Networks
A Location Prediction Algorithm with Daily Routines in Location-
Based Participatory Sensing Systems
Ruiyun Yu , Xingyou Xia, Shiyang Liao , more... Show all authors
First Published January 1, 2015 Research Article
Abstract
Mobile node location predication is critical to efficient data acquisition and message
forwarding in participatory sensing systems. This paper proposes a social-relationship-
based mobile node location prediction algorithm using daily routines (SMLPR). The
SMLPR algorithm models application scenarios based on geographic locations and
extracts social relationships of mobile nodes from nodes' mobility. After considering the
dynamism of users' behavior resulting from their daily routines, the SMLPR algorithm
preliminarily predicts node's mobility based on the hidden Markov model in different
daily periods of time and then amends the prediction results using location information
of other nodes which have strong relationship with the node. Finally, the UCSD WTD
dataset are exploited for simulations. Simulation results show that SMLPR acquires
higher prediction accuracy than proposals based on the Markov model.
1. Introduction
Participatory sensing is a recent appearing sensing technology which emphasize that

people participate in the sensing process. Participatory sensing enables individuals and
communities to gather, analyze, and share local knowledge and to subsequently make
intelligent decisions and also offer social services. The earliest research of participatory
sensing is executed by Srivastava et al. who have proposed the conception of urban
sensing in a technical report [1] in the year 2006 to discuss the system architecture and
technical methods of urban sensing. The MSG (Mobile Sensing Group) laboratory at
Dartmouth College also conducts research on this area, including BikeNet [2],
SoundSense [3], CenceMe [4, 5], MetroSense [6], and Bubble-Sensing [7].
Contents Figures Metrics Tools
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1155/2015/481705 1/28
Participatory sensing systems rely on mobile phone users to sense and transmit data
with diverse purposes in the process of monitoring or solving a particular problem.
Based on the large number of users, participatory sensing systems have the potential
to acquire large amounts of data from various places and address large-scale location-
based problems [810]. A typical example of location-based participatory sensing
systems collects and records air quality measurements to monitor the pollution of a
particular location. What is more, the smartphone with Internet connectivity can also
contribute to the participatory sensing systems' growth. In [11], a solution based on web
services is proposed to permit the interaction between a mobile application and the
IPv6 compliant WSNs scenario.
In participatory sensing systems, mobile devices are usually weakly connected. Due to
uncertainty of connection, nodes sometimes need encounter opportunities to
accomplish data communication and transmission. If the location of mobile nodes can
be predicted ahead of several time slots, the service quality and efficiency of the
system will be remarkably improved.
In order to solve the location prediction problems, human mobility has been analyzed at
different geographic scales [1214]. In [12] the limits of predictability provided by
humans' mobility patterns are examined. The data that is collected by 50,000
anonymous mobile phone users over a period of three months has been used to study
the humans' mobility patterns, and different entropy measures are adopted in this
research to estimate the potential predictability in human dynamics. Based on their
analysis, a 93% potential predictability in user mobility across the whole user base is
found in their report. In [13] the location data from 100,000 mobile phone users
collected by tracking each person's position for six months is investigated. This
research shows that individual mobility patterns of the test persons can be described by
a single spatial probability distribution after some corrective preprocessing. Thus the
results of this study suggest that humans generally follow simple reproducible patterns.
Based on the human mobility analysis, different techniques based on the Markov model
have been applied to location prediction problems of human individuals. In [15], a set of
discrete locations has been defined using the WIFI cells on a university campus. Two
different kinds of location predictors, the kth order Markov predictor as well as a LZ-
based predictor, are tested in predictions to the next location. Based on the test results,
the research shows that the second order Markov predictor with a certain fallback
feature performs best and provided a median accuracy of 72%. Literature [16] presents
a similar extended Markov predictor, which takes the arrival time and residence time
into account. Specifically, delay embedding is used to extract location sequences of a
certain length from time series. Then these sequences are directly used to predict a
user's location, and the prediction result is obtained by comparing the last observed
locations to all embedded location sequences.
Meanwhile, hidden Markov models (HMMs) are also considered to predict human
mobility. Literature [17] presents a hybrid method on the basis of hidden Markov
models. The proposed approach clusters location histories according to their
characteristics, and the latter trains an HMM for each cluster. Based on HMMs, location
characteristics are considered as unobservable parameters and the effects of each
individual's previous actions are also accounted in the process of predictions. Finally, a
prediction accuracy of 13.85% can be achieved when considering regions of roughly
1280 square meters.
Except for the Markov model and HMM, there are some other location prediction
algorithms that are used to analyze location information in literature [1826], such as
the artificial neural network-based algorithm [18], Bayesian network-based methods
[19, 20], mobile-sink-based methods [21, 22], the regression-based method [23], and
mobile anchor assisted localization algorithms [24, 25]. These methods predict future
positions of nodes from different perspectives, which focus on the behavior of each
single node.
However, in fact the behavior of a node is decided not only by location state of the
former period but also by the social relationship of mobile users.
In this paper, a social-relationship-based mobile node location prediction algorithm

using daily routines (SMLPR) is proposed. In this approach, the social relationship of
nodes is used to optimize the location prediction algorithm so that it can better adapt to
participatory sensing applications and promote the prediction accuracy. The remainder
of this paper is organized as follows: the network model is illustrated in Section 2.
Section 3 specifies the mobile node location prediction algorithm. Extensive simulations
have been done for performance evaluation in Section 4. Section 5 concludes the
paper.
2. Network Model
Human movements often exhibit a high degree of repetition including regular visits to
certain places and regular contacts during daily activities. In this paper, a hybrid urban
network model is proposed for participatory sensing systems, as illustrated in Figure 1.
The map M is partitioned into small regions. In other words, M is represented as a finite
set of regions {a1 ,, an } such that ni=1 ai = M with ai aj = (i j ). The movement
possibility of the user from one region to another is represented by a directed graph. In
these regions, the sensed data needs to be aggregated to reduce network overhead
and to enhance its usefulness among consumers.
Figure 1 Participatory sensing scenario.
As mentioned above, the network has been reinforced as a mixture of an opportunistic

network and a centralized infrastructure which is shown in Figure 1. The centralized
infrastructure consists of a number of wireless access points (APs) and a backbone
connecting the APs. The purpose of this model is to collect data from a peer-to-peer
network (scenario 2 in Figure 1) or WIFI APs which is in the vicinity of the consumers
(scenarios 1 and 3 in Figure 1), rather than collecting it from any 3G/4G server. Mobile
nodes that are carrying smart device can only access to the network when they are
walking into the transmission range of any AP, and data transmission can only occur
between peer counterparts when they fall into each other's transmission range as in
normal opportunistic networks.
Definition 1 (location).
Inside a geographical region, a mobile device closest to a fixed location is selected to

perform data collection and the collected data is sent to a set of bounding APs where it
is stored and pulled by the consumers. The fixed location is termed as the aggregation
location.
Definition 2 (location granularity).
An aggregation location includes a set of APs in adjacent position. The granularity of

the location represents the location's transmission range which is decided by the
number and the scope of the APs in the same geographical region.
In this study, historical trajectories of users connecting with APs are recorded and they
are divided by time granularity. Trajectory of a moving user is defined as a sequence of
points {(idj , l1 ,vt1 ),(idj , l2 ,vt2 ),,(idj , lm ,vtm )} , where idj is the user's identifier and
location l1 is represented by a set of adjacent APs which users are connecting to at
time slot vti , 1 i m . In this paper, a mechanism to construct aggregation location
based on the information of APs is proposed, which divides APs into different locations
in different granularities.
The urban scenario is transformed into a graph G = {E,V,W} , where each AP is

replaced by a vertex v V and the relation between two APs is replaced by an edge
e E , where E V V . The relationship matrix of APs is replaced by W = [wij ] , i N ,
j N , where wij represents the relationship between AP i and AP j, which can be
calculated by
rij = n2ni+ijnj .
In formula (1), the frequency of AP i and AP j appearing on all users' devices in the
same period is counted, denoted as nij , and the number of times that AP i appears in
total is denoted as ni (the same to nj ).
Using the greedy algorithm of Kruskal [27], the maximum spanning tree from the graph
G is easily got, denoted as T. After choosing a weight as the location granularity, the
edge in T whose weight is less than will be cut down, and leave the tree into some
separated connected components. One connected component is regarded as a
location. Figure 2 shows the process of constructing the aggregation locations, and a
construction with granularity 0.6 is represented in Figure 2(c).
Figure 2 Process of location construction.
In most WLAN datasets, connection is recorded by the format (node, contact time, APs,
and signal strength), and one or more APs which a user connects to may appear in one
item at the same time, which may cause users' location confusion. Therefore, after
getting the set of locations in the mobility scenario, estimating which location the user
belongs to in the same period is also needed. The signal strength between a user's
mobile device and a WIFI AP in the WLAN dataset can help to solve this problem. A
weight between the user and location can be calculated by
j=1 strengthj
weighti = n n .
In formula (2), n represents the number of aps in location i, and strength j represents
the signal strength between the user A and AP j ( APj locationi ). The user A is
considered to be at location i in the time period, if i meets the condition denoted in
i = argmax {weighti }.
3. Algorithm Design
This paper proposes a simple method for predicting the future locations of mobile
nodes, on the basis of their previous ways to other locations. The proposed approach
considers different daily time periods, which relates to the fact that users present
different behaviors and visit different places during their daily routines. Therefore the
hidden Markov model is introduced to capture the dynamism of users' behavior
resulting from the daily routines.
What is more, users experience a combination of periodic movement that is

geographically limited and seemingly random jumps correlated with their social
networks. Social relationships can explain about 10% to 30% of all human movement,
while periodic behavior explains 50% to 70% [28]. On the basis of this theory
prerequisite, social relationship between nodes is also exploited in this paper for
optimization and amendment of location prediction result.
3.1. Hidden Markov Prediction Model
In urban scenario, users adopt different behaviors during different periods of daily time,
and the users' daily routines may influence users' trajectories. Thus the different daily
time periods (same as daily sample) should be considered in order to guarantee a more
realistic representation. With filtering and hidden Markov model, this can be done in a
simple way.
Hidden Markov model (HMM) is a well-known approach for the analysis of sequential
data, in which the sequences are assumed to be generated by a Markov process with
hidden states.
Figure 3 shows the general architecture of an instantiated HMM. Each shape in the
diagram represents a random variable that can adopt any number of values. The
random variable x(t) is the location state at time t. The random variable e(t) is the daily
sample state (in this paper, the observed state is called evidence) at time t. The arrows
in the diagram denote conditional dependencies. From the diagram, it is clear that the
conditional probability distribution of the location variable x(t) at time t, given by the
values of the location variable x at all times, depends only on the value of the location
variable x(t 1) , and thus the value at time t 2 and the values before it have no
influence. This is called the Markov property. Similarly, the value of the evidence e(t)
only depends on the value of the location variable x(t) , at time t.
Figure 3 Example of hidden Markov model.
Given the result of filtering up to time t, one can easily compute the result for t + 1 from
the new evidence et+1 . The calculation can be viewed as actually being composed of
two parts: first, the current state distribution is projected forward from t to t + 1 . Second,
it is updated using the new evidence et+1 . This two-part process emerges using
P (Xt+1 || e1:t+1 )
= P (e t+1 || Xt+1 )
Xt P (Xt+1 || Xt )P (Xt || e1:t ),
where is a normalizing constant used to make probabilities sum up to 1. Within the
summation, P(Xt+1 || Xt ) is the common transition model and P(Xt || e1:t ) is the current
state distribution. P(et+1 || Xt+1 ) is used to update the transition model and it is
obtainable directly from the statistical data.
In participatory sensing system, for each application scenario, the hidden Markov model
can be used to predict the future location state of each mobile node. Prediction process
includes the following steps.
3.1.1. Preparatory Stage
At the beginning, the system needs to collect enough information of user movement
trajectories to construct the Markov chain, and therefore a warm-up stage is assumed
in the prediction system. During preparatory stage, the system only collects historical
data and it cannot provide any predicted information. The warm-up stage can last for
one day or one week depending on the amount of information collected.
3.1.2. Determination of State Set
The location elements in the collecting data are extracted and they are denoted as set
L. As set L contains a number of location elements, the location of higher visiting
frequency is chosen as state set of the system, denoted as set E. If there are m
locations in the current scene, the state space can be denoted as E = {X1 , X2 ,, Xm } ,
and the location i is the ith status Xi of Markov process.
3.1.3. Discretization of Data Set
Statistical data of all users related to state set E is made. Then the data set of each
user is processed to be discrete set of the fixed time period, so the set after
discretization is denoted as follows:
{(tk , Xi )}, k = 1,2,3, i {1,2,3,,m}.

3.1.4. Calculation of 1-Order Transition Probability Matrix
nij is the frequency that node A departs from location i for location j, then the probability
of node A departing from location i for location j is denoted as
pij = nnij ,
where n is the total number of time node A departed location i to visit other locations in
data set.
Therefore, suppose that there are m locations in the set, an m m transition probability
matrix is generated as
p11 p12 p1m

P = p21 p22

p2m .

p pm2 p
m1 mm
Given p(l)j as the probability of node on state Xj at initial moment l and computing the
probability of each state, the initial distribution of Markov chain can be obtained as
P(l) = (p1(l) , p2(l) ,, pm(l) ).

For example, assume that the initial state is X2 , the initial distribution is as
P(l) = (0,1,0,,0) , and the absolute distribution at time l + 1 is as
P(l + 1) = P(l)P = (p1(l+1), p2(l+1), p3(l+1), p4(l+1), p5(l+1)).
3.1.5. Update the Result from the New Evidence
The different daily time periods (daily sample) is regarded as the evidence variable e,
so the set of evidences can be defined as EV = {er } , r = 1,2,,d , where d is the total
number of daily time period state. For example, break the day into four daily samples
(d = 4) , and the EV is denoted as
EV = { a.m., noon, p.m., evening }.
For each daily sample r, a diagonal matrix O(er ) is defined as
O(er ) = [oij ], oij = { 0,p (er | X = i), if i j

if i = j,
|
where P(er | X = i) = P(er ,X = i)/P(X = i) = nri /ni , nri represents the frequency of node
arriving at location i in the daily sample r, and ni represents the number of times that
node arrives at location i.
Based on all of the above, calculate the probability of node arriving on location i at next
time slot l + 1 using
P(l + 1) = O (erl+1)P(l + 1) = O (erl+1)P(l)P.

It can be considered that the state Xj obtained by the system at time l + 1 is

Xj = argmax{p(l+1)
j }.
The formula above incorporates a one-step prediction, and it is easy to derive the
following recursive computation for prediction of the state at t + k + 1 from a prediction
for t + k ; therefore the state Xt+k+1 can be obtained by
Xt+k+1 = argmax{P(Xt+k+1 )}.
3.2. Social-Aware Prediction Optimization
In participatory sensing system, a mobile node can be the social node carrying data
acquisition equipment. Thus, the social relationship is used to estimate the future
locations of mobile nodes and optimize the prediction result of hidden Markov model.
In this paper, capturing the evolution of social interactions in the different periods of
time (daily sample) over consecutive days is the aim, by computing social strength
based on the average duration of contacts.
Figure 4 shows how social interaction (from the point of view of user A) varies during a
day. For instance, it indicates a daily sample (8a.m.12p.m.) over which the social
strength of user A to users B and C is much stronger (less intermittent line) than the
strength to users D, E, and F. Figure 4 aims to show the dynamics of a social network
over a one-day period, where different social structures lead to different behavior when
a user moves towards the social community that the user is related to.
Figure 4 Contacts a user A has with a set of users in different daily samples Ti .
As illustrated in Figure 4, the total contact time of mobile nodes A and B during a daily
sample Ti in a day k is denoted as
Mik = nc=1 (tce tcs), c = 1,2,3,,n,
where n is the number of contact times in Ti , tcs indicates the start time of the cth
contact of mobile node A and B, and tce indicates the terminate time of the cth contact of
mobile node A and B.
Hence the social strength between any pair of nodes A and B in Ti is denoted as
m
W (A,B)i = mT
k=1 Mik ,
i
where m is the total number of days in the historical record.
According to formula (15), the social relationship matrix of nodes in Ti can be

obtained. On the basis of relation matrix mobile nodes can be partitioned as
communities, which determine the closer relation nodes as a subgroup. Since the
users' proximity is only taken into account, partition-based clustering methods, such as
k-means and fuzzy c-means, are not applicable. Therefore use a hierarchical clustering
method, namely, complete linkage clustering [29], as the community partition algorithm.
Suppose that it used social relationship to calculate the probability of node A arriving at
the location i ( i = 1,2,,m ) at next period. Given that node A belongs to community C
and the set of other nodes belonging to C on location i at current time slot is denoted as
S = {S1 ,, Sj ,, Sn } , where S C , according to conditional probability then the

following formula is proposed:
Pi (A || Sj ) = PPi (i (A,SSj)j) , j = 1,,n,

where Pi (A || Sj ) represents the probability of node arriving at location i on the condition
that node Sj has already been on the i location; Pi (Sj ) represents the probability that
node Sj keeps on staying at location, which can be obtained by Markov model
calculation; Pi (A, Sj ) represents the encounter probability of node A and node Sj on
location i and the formula is defined as
Pi (A, Sj ) = mi=1fi(A,fi(SA,j)Sj) ,
where fi (A, Sj ) represents number of encounter times on location i.
Given the relationship weight of node A and node Sj as W(A, Sj ) = j , the probability of
node A arriving on location i at next time slot is
Pi (A) = nj=1 j Pi (A || Sj ), j = nj=1j j ,

where j is the weight of each conditional probability which is calculated by
normalization method, nj=1 j = 1 .
According to the location distribution of all the nodes belonging to C, the probability of
node A arriving at different location can be obtained. And combined with the prediction
result from hidden Markov model and using weight formula (19) to calculate the
probability distribution of node A arriving at all the location in the location set, the
location having the maximum of the visiting probabilities is considered as the output of
the prediction algorithm:
Pi = Pi HMM + d (Pisocial Pi HMM),

where Pi HMM is location prediction probability of state Xi using hidden Markov model,
and Psocial
i is the prediction probability of location i based on social relationship, and d is
the damping factor which is defined as the probability that the social relation between
the nodes helps improve the accuracy of the prediction. This means that the higher the
value of d is, the more the algorithm accounts for the social relation between the nodes.
It is beneficial to use social relationship to optimize the prediction result, making the
transition probability matrix sparse and improve the accuracy of the prediction model.
4. Experimental Analyses
4.1. Simulation Configuration
In this paper, the experiment data is from the dataset provided by Wireless Topology
Discovery (WTD) [30], from which two-month-period data, total 13,215,412 items, is
chosen to simulate the prediction algorithm. There are 275 nodes and 524 APs (access
points) in the dataset. According to the vicinity of AP positions, the number of locations
at which APs are clustered is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 Quantity of locations.
Figure 5 shows that when the defined granularity becomes bigger, the quantity of the
locations in the gained scenario will also become larger. When is defined as 1, the
quantity of location is equal to the total number of APs. The location granularity has
been given as 0.5 in following experiment.
4.2. Similar User Clustering
In order to predict the further location of mobile nodes using social relationship, the
social network structure in the system should be primarily considered. Based on the
quantization formula (15), we calculate the relation strength between any pair of nodes
A and B in different daily sample (a.m., noon, p.m., and evening), and the social
network structures of the dataset are achieved, illustrated in Figure 6.
Figure 6 Social network structures of the dataset in different daily samples.
A hierarchical clustering method, complete linkage clustering, has been used to cluster
mobile users. Figure 6(a) shows the social network clustering result in the a.m. period,
and the clustering structures in the period of noon, p.m. and evening are, respectively,
illustrated in Figures 6(b), 6(c), and 6(d).
4.3. Prediction Accuracy
In order to evaluate the accuracy of prediction model, the processed node locations can
be divided into two parts: using the 50% that has been chosen from the original
information to train the Markov model and using the rest as the test case of the
prediction model. The prediction precision Presult is denoted as
n
Presult = i=1 accuracy
n
i.
In formula (20), n represents prediction times, and accuracyi is the prediction result of
location i, denoted as
accuracyi = { 1,0, whenresultisright

whenresultiswrong.
Firstly, the training data set is used to train the prediction model which includes
standard Markov model (SMM) and daily-routine-based prediction model (MLPR).
Afterward the test cases are used, respectively, to verify the above mentioned two
models. The prediction accuracies of the two prediction models are shown in Figure 7,
where Figure 7(a) shows the prediction accuracy of nodes from 1 to 92, Figure 7(b)
shows the prediction accuracy of nodes from 92 to 184, and Figure 7(c) shows the
prediction accuracy of nodes from 185 to 275. From Figure 7, it indicates that the daily-
routine-based mobile node location prediction algorithm (MLPR) gains a better
performance than standard Markov model. This shows that daily routines can promote
the accuracy and improve the algorithm's performance.
Figure 7 Prediction precision of SMM and MLPR.
Then make a comparison among the proposed social-relationship-based mobile node

location prediction algorithm using daily routines (SMLPR), O2MM and the SMLPN .
Among these algorithms, second order Markov predictor (O2MM) has the best
performance among Markov order-k predictors [15], and social-relationship-based
mobile node location prediction algorithm (SMLPN ) has the same even better
performance than O2MM, which can be obtained from the previous work in the paper
[31]. The comparative result is shown in Figure 8, from which it indicates that SMLPR
has better prediction effects after combining with daily routines and social relationship
Contents
and gains a higher accuracy Figures
than O2MM and SMLPN . Metrics Tools
Figure 9 shows the number of
users in different precision range among SMM, O2MM, SMLPN , and SMLPR, and it
illustrates that SMLPR obtained the largest number of node distribution in a higher
precision range. For instance, the number of nodes with accuracy greater than 90% in
SMLPR is 198 and in O2MM is 114, and SMM only achieves 55 nodes.
Abstract
1. Introduction
Figure 8 Prediction precision of O2MM, SMLPRN , and SMLPR.
2. Network Model
3. Algorithm Design
Figure 9 The number of users in different precision range.
Lastly, the performance of these algorithms is shown as Table 1. The accuracy of

SMLPR is 30% higher than the standard Markov model and nearly 10% higher than the
second order Markov model. Then a better result could also be obtained in the
comparison between SMLPR and SMLPN .
Table 1 The algorithm performance comparison.
O(N) while
In the aspects of space cost from Table 1, the complexity of SMLPR is
O2MM is O(N 2 ) , and the memory demand of SMLPR is O(N 2 ) while O2MM is O(N 3 ) .
Thus, it is proved that the SMLPR gets better performance than order-2 Markov
predictor at much lower expense, and the SMLPR is more practical than order-2
Markov predictor in the WLAN scenario.
4.4. Impact of Location Granularity
In location-based mobility scenario, location granularity may have a significant influence

on the prediction accuracy. In order to evaluate the impact of location granularity, the
algorithms' performance is tested by adjusting the granularity value , and the result is
Contents
shown in Figure 10. Figures Metrics Tools
Figure 10 The influence of location granularity to prediction accuracy.
As shown in Figure 10, with the increasing of the location granularity , due to the
number of locations in the scenario, the average accuracies of these four algorithms
are relatively decreasing. In these algorithms, SMM and O2MM meet a more significant
impact on the factor of location, and the accuracy reduces approximately to 25%. For
SMLPR, it shows a relatively moderate downward trend and the location granularity
effect to SMLPR is not very obvious.
5. Conclusion
In this paper, the influence of opportunistic characteristic in participatory sensing

system is introduced and the problems of sensing nodes such as intermittent
connection, limited communication period, and heterogeneous distribution are
analyzed. This paper focuses on the mobility model of nodes in participatory sensing
systems and proposes the mobile node location prediction algorithm with users' daily
routines based on social relationship between mobile nodes. According to the historical
information of mobile nodes trajectories, the state transition matrix is constructed by the
location as the transition state and hidden Markov model is used to predict the mobile
node location with the certain duration. Meanwhile, social relationship between nodes is
exploited for optimization and amendment of the prediction model. The prediction
Contents Tools
model is tested based on theFigures Metrics
WTD data set and proved to be effective.
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this
paper.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under
Grant no. 61272529, the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young
Scholars of China under Grant nos. 61225012 and 71325002; Ministry of Education-
China Mobile Research Fund under Grant no. MCM20130391; the Specialized
Research Fund of the Doctoral Program of Higher Education for the Priority
Development Areas under Grant no. 20120042130003; the Fundamental Research
Funds for the Central Universities under Grant nos. N120104001 and N130817003; and
Liaoning BaiQianWan Talents Program under Grant no. 2013921068.
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A Location Predictor

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05/11/2017 A Location Prediction Algorithm with Daily Routines in Location-Based Participatory Sensing SystemsInternational Journal of Distributed S

International Journal of Distributed Sensor

First Published January 1, 2015 Research Article

Participatory sensing is a recent appearing sensing technology which emphasize that

Contents Figures Metrics Tools

In this paper, a social-relationship-based mobile node location prediction algorithm

Figure 1 Participatory sensing scenario.

As mentioned above, the network has been reinforced as a mixture of an opportunistic

Inside a geographical region, a mobile device closest to a fixed location is selected to

Definition 2 (location granularity).

An aggregation location includes a set of APs in adjacent position. The granularity of

The urban scenario is transformed into a graph G = {E,V,W} , where each AP is

Contents Figures Metrics Tools

Figure 2 Process of location construction.

What is more, users experience a combination of periodic movement that is

3.1. Hidden Markov Prediction Model

Figure 3 Example of hidden Markov model.

3.1.1. Preparatory Stage

3.1.2. Determination of State Set

{(tk , Xi )}, k = 1,2,3, i {1,2,3,,m}.

P(l) = (p1(l) , p2(l) ,, pm(l) ).

It can be considered that the state Xj obtained by the system at time l + 1 is

where m is the total number of days in the historical record.

According to formula (15), the social relationship matrix of nodes in Ti can be

S = {S1 ,, Sj ,, Sn } , where S C , according to conditional probability then the

Pi (A || Sj ) = PPi (i (A,SSj)j) , j = 1,,n,

Pi (A) = nj=1 j Pi (A || Sj ), j = nj=1j j ,

Pi = Pi HMM + d (Pisocial Pi HMM),

Figure 5 Quantity of locations.

4.2. Similar User Clustering

Contents Figures Metrics Tools

Figure 6 Social network structures of the dataset in different daily samples.

4.3. Prediction Accuracy

accuracyi = { 1,0, whenresultisright

Figure 7 Prediction precision of SMM and MLPR.

Then make a comparison among the proposed social-relationship-based mobile node

Contents Figures Metrics Tools

Figure 9 The number of users in different precision range.

Lastly, the performance of these algorithms is shown as Table 1. The accuracy of

4.4. Impact of Location Granularity

In location-based mobility scenario, location granularity may have a significant influence

Figure 10 The influence of location granularity to prediction accuracy.

In this paper, the influence of opportunistic characteristic in participatory sensing

Contents Figures Metrics Tools

physical worldPervasive and Mobile Computing201061587110.1016/j.pmcj.2009.10.0052-s2.0-

31. Ru R., Xia X.Social-relationship-based mobile node location prediction algorithm in

Contents Figures Metrics Tools

SAGE Research Methods

Contents Figures Metrics Tools

SAGE Browse Resources OpportunitiesInternational

Contents Figures Metrics Tools

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