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Drying Technology: An International Journal

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Computational Study of Impingement Jet Drying of

Seeds Using Superheated Steam Based on Kinetic
Theory of Granular Flow
a a a a
Jaime E. Gmez , Digenes L. Melo , Rodrigo M. Brquez & Edgardo R. Canales
a
Department of Chemical Engineering , University of Concepcin , Concepcin, Chile
Published online: 16 Oct 2009.

To cite this article: Jaime E. Gmez , Digenes L. Melo , Rodrigo M. Brquez & Edgardo R. Canales (2009) Computational
Study of Impingement Jet Drying of Seeds Using Superheated Steam Based on Kinetic Theory of Granular Flow, Drying
Technology: An International Journal, 27:11, 1171-1182, DOI: 10.1080/07373930903262998

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 Drying Technology, 27: 11711182, 2009
Copyright # 2009 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0737-3937 print=1532-2300 online
DOI: 10.1080/07373930903262998
Computational Study of Impingement Jet Drying of Seeds
Using Superheated Steam Based on Kinetic Theory
of Granular Flow
Jaime E. G
omez, Di
ogenes L. Melo, Rodrigo M. B
orquez, and Edgardo R. Canales
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile
A Eulerian model including the kinetic theory of granular ow
(KTGF) and mass transfer in the period of saturated wet surface
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 20:20 24 March 2015
has been developed to simulate continuous drying of particulate
solids using superheated steam in a radial impingement jet system.
When applying this type of drying processes, the preliminary results
obtained show good predictive ability of the Eulerian modeling
based on KTGF. It is concluded that the present study and other
works of modeling can be used to study the dynamics and control
of this drying process and thus would facilitate the equipment design
and scaling.
Keywords Eulerian model; Impingement jet drying; Kinetic
theory of granular ow; Superheated steam
INTRODUCTION
Impingement jet drying has been applied with excellent
results in the textile and paper industries. The food indus-
try also has beneted from the use of impingement jet
dryers, using hot air or superheated steam as drying
agents.[1] In those dryers, one or several gas jets impinge
normally on the surface to be dried,[2] this conguration
being the best for convective heat and mass transfer to a
surface.[3] The temperature and jet velocity may range from
100 to 350
C and 10 to 100 m=s, respectively.[1]
One type of impingement jet dryer, the radial impinge-
ment jet dryer, has also been described as an interesting
alternative to conventional drying because it offers high
heat and mass transfer rates, which are achieved in cylin-
drical chambers with the possibility of inclination, with tan-
gential gas inlet, and axial motion of particulate solids.[4] The
present article is a computer study of a radial impingement
jet dryer in operation with superheated steam.
The use of superheated steam as the drying medium is
considered to be an emerging drying technology and has
been recognized as the drying technology of the future.[5]
Drying with superheated steam presents high heat transfer
coefcients and increased rates of drying in the constant
Correspondence: Di ogenes L. Melo, Department of Chemical
Engineering, University of Concepci on, P.O. Box 160-C,
Concepcion, Chile; E-mail: dmelo@udec.cl
1171
and decreasing periods as long as the steams temperature
is above the inversion temperature.[69] Additionally, it
offers a potential energy savings, when compared with con-
ventional drying using air, especially when the heat content
recovered in the superheated steam purged is transferred to
a process uid.[10] Drying with superheated steam at
atmospheric pressure, from the point of view of irreversible
thermodynamics, indicates that the chemical potential
gradients that control the mass transfer processes, both
internal and external, are inuenced by the thermal gradi-
ents generated during the drying at high temperatures.[11]
The model developed with radial impingement jet
dryers,[4] using computational uid dynamics, has been
used to study hydrodynamic behaviors by calculating airs
turbulent ow, the heat transfer on particles in drying with
superheated steam, and the steamparticle relative motion
with a simplied mathematical model to simulate the batch
drying of seeds.[4,1214] However, particleparticle collisions
and gasparticle turbulent interactions must also be
considered in order to obtain more realistic simulations
of this gassolid ow system.
Several models have incorporated one or both effects to
study the drying of particles (droplets or granular solids) in
different equipment. The simulation of spray dryers, using
turbulence models for continuous and dispersed phases,
has improved the understanding of both the hydrody-
namics behavior and the evaporation process in vertical
and horizontal dryers, contributing to the process design,
scale-up, and evaluation of different congurations.[1523]
Models that consider interparticle contact forces have been
developed to study heat transfer in gassolid ows through
pipes.[24,25] To achieve a better agreement with the experi-
ments in pneumatic drying to high solid concentration, it
has also been necessary to use models that consider parti-
cleparticle interactions.[26] And the addition of both
effects, particleparticle collisions and gasparticle turbu-
lent interactions, in simulation of spouted bed dryers has
contributed to a better understanding of the hydrody-
namics behavior during drying, thus providing important
information for process design and scale-up.[27,28]
 1172 GOMEZ ET AL.
The models currently used in simulations of gassolid
ow systems for application in drying can be divided
into two groups, Lagrangian and Eulerian models. The
Lagrangian approach (also known as discrete element
method, DEM) describes individual particles using
Newtons second law taking into account uid drag forces
and particle collisions forces, while the gas phase is mod-
eled as a continuum.[24,25,29] The Eulerian model (also
called two-uid model, TFM) treats the uid and the solids
as two interpenetrating continua.[27,28] To describe the solid
stress, the TFM uses constitutive equations from the
kinetic theory of granular ow.[28,30] This theory is basi-
cally an extension of the ChapmanEnskog theory for
dense gas to dense particle ow.[3133]
The Lagrangian approach has very intensive computa-
tional requirements and thus is impractical for medium-
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 20:20 24 March 2015
to large-sized problems. On the other hand, the Eulerian
model represents the solid phase as a continuum with little
computational resource requirements, obtaining the mean
elds of the particles ow.[30,34,35] As a result, the con-
tinuum models approach is a natural choice for engineer-
ing hydrodynamics problems.[36]
In impingement jet systems, it is difcult to measure the
operational variables of interest, such as moisture and solid
temperature, and to anticipate the best operating condi-
tions. Therefore, modeling and simulation studies need to
be performed in order to more easily obtain information
about how the drying process is developed inside this equip-
ment. The coupled effects of momentum, heat, and mass
transfer together with a model of turbulence must be incor-
porated into the model. A model that simulates the drying
behavior at dynamic and steady states would allow compu-
tational studies for process identication and control. This
work contributes to the three-dimensional simulation of
the gassolid ow and the drying of wet solid spherical par-
ticles with superheated steam using a Eulerian model with
closures according to the kinetic theory of granular ow.
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Main Assumptions on Impingement Jet Drying Process
In order to represent the physical aspects associated
with the transport phenomena occurring within the dryer,
together with providing good convergence to steady state,
and to achieve an acceptable computational time, the
gassolid hydrodynamics and the kinetic model of drying
are simplied in the following manner:
1. All particles are concentrated near the drying cham-
bers internal wall. Because the frictional interaction
occurs only for a short time, frictional solidsolid
stress is not considered in the model.
2. The energy equations are not solved, and constant
temperatures are considered in both phases. The super-
heated steam temperature is constant, known, and
uniform throughout the dryer. The assumption of
constant temperature does not signicantly affect the
simulation because of the beds high porosity or the
condition of gasparticle diluted ow.
3. The particle is considered homogeneous with no inter-
nal gradients of moisture and temperature. The drying
occurs only during the period of saturated wet surface
until the critical moisture is reached. Without internal
gradients, it is not possible to study the transport
processes in the falling drying rate period.
4. The particles are assumed inelastic, smooth, and of
identical size.
5. Particle properties are assumed independent of moisture.
6. Because of the low operating pressure, the ideal gas
law is assumed.
7. Steam temperature within the dryer is always higher
than waters saturation temperature at the operating
pressure, and therefore condensation on the solid
phase or in the inner walls of the cylindrical chamber
is not considered.
8. Particles reach waters boiling temperature at the
working pressure.
9. Gas and solid physical properties are assumed con-
stants. For the solid phase, properties are stated in
dry basis.
10. Turbulence is not affected by mass transfer between
phases.
GasSolids Hydrodynamics
In order to model the transient nature of gassolid
ows, a Eulerian approximation is used. For all simula-
tions, the present study used a FORTRAN code, devel-
oped by the National Energy Technology Laboratory
(NETL), known as MFIX (Multiphase Flow with Inter-
phase eXchanges).[37]
For the isothermal case of constant drying rate period,
as in this work, the equations of continuity, momentum,
and species together with the constitutive relations for
gas and solid phases in a three-dimensional geometry,
in addition to the turbulence and drag models, are the
following.
Continuity Equations
The continuity equations for the gas and solid phases
are given by
@ @
ag qg ag qg ugi Rgw s 1
@t @xi
@ @
as qs as qs usi Rsw g 2
@t @xi
where a, q, and u are volume fractions, densities, and the
mean velocities, respectively.[35] Given that water vapor is
 COMPUTATIONAL STUDY OF IMPINGEMENT JET DRYING OF SEEDS 1173

the only component in the gas phase and no condensation and the viscosity lb is estimated from the expressions:[38]
occurs, the mass transfer rate in the gas phase corresponds 256 0 2
to the evaporation of water from the solid phase lb l as g0 9
5p
(Rgw s Rsw g Rgs ). p
5
l0 qs dp pHs 10
96
Momentum Equations The solid pressure Ps is the sum of a collision and a
The momentum equation for the gas phase can be kinetic term as expressed in the following equation:
written as

 Ps as qs Hs 4ga2s g0 qs Hs 11
@ @
ag qg ugi ag qg ugj ugi
@t @xj where Hs is a pseudo-temperature, denominated solid tur-
@P @sgij bulent kinetic energy, or a granular temperature;[39] g is
ag  bgs ugi  usi dened as (1 e)=2, where e is the coefcient of restitution
@xi @xj
for particle collisions. The radial distribution function at
ag q gi  Rgs ngs usi ngs ugi 3
g
contact g0 is expressed as:[40]
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 20:20 24 March 2015

where bgs is the drag coefcient between gas and solid 1 3as a2
phases; the last term on the right side of Eq. (3) is the g0 2 s3 12
ag 2ag 2ag
momentum transfer due to mass transfer; and gi is gravity,
which has been modied in the MFIX code to consider
The granular temperature Hs is dened as
dryer inclination. The stress tensor is given by

  
@ugi @ugj 2 @ugi 3 1
sgij lgt  dij 4 H hu0s u0s i 13
@xj @xi 3 @xi 2 2

where dij is the Kronecker delta. The momentum equation where u0s is the uctuating velocity of the particles and can
for the solid phase can be expressed as be derived from

 u0s Us  us 14
@ @
as qs usi as qs usj usi
@t @xj
where Us is the instantaneous velocity of the particles.[35]
@P @ssij  
as bgs ugi  usi
@xi @xj Kinetic Theory of Granular Flow
 
as qs gi Rgs ngs usi ngs ugi 5 A description of the KTGF is presented by the work of
Benavides and van Wachem.[34] The conservation equation
where the solid stress tensor is given by of particle uctuating energy is given by
 

@usi 3 @Hs @Hs
ssij Ps glb dij as qs usj
@xi 2 @t @xj

    
@usi @usj 2 @usi @ @Hs @usi
ls  dij 6 jH ssij Ps  as qs Js 15
@xj @xi 3 @xi @xi @xi @xj

In the equation above, ls is the solid viscosity, which can where Js is the dissipation of uctuating energy due to
be obtained as follows:[38] inelastic collision; Ps corresponds to the net rate of transfer
of uctuating energy between gas and solid phase; and jH
is the granular conductivity, which is estimated from the
 
 
2c ls 8 following expressions:[38]
ls 1 gas g0
3 g0 g2  g 5
   48 as g0 3=2
8 3 Js p g1  g H 16
 1 g3g  2as g0 glb 7 p dp s
5 5
 qs as g0 Hs l0 81as l2g jug  us j2
ls   8
2b l0 Ps 3bgs Hs p 17
qs as g0 Hs q gsas g0 dp3 qs pHs
s
 1174 GOMEZ ET AL.

2  3 Q Q
12 12 2 The terms kg and eg represent the inuence of the
  1 ga g 1 g 4g  3a g
jH 6
6 5
s 0
5
s 0 7
7
solids phase on the gas turbulence and are dened by
jH 4 5
3 64 2 2 Y
41  33gg as g0
25p bgs k12  2kg 23
18 kg

Y Y
where jH is calculated as C3e eg =kg 24
eg kg
p
qs as g0 Hs j0 75qs dp pHs
jH 
6b j0
; with j 0
Turbulence Modeling of the Dispersed Phase
qs as g0 Hs 5qgsas 48g41  33g
s Turbulence predictions in the solids phase are described
by the follow equation:
Turbulence Model
  
To consider the effects due to turbulent interactions in @Hs @Hs @ @Hs
as qs usj as qs j2
both phases, the turbulent gas=solids ow model is used @t @xj @xi @xi
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 20:20 24 March 2015

and implemented in MFIX.[41] Turbulence predictions of @Usi Y

the dispersed phase are based in KTGF, and those of the as qs ssij as qs e2 25
@xj k2
continuous phase are obtained from a modied k  e
model.
Closure Relations for Solids Turbulence Modeling
Turbulence Modeling in the Continuous Phase The solids phase stresses are dened as
Turbulence predictions for the carrier phase are
   
obtained as follows: 1 @usi @usj 2 @usi
ssij n ts  dij
2 @xj @xi 3 @xi

  
@kg @kg @usi
ag qg ugj  Ps  k2 dij 26
@t @xj @xi
 t 
@ lg @kg
ag The shear and bulk viscosities are dened as
@xi rk @xi
@ugi Y
ag sgij ag qg eg 19 n ts as qs n kin col
s ns 27
@xj kg



   2
@eg @eg @ ltg @eg n kin
s k12 gt Hs 1 fc2 as g0 s2 28
ag q g ugj ag 3
@t @xj @xi re @xi
  Y r!
eg @ugi 8 1 e Hs
ag C1e sgij  qg C2e eg 20 n col
s as g0 n kin
s dp 29
kg @xj eg 5 2 p

This equations represent aQsingle phase

Q k  e model, 5
except for the exchange terms kg and eg. k2 as qs n col
s 30
3

Closure Relations for Gas Turbulence Modeling where, fc2 2=5(1 e)(3e  1) and
The Reynolds stress tensor is dened as
    1 2 rc
@ugi @ugj 2 31
t @ugi s2 sx12 sc2
sgij ltg Sgij  dij qg kg lg 21
@xj @xi 3 @xi

with rc (1 e)(3  e)=5.

The eddy viscosity is dened as
The collision time scale is expressed as

kg2 dp
ltg qg C1l 22 sc2 p 32
eg 6as g0 16Hs =p
 COMPUTATIONAL STUDY OF IMPINGEMENT JET DRYING OF SEEDS 1175

The ratio between the Lagrangian integral time scale gt

k12 2kg 3X21 Hs 43
and the particle relaxation time is dened as 1 1 X21 gt
st12 with X21 aags qqs .
gt 33
sx12 g

The particle relaxation time, sx12 , is the characteristic Drag Model

time scale of gasparticle interaction, and it is dened by In this work the modied drag correlation of Hill, Koch,
as q s and Laad implemented in MFIX is used.[38,41] The Hill
sx12 34 KochLadd correlation is valid for a single solid phase.
bgs
F
The uid Lagrangian integral time scale, computed bgs 18lg 1  as 2 as 44
along the particle trajectory, is given by dp2

The drag force F is given as

st1
st12 q
35
3 F2  1
1 Cb n2r F 1 Re; if as  0:01 and Re  45
Downloaded by [McGill University Library] at 20:20 24 March 2015

8 3=8  F3
where Cb 1.8  1.35cos2(h). Here h is the angle between F F0 F1 Re2 ; if as > 0:01 and
mean particle velocity and mean relative velocity. q
F3 F32  4F1 F0  F2 46
3juiir j 2 Re 
n2r 36 2F1
2kg
F F2 F3 Re;
8 F2 1
And the time scale of turbulent eddies is calculated by < as  0:01 and Re > 3=8F 3 47
if p
3 kg : F3 F32 4F1 F0 F2
as > 0:01 and Re >
st1 C1l 37 2F1
2 eg
The coefcients are dened as follows:
The dissipation rate due to inelastic collisions is 8
p 
>
> 13 as =2135=64as lnas 17:14as
expressed as >
> 1  w
>
< 10:681as 8:48a2s 8:1a3s


F0 as
w 10 1a ; if 0:01 < as < 0:4
  H3=2 >
> 3
2 >
> s
e2 12 1 e a2s qs g0 s
38 >
: 10 as
if as  0:4
dp 1as 3

48
In terms of its kinetic and collisional contributions, the 8 q

solids granular conductivity is dened as < 2

40; for 0:01 < as  0:1
F1 as 49
:
0:11 0:00051 exp11:6as ; for as > 0:1
j2 as qs jkin col
2 j2 39
8
p 
   >
3 9=5 nc 1 >
>
> 1  w
13 as =2135=64as lnas 17:89as
jkin
2 9=10k12 gt Hs 1 -c as g0 >
<

2
10:681es 11:03es 15:41es

3

2 sx12 sc2 F2
>
>
as
w 10 1a 3
; if as < 0:4 50
40 >
> s
>
: 10 as
; ifas  0:4
r! 1as 3
1 e Hs
jcol
2 18=5as g0 kin
j2 5=9dp 41 
2 p 0:9351as 0:03667; if as < 0:0953
F3
0:0673 0:212as 0:0232=1  as 5 ; if as  0:0953
with the constants nc (1 e)(49  33e)=100 and 51
-c (1 e)2(2e  1)=100.Q  
The interaction term k2 is dened as qg 1  as ug  us dp
Re 52
2lg
Y
bgs k12  3Hs 42
k2 w exp100:4  as =as 53
 1176 GOMEZ ET AL.

Mass Transfer assumed homogeneous throughout the particle. The water

Mass transfer from the solid phase into the vapor phase transport equation in the solid phase is expressed as
occurs in the period of saturated wet surface. Negligible  
internal heat transfer resistance within the particle is @ @ @ @Xsw
es qs Xsw es qs usi Xsw Dww  Rgs
assumed; therefore, particle temperature is uniform and @t @xi @xi @xi
constant and equal to the saturation temperature of water 55
vapor at the pressure of the drying chamber. The steam
temperature is considered uniform and constant within Moisture removal from the solid occurs on the particle
the dryer; therefore, the rate of drying is only affected by surface in a thin layer of saturated steam in contact with
changes in the heat transfer coefcient,[4] specically by external superheated steam. This process of steam diffusion
the solids volume fraction and the relative velocity in superheated steam is represented by the rst term on the
between phases. right side of Eq. (55). Diffusive transport coefcient Dww is
estimated from the semiempirical equation of Holman,[43]
Drying Kinetics which in the case under consideration reduces to
The wet particle remains at the constant temperature of
boiling water while it dries. All the heat transferred from Tg3=2
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the superheated steam is consumed in the vaporization of Dww 5:133 56

P
water. The drying rate is obtained from a pseudo
steady-state heat balance:[4]
EXPERIMENTAL EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE
he Experimental Equipment
Rgs Tg  Ts  54
DHv The pilot radial impingement jet dryer is schematically
presented in Fig. 1. Both hot air and superheated steam
where he is the heat transfer coefcient corrected for the
rate of mass transfer[42] and it is estimated through the
expression:[38]

Cpg  Rgs
he
  ;
Cpg Rgs
exp h0e
1

6  kg0  1  ag  Nu
with h0e
dp2

The Nusselt number Nu is obtained from:[38]

Nu 7  10ag 5a2g 1 0:7Re0:2 Pr1=3

1:33  2:4ag 1:2a2g Re0:7 Pr1=3 ;

with Reynolds and Prandtl numbers calculated as

qg ag jug  us jdp Cpg lg

Re and Pr
lg kg0

Species Transport Equations

The gas phase is made up only of water vapor, its mass
fraction is equal to unity, and there is no species transport
equation to be solved. The solid phase is formed by dry
solid and liquid water, and the mass fraction of the water FIG. 1. Schematics of impingement jet dryer. (a) Right-side view; (b) gas
species Xsw corresponds to the moisture of wet solid, ow eld.
 COMPUTATIONAL STUDY OF IMPINGEMENT JET DRYING OF SEEDS
can be used as drying agents. This equipment has two
stainless steel cylindrical chambers (1 m long and 8.06 cm
in radius) in series. Both inputs and outputs of gas and
solids are clearly seen in Fig. 1(a). The dryer is slightly
inclined with respect to the horizontal plane in order to
cause the axial movement of solid particles.
The wet solids are continuously fed into the dryer
through a chute and an inlet channel of rectangular cross
section, regulated by a rotary valve of variable speed
(Fig. 2) governed by a variable frequency motor reducer.
A jet of superheated steam is introduced tangentially
downwards all along the dryer through a narrow slot
2 mm wide (on average) and 2 m long (Fig. 1(b)), constructed
of two parallel steel plates with eight adjusting screws to reg-
ulate the width. Solid particles are strongly impacted at the
slot by the jet of gas at high velocity, and the impingement
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front is located along the entry gas slot. The gas ows in a
circular motion within the chamber in cross-ow against
the solids (Fig. 1(b)) and is discharged through upper length-
wise expansion chambers. As a result of uid drag and
gravity force, the solids advance in a helicoidal motion
between its feed and discharge (Fig. 2), and the highest solid
concentration is located near the dryers inner wall.
The cylindrical chambers have electrical resistances on
their external surface and the system is thermally insulated.
To monitor particle moisture, the dryer has three samplers
of solids located 50, 100, and 150 cm from the dryer inlet
(Fig. 2). Details of the sample ports are given in the work
of Borquez et al.[44] Samples are manually collected by
removing the caps at the bottom of the samplers. The
solids moisture in position L 0 cm corresponds to the
moisture measured at the feed port.
The steam temperature is measured with three tempera-
ture probes. Two are located in the expansion chambers,
the rst near the feed port and the second in the last expan-
sion chamber near the discharge point. The third is located
FIG. 2. Sample ports and particle trajectory.
1177
in the S-50 sampler, which measures steam temperature in
the center of the drying chamber. This steam temperature is
the one used for the simulations.
The steam ow is regulated by a globe valve and
measured using a vortex ow meter. At the start, steam is
provided by the electrical boiler; during steady state, the
steam is recirculated into the dryer. The recycling circuit
consists of a cyclone followed by an electrical heater and
two fans in series that re-inject superheated steam into
the dryer. A steam makeup, regulated with a valve located
in the rst fans suction, is used to compensate for steam
losses through the chute, the anges, and the solid
discharge.
Experimental Procedure
The solid used in these experiments is rapeseeds (Bras-
sica napus). The mean particle diameter is 2.1 mm with a
particle size range between 1.29 and 2.18 mm. These seeds
were selected due to their regular and well-dened shape,
with sphericity near to one. In addition, they have a narrow
particle size distribution; they also easily absorb and release
moisture.
Before each run, the seeds were wetted during 2 h at
40
C and excess water was removed with adsorbent paper,
reaching moisture near 57% (dry basis).
The dry solid ow was measured during operation with
hot air because it cannot be measured with superheated
steam, because over pressurizing the machine results in
the expulsion of solids from the feed port. Consequently,
the rotary valve was set at a speed of 15 rpm. Previous test-
ing at 10, 15, and 20 rpm indicated that 15 rpm assures
minimal solids accumulation inside the dryer, mainly
produced near the S-150 sampler.
Once the rpm was set, the ow of wet solids was
measured operating with air at the maximum temperature
of 134
C. The feed port was loaded with a known mass
of wet solids (34 kg) and the time required to completely
empty the feed port was measured. Solids moisture was
measured to determine the dry solids ow rate.
The mean residence time was determined with the
holdup of dry solids and dry solids ow rate operating with
hot air. At the end of each run the solids feed was stopped
and all the stock of particles within the dryer was collected
at the discharge and weighed to determine the dry solids
holdup.
Superheated steam was produced in the electric heater at
50 psig and 250
C. With superheated steam, there is a slight
overpressure, which prevents entry of environmental air.
The steam temperature measured at S-50 port ranged from
139 to 141
C.
It was experimentally found that steady-state conditions
were reached after 10 min of operation. After this time the
sample ports were emptied for cleaning of accumulated
 1178 GOMEZ ET AL.

material and then closed. During an experimental run, two

solids samples were extracted from each sampling port, as
well as in the feed port. Moisture was determined by gravi-
metric methods. Experiments with superheated steam were
performed at the following operating conditions: dry solids
ow 4.14 kg=h (estimated in hot air operation); steam
ow 346 m3=h; dryer inclination 20
.
Some experimental problems were observed in test runs:
condensation of superheated steam occurred at the solid
discharge chamber due to poor thermal insulation, and
the moisture measurement at this point was discarded.

COMPUTER SIMULATION
Model Solution and Physical Parameters
MFIX uses a nite volume approach for the discretiza-
tion of the governing equations. A second-order discretiza-
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tion is used for spatial derivatives and a rst-order

discretization for time derivatives. A modied SIMPLE
algorithm with partial elimination of interphase coupling
is employed to solve the discretized equations. To reduce
the run time, the program uses an automatic time step
adjustment.[45]
The two drying chambers are represented through a
three-dimensional cylindrical coordinate system. The grid FIG. 3. Three-dimensional computational domain: (a) axial discretiza-
is uniform in the axial and angular directions, but in the tion domain, inlets and outlets; (b) internal view of the dryer; (c) radial
radial direction a nonuniform grid is used in order to prop- and angular discretization domains; (d) representation of gas inlet slot.
erly represent the geometry close to the walls. Grid inde-
pendence is tested by analyzing the effect of grid size in
the axial y-direction on the axial proles of the solids TABLE 1
moisture. With constant grid sizes in the radial x-direction Simulation conditions
and angular z-direction, a grid size of 2.5 cm in the axial
direction is found to provide reasonable results in accuracy Geometry
and computational time. Therefore, the computational Diameter of domain 16.12 cm
domain is (5  1.572  0.2) cm in the x-direction, 80  (X-direction)
2.5 cm in the y-direction, and 72  5
in the z-direction Length of domain 200 cm
(Figs. 3(a), 3(b), and 3(c)). (Y-direction)
Because the program MFIX does not allow a rectangular Particle properties (seeds of
shape entry as in Fig. 1(a), a circular entry with the same Brassica napus)
cross-sectional area as in the real entry was used (Fig. 3(b)). Mean diameter 0.21 cm
To describe the gas inlet through the slot an inner sur- Density (dry basis) 1.15 g=cm3
face in the form of a circular n (0.1 cm thick) was added Superheated steam
next to the steam entry, together with a lid or impermeable Thermal conductivity 6.728  105 cal=(s cm K)
internal surface located at 5
(Fig. 3(d)). Heat capacity 0.48 cal=(g K)
Table 1 summarizes the dimensions of the computa- Molecular viscosity 1.379  104 g=(cm s)
tional domain and physical properties of both phases used Maximum value of the 1000 g=(cm s)
in the simulations. turbulent viscosity
Other physical parameters
Heat of vaporization of 537.15 cal=g
Initial and Boundary Conditions
water
Initially, the cylindrical chamber contained 0.99 volume
Diffusivity of vapor into 0.38 cm2=s
fraction of superheated steam at a pressure slightly over
superheated steam
atmospheric. The velocities of both phases were set equal
Gravity 980 cm=s2
to zero. The initial time step was 20  1010 s, as explained
Coefcient of restitution 0.9
in the Results section.
 COMPUTATIONAL STUDY OF IMPINGEMENT JET DRYING OF SEEDS 1179

TABLE 2
Case study. Operating conditions
Mass ow rate of solids 4.14 kg=h
Volumetric ow rate of steam 346 m3=h
Dryer inclination 20

Steam temperature 413.15 K
Internal pressure of system 1.13 atm
Temperature of solids 376.53 K

Steams saturation temperature is obtained from the

saturation properties in the NIST database[46] (http://web-
book.nist.gov/chemistry/).
A nonslip wall condition for steam and a free-slip condi-
tion for solids were applied to the walls. Additionally, wall
functions for gas phase turbulence boundary condition were
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used, and a zero gradient condition was used for the turbu-
lent kinetic energy and the turbulent energy dissipation of the
gas phase. The ux of granular energy and mass on the walls
was null. At the steamsolids outows, the outlet pressure
was set equal to the pressure in the drying chambers.
Table 2 summarizes the simulated dryer operating condi-
tions. All simulations were run for an operating time of 200 s
to assure steady-state conditions with a CPU time approxi-
mately of 1680 h in the Van-Laar Cluster of the Chemical
Engineering Department of the Universidad de Concepci on
(a master node with four CPUs Dual Intel Xeon and 16 GB
of RAM together with 16 slave nodes with two CPUs Dual
Intel Xeon each and 16 GB of total RAM).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The experimental results show that the increase in solid
moisture due to steam condensation in the feed chute is not
important (approximately 1.52%). Consequently, the
moisture measured when loading the wet solid into the
chute was used in the simulation.
The effects of the discretization of the axial grid and the
initial time span on the axial prole of the solids moisture
provided by the model were studied. Different quantities of
nodes in the axial direction were tested in the range of
30200 nodes. The initial time step varied between 20  104
and 20  1010 s. The MFIX program could not simulate
the cases with 200 nodes and initial time steps between
20  104 and 20  1010 s; even after several attempts the
simulation always stopped at t 0 s. The axial prole of
solid moisture was observed to be strongly dependent on
the number of nodes and the initial time step used. The
optimal solution was obtained for 80 nodes in the axial
direction and an initial time step of 20  1010 s. The opti-
mal condition was used to compare experimental measure-
ments with simulation results.
In Fig. 4 a sudden drop in moisture is observed once the
feed enters the dryer. This effect may be attributed to the
solids expansion from the inlet channel to the wider cross
FIG. 4. Dynamic and steady-state axial moisture prole.
section of the dryer and, more signicantly, to the impinge-
ment jet of superheated steam on solid material, which
gives rise to a strong turbulent regime at high drying rates.
Figure 4 also indicates that steady-state conditions are
reached at 150200 s of drying.
Experimental results agree with model simulation at
positions 50 and 100 cm. However, at sample port S-150
the measured moisture is too low and does not follow the
trend prole given by the simulation. There were difculties
in obtaining regular sampling of solids at that position,
though sometimes a small amount was collected. The low
value of moisture content may be due to irregularities in
the slot width: the two steel plates that conform the narrow
slot of entry gas are not strictly straight but present curva-
tures. Even adjusting the screws, it was impossible to get a
uniform slot width of 2 mm, and, at position S-150 it was
wider, steam velocity decreased, and probably the solids
remained for a longer time in that region, which contribu-
ted to an increased drying. As a reference, critical moisture
of rapeseeds in a vibrouidized bed dryer with hot air is
0.37 (dry basis).[47]
Finally, simulation results (Fig. 4) indicate that the use-
ful length of the drying chamber is about 180 cm. After that
position moisture changes are negligible.
CONCLUSIONS
Simulation of a radial impingement jet dryer with
superheated steam in continuous operation shows good
agreement between the Eulerian model based on kinetic
theory of granular ow (KTGF) and preliminary experi-
mental results.
 1180 GOMEZ ET AL.

Additional studies on two-uid model (TFM) and Xdb Moisture (dry basis) (kg=kg)
discrete element method (DEM) applied to this drying x, y, z Radial, axial, and angular directions,
process should be performed. With good predictive ability, respectively
these models would facilitate the equipment design and
scaling, as well as provide a better understanding of the Greek Symbols
dynamics and control of the process. a Volume fraction
bgs Drag coefcient (kg=m3 s)
c Constant in solid viscosity formulation
NOMENCLATURE (equal to 1.6); inclination of dryer
C1l, C1e, C2e, C3e Constants in the gas turbulence model eg Turbulent energy dissipation in the gas
with values 0.09, 1.44, 1.92, and 1.22, phase (m2=s3)
respectively e2 Dissipation of solids uctuating
Cp Heat capacity (J=kg K) energy due to interparticle collisions
Dww Diffusivity of vapor into superheated gt Ratio between Lagrangian and parti-
steam (m2=s) cle relaxation time scales
dp Mean particle diameter (m) Hs Granular temperature (m2=s2)
jH Granular conductivity (kg=m s)
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e Coefcient of restitution
F Dimensionless drag force j2 Conductivity of solids turbulent
F0 Coefcient in Re expansion of the energy
dimensionless drag force at low Re k2 Bulk viscosity in the solids phase
F1 Coefcient in Re expansion of the l Viscosity (kg=m s)
dimensionless drag force at low Re lg Molecular viscosity of gas phase
F2 Coefcient in Re expansion of the (kg=m s)
dimensionless drag force at high Re lgt Turbulent viscosity of gas phase
F3 Coefcient in Re expansion of the (kg=m s)
dimensionless drag force at high Re ltg Turbulent eddy viscosity for gas phase
g Gravity (m=s2) (kg=m s)
g0 Radial distribution function at contact n ts Turbulent kinematic viscosity for
DHv Heat of vaporization of water (J=kg) solids phase
he Heat transfer coefcient corrected for nc, fc2, rc, and -c Constants depending on particle resti-
mass transfer rate (W=m3 K) tution coefcient
he0
Heat transfer coefcient not corrected ngs ngs 1, if Rgs < 0; else ngs 0
ngs ngs 1  ngs
for mass transfer rate (W=m3 K) Q
J Dissipation of uctuating energy Turbulence exchange terms
(W=kg) q Density (kg=m3)
kg Turbulent kinetic energy of gas phase rk, re Constants in the gas turbulence model
(m2=s2) of values 1.0, 1.3, respectively
kg0
Thermal conductivity of gas phase s Stress tensor (Pa)
(W=m K) sc2 Collisional time scale
k12 Cross-correlation of gas and solids st1 Energetic turbulent eddies time scale
uctuating velocities st12 Eddy-particle interaction time scale
L Axial length of the dryer (m) sx12 Particle relaxation time scale
Nu Nusselt number Subscripts
P Gas pressure (Pa)
Pr Prandtl number g Gas phase
R Mass transfer rate (kg=m3 s) i, j Indices used in Einstein summation
Re Reynolds number convention
T Temperature (K) r Relative
t Time (s) s Solid phase
U Instantaneous velocity (m=s) w Water species
u Mean velocity (m=s)
Superscripts
u0 Fluctuating velocity (m=s)
X Mass fraction or moisture (wet basis) col Collisional
(kg=kg) kin Kinetic
 COMPUTATIONAL STUDY OF IMPINGEMENT JET DRYING OF SEEDS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful for nancial support from
CONICYT through the Higher Education MECE Program
and Scholarship AT-23070073 and to Fondecyt research
grant No. 1060919. The authors are also indebted to MFIX
developers and the MFIX user group for their important
comments received during model implementation.
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