Reservoir Rock Properties

Permeability
Darcys Law (incompressible fluid)
Darcys Law (ideal gas, compressible fluid)
Klinkenberg correction
Relative, absolute and effective permeability
Viscosity
Carman-Kozeny Equation
Tortuosity
Influence of grain size and Sw on permeability
Flow in a wellbore (horizontal, steady state)
Averaging porosity, permeability and water saturation
Water cut, Water-oil-ratios
Fluid distribution in a reservoir, Transition Zone Production
Relative permeabilities
Fractures

1
Darcys Law Permeability

2
1
Q = K A
( h2 h1 )
h
Q = volume flow/sec

=p 2 g ( h2 z 2 )

=p 1 g ( h1 z 1 )

=
h ( z 2 z1 )

Q = K '
A
( p 2 p 1 + gh )
h
Darcys original experimental configuration.

Scheidegger, 1957 2
 Permeability

Darcys Law

Q = K '
A
( p 2 p 1 + gh )
h
kg
=
K = cm / s
'

K is the hydraulic conductivity

and k is the permeability

Is the dynamic or absolute viscosity
is the density of the fluid and
Convert hydraulic conductivity
to Darcys for water: g is the acceleration due to gravity
1 cm/s = 1 md
1 Darcy = 9.86923 x 10-9 cm2
= 0.986923 m2
3
Permeability is the capacity of a rock to transmit a fluid.
All factors that control effective porosity also control permeability.
In addition, permeability is also affected by the type and location of clay
present.
ASSUMPTIONS:
Darcys Equation (steady state horizontal flow):
- Single Fluid
q k dP - No rock fluid interaction
u= =
Ac dl - Incompressible fluid
- Laminar flow
where u = velocity, cm/sec
q = flow rate of fluid, cm3/sec
k = permeability, darcy
Ac = cross-sectional area, cm2
= viscosity, centipoise, (dyne-sec/cm2)/100
dP/dl = pressure gradient in flow direction, atm/cm

Practical unit is Darcy. A porous material has k = 1 Darcy if a pressure

difference of 1atm will produce a flow rate of 1 cm3/sec of a fluid with
1cP viscosity through a cube having sides 1 cm in length.
4
Permeability

Darcys Equation (steady state horizontal flow):

q k dP
u= =
Ac dl

where k/ is often called the mobility

Practical unit is Darcy. A porous material has k = 1 Darcy if a pressure

difference of 1atm will produce a flow rate of 1 cm3/sec of a fluid with
1cP viscosity through a cube having sides 1 cm in length.

5
Reynolds Number in a Porous Medium
Ratio of inertial (v) to viscous (/L) forces.
Porous Pack

dv
Re p =

d = average grain size

= velocity
= density
friction

= viscosity

Pipe:

Dv
Re =

Re
Rec ~ 2100

See Dullien page 241

6
Darcys Law
q k dP
u= = where u is the average velocity cm/sec
Ac dl q
q k PL
dl = dP A
Ac
q
Integrating between the limits 0 and L and P0 and PL
P0 p/L
q L k PL
A 0
dl = dP
P0
q k
(L 0) = (PL P0 )
A

kA(PL P0 )
q= PL > P0

What are the dimensions of permeability? 7

Permeability Ranges
1.E+06
1.E+05
1.E+04
Permeability, md

1.E+03 d
1.E+02 Data from Beard and Weyl, 1973

1.E+01
1.E+00 md

1.E-01
1.E-02
1.E-03 d

1.E-04
1.E-05
nd
1.E-06
0 10 20 30 40 50
Porosity, % 8
Absolute, effective and relative permeabilities

Permeability in Darcys equation is the absolute permeability if the

rock is 100% saturated with a single phase, water, oil or gas, etc.

When two or more fluids coexist in the rock, the measured permeability is
referred to as the effective permeability, kw, ko or kg.

Sum of the effective permeabilities of all the phase will always be less
than or equal to the absolute permeability.

Relative permeability is the ratio of the effective permeability for a

particular phase to the absolute permeability.

kw ko kg
=k rw = ; k ro = ; k rg
k k k

9
Vertical Flow
Case a: Case b: Case c:

flow under
free flow flow under head h
head h
h

x
h

L L L

kA (L + h ) kA gh
kA q= g q=
q= g L L

kA h
=q g + 1
L
10
Permeability conversion factors:
1 Poise = 1 dyne-sec/cm2

k = q L/ A P

1 darcy = (cm3/sec) (cP) (cm) / (cm2) (atm)

= 9.869x10-7 (cm3/sec) (cP) (cm) / (cm2) (dynes/cm2)
= 7.324x10-5 (ft3/sec) (cP) (ft) / (ft2) (psi)
= 9.679x10-4 (ft3/sec) (cP) (cm) / (cm2) (cm water)
= 1.127 (bbl/day) (cP) (ft) / (ft2) (psi)
= 1.424x10-2 (gal/min) (cP) (ft) / (ft2) (ft water)

1 Darcy = 0.987 x 10-12 m2 = 0.987 x 10-8 cm2 = 0.987 m2

11
Viscosity: (laminar flow)

Plate 1 F

A
Fy
yyy v
A
= velocity
Av
F
Plate 2 y
Evaluating the constant of proportionality:

Av = viscosity, [poise (gm/sec-cm), Pa*s]

F= 10 poise = 1 Pa*s; 1 Poise = 1 dyne sec/cm2
y 12
Viscosity: (laminar flow)
Plate 1 Av
F=
y
= velocity

Plate 2
F dv
= =
A dy
= viscosity, [poise]

dyne sec gm
poise =
cm 2
cm sec
13
Poiseuille Flow
dP
P P+
dx

dx r

viscous forces

Balance Forces
dP
r 2P r 2 (P + dx ) + 2 rdx =0
dx
dP
r 2dx + 2 rdx =0
dx
r dP
+ = 0
2 dx
r dP
=
2 dx
14
Poiseuille Flow
dP
P P+
dx

dx r

viscous forces

Balance Forces

r dP dv
= Viscosity is : =
2 dx dr
r dP dv
= =
2 dx dr

dv
When r = 0, =0 Velocity is a maximun
dr
When r = R, velocity is 0
15
Poiseuille Flow
dP
P P+
dx

dx r

viscous forces

Balance Forces

r dP dv
= =
2 dx dr

0 R
r dP (R 2 r 2 ) dP
v dv = r 2 dx dr v (r ) =
4 dx
Speed at radius r.
16
Poiseuille Flow
dP
P P+
dx

dx r
dA = 2rdr

viscous forces dr
r
(R 2 r 2 ) dP
v (r ) =
4 dx
Consider now the volumetric flow rate, q, through each ring of
inner radius r and outer radius r + dr and cross section area
dA = 2rdr subjected to a constant pressure gradient, dP/dx.
The volumetric flow rate, q, is vdA, i.e. cm3/sec

(R 2 r 2 ) dP dP R
dP R 4 R 4
q =vdA = 2 rdr = (R r r )dr =
2 3
( )
4 dx 2 dx 0 2 dx 2 4
17
Viscosity

Using Poiseuilles Equation:

R p 4
q=
8 L
Homework:

1.Calculate the viscosity of a liquid which flows at a rate of 1.80 cm3/minute

through a tube whose length is 25.0 cm and whose inner radius is 0.100 mm,
the pressure difference is 3.00 x 106 dyne/cm2.

18
 Homework:

2. Consider the human heart as a constant volume pump, pumping 167 cm3/sec
of blood whose viscosity is 8 cP. Take an average artery to be 5 mm in
diameter and a length of 6 ft. Plot the increase in pressure as the artery
suffers restrictions due to plaque build up which ultimately reduces the diameter
to 1 mm. Compute in steps of 0.05mm and fully annotate this graph.

3. Production tubing is 2 inches in diameter and is 4000 ft long. It suffers scale build up,
i.e. minerals and wax deposits on the inner diameter (ID), reducing the
tubing ID to 1.0 inch. If the bottomhole pressure is 2000 psi and the uphole
pressure is atmospheric, compute the resultant flow reduction.
Assume the production fluid has a viscosity of 3 cP. Also calculate the percentage
of flow rate reduction relative to original production.

19
Viscosity: (falling ball viscometers based on Stokes Law)

2 gr 2 r
= d
9v
= difference in density between fluid
sphere (steel = 5.6 gm/cc; w = 1.0 gm/cc)
= terminal velocity = d/t
r = radius of the sphere
g = acceleration due to gravity
Same equation used for calculating settling velocities of sediments.

2 gr 2
=
9 20
 Balls of equal density dropped at the same time into a viscous fluid.

vr 2

balls

t=0

t = 1s
Size determines how fast they settle !

http://lecturedemo.ph.unimelb.edu.au/Fluids-Surface-tension/Hydrodynamics-Bernoullis-law/Fc-10-Viscosity-Stokes-Law
21
 Homework:

4. Calculate the viscosity of a liquid when a steel ball (5 mm in diameter)

falls 10 cm in 5 seconds. The density of the liquid is 0.75 gm/cc.

5. Assume the density of spherical quartz particles and the density and
viscosity of the fluid are 1.0 gm/cc and 0.001 Pa-sec, respectively. Calculate
the settling velocities in miles per hour for clay, silt and coarse sand size particles.
(Re 0.1)

22
Viscosities T, oC , cP
Acetone 15 0.34
Benzene 20 0.65
Glycerin 20 835
Mercury 20 1.55
Oils
light 15 114
heavy 15 660
paraffin 18 1018
Water 0 1.79
20.2 1.00
100 0.28
air 0 171x10-3

23
Fluid Viscosities
Dynamic Viscosity (cP) versus Temperature (Bear, p35)

Temperature oC

Liquid 0 10 20 40 70
Water 1.787 1.310 1.002 0.653 0.407
Benzene 0.902 0.759 0.649 0.492 0.351
Chloroform 0.700 0.626 0.564 0.465
Ethyl Alcohol 0.177 0.145 0.199 0.827 0.504
Methyl Alcohol 0.813 0.686 0.591 0.450
Air .000171 .000181 .000190
Ether 0.286 0.258 0.234 0.196

While temperature does not affect permeability, failing to correct for

the temperature dependence of fluid viscosity can yield erroneous
permeability measurements.

24
 Viscosity
= 2E+07*T-2.951
Water
2.0 Benzene 180
.

Chloroform
Viscosity, cP

Ethyl Alcohol
1.5 Methyl Alcohol

Ether
120
mineral oil
1.0
Power (mineral oil)

60
0.5

0.0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Temperature, oC

25
Viscosity of reservoir fluids at reservoir conditions
Forcing more gas
9 into the liquid below
the bubble pt
8
Bubble point
7

6
Viscosity, cP

5 A
B
4
C
D
3

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Pressure, psig

Craft and Hawkins, 2015 26

 Athabasca Bitumen, Canada (8.6oAPI)

10000000

1000000
Oil Viscosity (cP)

100000

10000

1000

100

10

1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Temperature (oC)
27
Reynolds Number
vD
Re pipe =

where is the density of the fluid, is the velocity, D is pipe
diameter and is the viscosity

Pipes: laminar flow if: 0 < Re < 2100

Rocks: laminar flow if: 0 < Re < 10

28
Transition between laminar and turbulent flow in a bead pack.

Observations of flow resistance versus Reynolds number for bead packs

of narrow and broad distributions, solid and open circles.
after Dullien, 1992 29
Critical Re
for porous media

Re_crit

Muskat, 1949 30
Permeability, Darcy, artificially mixed and wet-packed sand

31
Beard and Weyl, 1973
Relationship between porosity and permeability:
Darcys Equation Poiseuilles Equation

kA( P2 P1 ) r p 4
r
q= q=
L 8 L
Let our porous media be made of n parallel tubes.
n r 4
tube
Equating and solving for k: k=
8 Ac
V pore n r 2 L n r 2
= = =
Vbulk Ac L Ac
n r 2
Solving for Ac Ac =

32
Relationship between porosity and permeability:

n r 4 n r 2 r
k= Ac =
8 Ac

tube
r 2
Kozeny Eqn: k=
8
where r is radius of the tubes comprising the porous media and is the
conventional definition of porosity.

This suggests the permeability should be directly related to porosity and the
cross sectional area of the tubes!
33
Relationship between porosity and permeability:

r 2
r
k=
Kozeny Eqn:

8
Specific surface area per unit grain volume, Svgr, (surface area/
unit grain volume) : tube

Asurf n 2 rL 2n r
=
Svgr = =
Vgrain Ac L(1 ) Ac (1 )

n r 2
2

2r = 2
r2 Svgr =
Ac (1 ) r
rewriting:
r
34
Relationship between porosity and permeability:

r 2
r
k=
Kozeny Eqn:

8
Specific surface area per unit grain volume, Svgr, (surface area/
unit grain volume) : tube
Asurf n 2 rL 2n r
=
Svgr = =
Vgrain Ac L(1 ) Ac (1 )

n 2 r 2
Recall:
n r=
2
S =
Ac =
n r 2 (1 ) r (1 )
vgr

PE 3213 35
Relationship between porosity and permeability:
Kozeny Eqn:
r 2
k= r
8
n 2 r 2
=Svgr =
n r 2 (1 ) r (1 )
tube
2 4 2
=r = r2
Svgr (1 ) Svgr (1 )
2 2

4 2 1 3
k = 2 2
8 Svgr (1 )
2
2 S
vgr (1 )
2

PE 3213 36
Relationship between porosity and permeability:

Carman_Kozeny Eqn: r

1 3
k = 2
2 S (1 ) 2 tube
vgr

Simple straight capillary tubes!

37
Tortousity
Ideal Model
Straight Tubes

L
A more realistic model for
La path of fluid through a
rock. The actual length, La,
is often greater than L, the
measured core length for
example.
Tortousity, , is the ratio of the actual path length to the straight path equivalent:
2
L La
= a or =
L L

38
Tortousity
Ideal Model
Straight Tubes

L
A more realistic model for
La path of fluid through a
rock. The actual length, La,
is often greater than L, the
measured core length for
example.

La
2 1 3
= k =
L 2 S 2 (1 ) 2
vgr

The factor 2 is the shape factor, the Kozeny constant, Kz,usually taken to be 5.
39
Flow Units:
(rocks having common flow characteristics)

1 3
k =
K S 2 (1 ) 2
z vgr
divide both sides by and take the square root:

k 1
=
K z Svgr (1 )

k
= Reservoir quality index , RQI

k
RQI ( m) = 0.0314 when k is in md

is a fraction
40
Flow Units: (rocks having common flow characteristics)

k 1
=
K z Svgr (1 )

k
=
RQI = FZI
(1 )

1
=
FZI = Flow Zone Indicator
Svgr K z

is the ratio of pore volume to grain volume, Rpvgv
(1 )
Note that:

41
 Flow Units: (rocks having common flow characteristics)

k
=
RQI = FZI RQI = R pvgv FZI
(1 )
RQI
FZI =
=
log( RQI ) log( R pvgv ) + log( FZI ) R pvgv

intercept = log(FZI)
slopes = 1
log(RQI)

Zones with common flow qualities will

plot along a common line.

0
log(Rpvgv)
42
Flow Units: (rocks having common flow characteristics)

0.0 FZI= 1

FZI= 0.5
-0.5
FZI= 0.2
-1.0

-1.5
ln(RQI)

-2.0

-2.5

-3.0

-3.5

-4.0
-3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0
ln(/(1-))

=0.5

43
Grain size dependence of FZI: Simpson sandstone

RQI
FZI =
R pvgv

44
Doveton, 2014
Flow Units: (actual data)

Slope=1

NBU42W-29, North Burbank Field

Craig, 1971 45
 Depth k, md
2905 0.224 0.12
Given the values, compute 2906 0.337 0.1015
RQI in m and determine 2907
2908
0.187
0.653
0.1165
0.1304
FZI and differentiate hydraulic 2909 1.04 0.1153
2910 0.45 0.0853
flow units, if possible. 2911 434 0.2519
2912 196 0.2159
2913.1 0.007 0.0467
2913.5 1156 0.2949
2915 531 0.2679
2916 1059 0.2874
2917 822 0.2765
2918 1014 0.2769
2934 109 0.2269
2935 138 0.233
2936 166 0.2381
2937 362 0.2554
2938 77.9 0.2009
2939 64.9 0.1863
2940 51.1 0.1685
2941 89.9 0.1555
2942 84.1 0.1636
2943 21.2 0.1537
2944 23.7 0.1676
2945 39.6 0.1728
2946 44.4 0.177
2947 20.8 0.1578
2948 13.9 0.151
North Burbank Data 2949 20.8 0.1543
2950 6.39 0.1365
2951 10 0.1449
2952 15.3 0.1492
2953 11.4 0.1447
2954 22.8 0.1518
2955 37.2 0.1537
2956 29.1 0.1537
2957 5.84 0.1364
2958 13.9 0.1529 46
2959 16.4 0.1387
Given the values below, compute RQI in m and determine FZI and differentiate hydraulic flow units if
possible.

K, md
22 0.08
51 0.10
315 0.12
344 0.13
90 0.11
112 0.09
430 0.19
250 0.16
490 0.14

Tiab and Donaldson 2014

47
Permeability-Porosity Relationships:
Carman-Kozeny equation:

1 3
k =
K S2 (1 ) 2
z vgr
where k is the permeability
Svgr surface area per grain volume
is the porosity; Kz is the shape factor ~ 5.

cs-md_sand

fg_sand

silt

Coarse

clay

48
Chilingar et al., 1969 Craze, 1950 Edwards limestone
Relationship between porosity, permeability and grain size

Chilingarian and Yen, 2007 49

Porosity-permeability
d2
k = B 3 Carman, 1961
( )

n7 ( < 5% )

n2 ( > 30% )

50
Porosity-permeability

Ottawa sand

Hydrocarbon
reservoirs

Fontainebleau SS

51

Kameda A., 2004

Permeability-porosity

Pape et al., 1999

k = 155 + 37 3152 + 630(10)10 (nm2). 52
Miocene turbidities, California (Ventura field)
30

25
grubb

20
k, md

15

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
f, %

53
Porosity-Permeability
Fontainebleau sandstone

d2
k = B 3

( )
Carman, 1961

54
Bourbie et al. 1998
Effect of Grain Size and Water Saturation:

Slichter(1899) first demonstrated for clean sandstones that:

10.2d
k= .1
ap
where k is the permeability in darcys
d is the diameter of spherical grains in mm
ap is the packing constant which may be estimated from

a p = 0.97 3.3 .2

Substituting ap from eqn 2 into eqn 1 we get:

k = 10.5d 3.3 .3

55
Effect of Grain Size and Water Saturation:

Wyllie and Rose (1950) investigated the effects of irreducible water saturation
Swir and porosity on the absolute permeability and obtained the following
empirical correlation:

2
C 3
k =
S wir

where C is a constant depending on the hydrocarbon density. For medium

gravity oil C = 250 and for a dry gas C =79. k is permeability, md and and
Swi are fractions. This is valid only for clastic rocks.

56
Effect of Grain Size and Water Saturation:

Homework :

6. Compare and analyze the permeabilities computed using the Timur,

Wyllie and Rose , Kozeny and Carman-Kozeny empirical formulas for
oil saturated clastic samples have porosities of 5%, 17% and 28%
and irreducible water saturations of 10%, 22% and 40%. Assume FZI= 12 and
medium oil.

Compute the average grain size where appropriate.

57
Include Water Saturation:

A similar empirical expression for permeability (md) was presented

by Timur (1968):

4.4
k = 0.136 2
S wir

Note this is independent of the hydrocarbon present and and Swir are given
as percentages.

58
Timur permeability from Sw and

40

35

30

25
Porosity, %

.01md
20 0.1md
1md
15 10md
100md
10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Swi, %

59
What if the fluid is not incompressible?
Many measurements of permeability are made using He or N2!

This means q varies because the gas is highly compressible. However,

ideal gases have behaviors well defined by the ideal gas law: PV = nRT

To have flow, the inlet pressure, P1, and outlet pressure, P2,
must be different thus the volume at P1 and P2 have a simple relation:

1 1 = PV
PV 2 2

P1 + P2
let the mean pressure be:Pm =
2

=
PV
1 1 =
PV
2 2 PmVm

60`
60
Gas permeability measurements:

=
PV
1 1 =
PV
2 2 PmVm

if Area = constant and steady state: =

Pq
1 1 P=
2 q2 Pm qm
If data are reported at atmospheric pressure then:

Patm qgas =
_ stp =
Pq
1 1 P2=
q2 Pm qm

where Patm is the base pressure for reporting and qgas_stp is the measured
flow rate at standard P and T conditions

Patm qgas _ stp = Pm qm

kAc dP
q= Darcys Law
dl
61
Gas permeability measurements:

kAc dP
Patm qgas _ stp = Pm qm q=
dl

kAc ( P1 P2 ) kAc ( P1 P2 ) P1 + P2
=
Patm qgas _ stp P= 2
m
L L

kAc ( P12 P22 )

qgas _ stp =
2 g LPatm
Darcys Law for a compressible ideal gas

62
Gas permeability measurements:

kAc ( P12 P22 )

qgas _ stp =
2 g LPatm

where: k = absolute permeability, Darcys

g = average gas viscosity, centipoise
Patm = base pressure, atm
P1 = inlet pressure, atm
P2 = outlet pressure, atm
L = length of core, cm
Ac = cross-sectional area, cm2
qgas_stp = gas flow rate at standard conditions, cm3/sec

2 g LPatm qgas _ stp

k=
Ac ( P12 P22 )
63
Gas permeability measurements:

Problem: permeabilities measured using gas were always greater

than those measured using a liquid!

Klinkenberg (1941) reasoned that the velocity of the liquid at the pore wall
was zero, laminar flow and Newtonian viscosity; however, gases at the wall
need not have zero velocity. The gas was slipping past the wall! This resulted
in higher flow rates for gas at any P. He also found that as the mean pressure
increased the difference between the liquid and gas permeability decreased.

kgas
liquid or absolute permeability

1/Pm 64
Gas permeability measurements:

Problem: kgas > kliquid

Klinkenberg correction

1
= kliq + b
k gas
Pm
kgas
liquid or absolute permeability

1/Pm

Corrects air permeabilities to equivalent liquid permeabilities!

65
Klinkenberg corrections depend on gas

5.00

4.50

4.00
k, md

CO2
Nitrogen
3.50 Hydrogen

3.00

2.50
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
1/Pm
66
Klinkenberg corrections:
bK
k a = k 1 +
p m

Heid et al. 1950

bK = 11.419 (k ) 0.39
Tight sands
Jones and Owen 1979

bK = 12.639 (k ) 0.33
Sampath and Keighin 1981
0.53
k
bK = 13.851

is fraction

67
Slippage factor increase with decreasing permeability

Slippage factor is increasing with decreasing permeability.

Florence, 2007 68
Homework:
Saso sand; porosity=14.1%
So Pm kg
cm-Hg md
0 73.9 133
35.9 145
22.8 156
16.8 169
11 73.3 131.5 So = oil saturation
35.3 142.5 Pm = mean pressure
22.3 155
16.3 167.5
kg = gas permeability
19.75 73.2 127
35.2 136.5
22.2 148
16.2 160
29.35 73.8 116
35.8 124.8
22.8 134
16.8 145 1.Compute the Klinkenberg perameabilities,
38.8 74.17 89.3
36.17 96.6
b values, and relative permeabilities
23.17 103.5
16.17 111 2. Plot relative perm versus oil saturation.
49.3 74.17 54.8
36.17 59.1
23.17 62.5
16.17 66.5
54.9 74.47 39
36.47 42
23.47 43
16.47 45
66.8 74.5 12.2
36.5 13.34 Este and Fulton, 1956
23.5 14.46
17.5 15.6
71.7 74 8.09
36 5.27 69
23.75 1.46
17.75 0.54
Steady State Flow
in a Wellbore

70
Steady-state radial flow into a wellbore
The flow, q, is constant at all radii! pe
dr re
q k dP
=
u = Darcys Law
r
A dr rw

A = 2 rh
q k dP h A
= pw
2 rh dr q

Rearranging:
qdr 2 hkdP
= 2 hk ( pe pw )
r q [ ln( re ) ln( rw )] =

Integrating:
2 hk ( pe pw )
re
qdr
pe
2 hkdP q=
r r = ln( re / rw )
w pw

71
Steady-state flow into a wellbore:
2 hk ( pe pw )
q=
ln( re / rw )
Well spacing specified in acres.

1 Acre = 43,560 ft2

n * 43, 560
re =

re re

Equivalent radius for 40 Acre spacing:

40 Acres 40 Acres
40 * 43, 560
=re = 744.73 ft
Section ~1 mi2 = 640 A

72
Steady State Radial Flow: (irrotational, incompressible,
no dependence)

Solution to Laplaces equation in cylindrical coordinates:

1 p
r =0
r r r

General solution: =p c1 ln r + c 2

=
B.C.: p p=
w@ r rw
=p p=
e@ r re Pressure

After finding c1 and c2:

( pe pw ) r
=
p pw + ln
ln( r e rw ) rw
w = wellbore; e = external or drainage 73
Pressure as a function of radius, r:
( pe pw ) r
=
p pw + ln
ln( r e rw ) rw
Steady state flow into a wellbore:

2 hk ( pe pw ) q ( pe pw )
=q =
ln( re / rw ) 2 hk ln( re / rw )

Pressure as a function of radius, r, in terms of flow rate, q, permeability, k,

wellbore pressure, pw and borehole radius, rw.

q
=
p pwf + ln(r / rw )
Ckh
74
Calculate pressure at any radius, r,
for steady state flow:
q
=p pwf + ln(r / rw )
Ckh
where C = 0.00708.constant to convert units. (1/C = 141.24)

q = flow rate, bbl/day, 50,000

pwf = bottom-hole flowing pressure, well face, psi, 2000
k = permeability, md
= viscosity, cP, 2
h = thickness, ft, 100
rw = radius of wellbore, ft, 2.5/12 = 0.2083
p = pressure, psi, at radius r

Calculate external or drainage radius, re: re2 = 43,560 A

where A is well spacing in acres 43,560 A

re =
75
Where does most of the pressure change take place?

40 acre spacing
5000

4500
k, md
10
Pressure, psi

4000
100
3500 500
1000
3000
Re

2500

2000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Radius, ft

76
Homework:

q r
p ln + pw
2 k h rw

7. Calculate and plot the pressure as a function of radius in formations having permeabilities of 10, 100 and
1000 md, producing 1000 bbl/day and 10,000 bbl/day of oil from a layer which is 100 ft thick.
In each case use wellbore pressures of 1000 and 5000 psi and a wellbore diameter of 6 inches.
The viscosity of the oil is 1 cP. Where is the greatest gradient in pressure and how is it influenced by
permeability, flow, and wellbore pressure.

77
 Steady State Radial Flow:

Symmetric average radial flow velocity:

k p k ( pe pw )
vr =
=

r r ln( re rw )

Total fluid flow through the homogeneous and uniform

formation of thickness h is:
k =100 md
2 2 hk ( pe pw ) =1 cP
h rv r d =
q=
0 ln( r e rw )

Flow rate q = cm3/sec; k = darcy; h = cm;

= centipoise, pe, pw = atms.
78
Steady State Radial Flow:

hk ( pe pw )
q = 0.007082 bbl / day
B ln( re rw )

Flow rate q = bbl/day; k = millidarcies; h, re, rw = ft;

= centipoise, pe, pw = psi; B = volume shrinkage
factor

1.034 x105 q
vr = ft / sec k =100 md
=1 cP
rh

velocity in formation v = ft/sec; flow rate q = bbl/day;

h, r = ft; B = volume shrinkage factor

79
Averaging Porosity, Permeability, and Sw:

Porosity: n

h i i
ave = i =1
n

h
i =1
i

Sw: n

h S i i wi
S wave = i =1
n

h
i =1
i i

80
 Averaging Porosity, Permeability, and Sw:

Average Permeability:
For permeability we have to also take the direction of flow into account. For both linear
and radial flow parallel to beds of equal width the average permeability is given by:

qt = q1 + q2 + ...
p L
n w
qt = qi
ki p q5, h5, k5
qi = whi q4, h4, k4
u L ht qt
i =1 q3, h3, k3
q2, h2, k2
q1, h1, k1
wp wp n
ke ht
L
=
L i =1
ki hi
n
n
k h
k h i i k ave = i =1
n
i i

ke = i =1
h i
ht i =1 81
Average permeability (radial flow):

qt = q1 + q2 + ... pe, re

n rw
qt = qi
q5 h5, k5
q4 h4, k4 ht
i =1 q3 h3, k3 qt
q2 h2, k2
q1 h1, k1
2p
qi = ( ki hi ) pw
ln( re rw )

2p 2p n
ke ht =
ln ( re rw ) ln ( re rw ) i =1
ki hi
n

n k h i i

k h k ave = i =1
n

h
i i
ke = i =1
i =1
i
82
ht
For flow normal to the beds one obtains the following expression:
Linear Flow : (harmonic average)
q = constant
q L
pi = i w
A ki L1 L2 L3
q
Total Pressure Drop: k1 k2 k3
p1 p2 p3 p4
q L
pt =
A kav
L
n
pt = pi
i =1 n

L i
k av = i=1
n
Li
q L q n Li
A k = A k
av i =1 i

i=1 k i

83
Radial flow (borehole which is damaged or treated to enhance
permeability):

k3
k2
re
ln(re / rw )
k av = n k1
ln(ri / ri1)
i=1 ki rw
r1
r2

Where re is effective drainage

radius and rw is the wellbore
radius.

8.Calculate the average permeability determined in a well test with the following radial
distribution of permeabilities: mudcake 2 md, 1 thick; drilling damage 150 md,
6 thick. The effective radius of the well is 1490 ft , the borehole diameter is 6
and the formation permeability is known to be 50 md.
84
Permeability:
The term absolute permeability is used when the rock is 100%
saturated with a single phase (k)
When two or more fluids are in the pore space, the permeability of
the flowing phase is referred to as effective (ko, kw)
The ratio of the effective permeability a mobile phase to the absolute
permeability is referred to as relative (kro, krw)

85
Permeability:
Just like porosity, rocks have primary and secondary permeability.

Primary permeability also known as matrix permeability originates

at the time of deposition.

Secondary perm results from the alteration of rock matrix

through compaction, cementation, fracturing and solution.

These processes can lead to both enhancement and destruction of

primary permeability.

Factors affecting permeability:

- shape, size and sorting of grains
- cementation
- fracturing and solution
- clays

86
Range of permeabilities and hydraulic conductivities

cement

10-9 http://www.sas.rochester.edu/ees/fehnlab/ees215/
fig11_1.jpg

87
Naturally Fractured Rocks

Nelson(2001) identified four types of naturally fractured reservoirs:

Type 1: Fractures provide all the reservoir storage capacity and permeability

Type 2: Matrix has negligible permeability, but contains most of the HC.
Fractures provide the essential permeability.

Type 3: The matrix already has good permeability and fractures add to this
resulting in very high flow rates.

Type 4: Fractures are filled with minerals, acting as barrier to fluid flow and
also make reservoir anisotropic.

88
Micro-fractured limestone

Zinszner and Pellerin, 2007

89
Naturally Fractured Rocks

100% kfrac All Fractures

II I
Permeability
% of Total

III

IV
100% kmatrix

100% matrix % of Total Porosity 100% frac

All Matrix

90
Fracture Permeability

Modeled as flow between

Darcys Equation
2 parallel plates
a 3WdP q=
kAdP
q=
12 dL dL
L
a = fracture aperture
W
a
A
a 3WdP kAdP
=q =
W = fracture width
12 dL dL

1 Wa 3
kcrack = perm is related to the aperture, a, cubed!
12 A
1 Wa 3 8
if a, A and W are in cm: 10-8 cm2 = 1 darcy kcrack = 10 darcy
12 A
91
 Homework Problems:

9. Assume the fluid production is coming from a fracture. The lateral dimension, W,
of the fracture is 100 cm, the fluid is a brine with a viscosity of 120 cP. The
pressure at one end of the fracture is 300 psi and 2500 psi 20 feet away.
Make a plot of the calculated response which would let you estimate the
fracture aperture.

10. Assume oil with a viscosity of 250 cP is produced from a fracture. The lateral
dimension, W, of the fracture is 100 cm and aperture is 10 mm. The initial formation
pressure is 5200 psi @ 500 ft away from the wellbore and the wellbore pressures is
4800 psi. After a year of production the pressure at 500 feet decreases to 5000 psi
and the fracture aperture decreased to 1 mm due to the effective pressure increase.
Calculate the change in flow caused by the pressure decline.

92
Indicators of subsurface fractures:

Early recognition of fractured reservoir and estimate of its characteristics,

such as porosity and permeability, will influence the location and number of
subsequent development wells and, therefore, is of major economic
significance.

Conventional logging tools: several tools such as caliper, Spontaneous

Potential (SP), resistivity, density, and sonic can be used either because
of anomalous response or reflection of properties change due to
presence of fractures.

Special logging tools: Tools such as Borehole TV (BHTV),

Formation Micro-Imager (FMI), Ultrasonic Borehole Imager ( UBI),
video imaging, borehole radar, Digital Sonic Imager (DSI)
have been very successfully used.

93
Indicators of subsurface fractures

- Well and Production testing: Pressure transient analysis,

Repeat Formation Tester (RFT), Modular Formation Dynamics
Tester (MDT), tilt meter

- Drilling: Rate of penetration, cutting shape, gas shows, gain/loss volume

- Surface Seismic

- Core and outcrop analysis

- Satellite image analysis

94
Indicators of subsurface fractures

95
Fluid Distribution in Reservoirs:
In an open container the fluid distribution is controlled simply by gravity
segregation. In rock, the boundaries between the fluids become blurred.
Pore Pressure

Water-wet reservoir 0 Water saturation 100

Gas/Oil Contact

Reservoir @ irreducible Oil gradient

Water saturation
Gas
Continuous oil phase

P Capillary
c
pressure
Oil Transition Zone

Oil/Water Contact
Brine Reservoir @ 100%
Water saturation Water gradient

Continuous water phase

96
Swi
Water-Oil_Ratio
In a simple two phase system oil and water:
Water flow rate: Oil flow rate:
k w Ap ko Ap
qw = qo =
w L o L

Water oil ratio (WOR):

qw k w Apo L k w o
= =
WOR =
qo ko Ap w L ko w

Note that the ratio kw / ko is numerically equivalent to krw / kro which can be
deduced from measured relative permeabilities or estimated from empirical
correlations.

97
Water Cut: (WC fraction of production which is water)

qw
WC =
( qw + qo )

qw k w ApL kw
=
WC = =
qw + qo ApL ( k w + ko ) ( k w + ko )
w w
w o w o
Factor ko from the denominator:

o
k w o
kw ko w WOR
WC = =
ko k w o k w o
w ( + 1) ( + 1) (1 + WOR )
o ko w ko w
98
Water cut: (WC)

Surface water cut will be a function of the formation volume factors (B)
of the oil and water.

BoWOR
WC =
( Bw + BoWOR )
where Bo is the oil volume factor and Bw is the water volume factor. The units of
Bs are bbl/STB and range from 1 to 3.

Homework:

11. Calculate the water oil ratio and water cut for an oil reservoir when the brine and
oil have viscosities of 0.09 Poise and 2.65 Poise, respectively. The absolute
permeability of the formation is 500 md. The effective water and oil permeabilities
are 300 md and 100md, respectively. Assume Bw and Bo are 1.0. Perform a similar
calculation where Bw =1.0 and Bo =1.25.
99
Relative Permeability & Overburden Pressure
100

oil
Relative Permeability, %

water
pressure
Ko-0
10
ko-5000
kw-0
kw-5000

1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sw

100
Relative permeability is an important reservoir parameter as it is
used to estimate correct ratios of produced fluids as a function of
saturation. It is influenced by parameters such as pore geometry,
wettability, reservoir drive, etc.

There are many empirical equations to relate kro and krw to Sw, Swir and Sor

One commonly used approximation gives:

( 0.9 S w ) ( S w S wir )
3 3

k ro = k rw =
( 0.9 S wir ) (1.0 S wir )
If a well is completed above the transition zone, which means that the
reservoir is at irreducible water saturation, Swir, (i.e. krw = 0), water
cannot be produced. If completion is planned in the transition zone, it is
prudent to know in advance what water cut may be expected. Note at
Sw= 0.9 that kro = 0!

101
Relative permeability function: Effect on WOR
Kro @ Swir =1
1
kro krw Swir
0.8 krw_0.1
kro_0.1
0.6
krw_0.2
kr

0.4 kro_0.2
krw_0.3
0.2 kr0_0.3

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Sw Sor

102
Saturation at which kw= ko for values Swir
0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
Sw where ko= kw

0.5

0.4 y = 0.4954x + 0.4742

R = 1
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Swir

103
Another relative permeability model: Corey-Brooks
Normalized water and oil saturation

S w S wir
S wn =
1 S wir Sor effective moveable

1 S w Sor
saturation

Son =
1 S wir Sor
Sw = water saturation
Swir = irreducible water saturation
Sor = residual oil saturation
Swn = normalized water saturation
Son = normalized oil saturation

Corey, A. T., 1954, The interrelation between gas and oil relative permeabilities, Producers
Monthly (Nov), 38.

104
Relative permeabilities versus normalized saturations

kro = Sonn

krw = S n
wn

105
Corey-relative permeability functions for oil-water systems:

nw
S w S wir
krw ( S w ) k=
rw _ or k S nw

1 S wir Sor
rw _ or wn

no
1 S w Sor
kro ( S w ) k=
ro _ wir
no
kro _ wir Son
1 S wir Sor
krx(Sw) means the relative permeability is a function of water saturation
Swir = Irreducible water saturation (~0.1)
Sor = residual oil saturation (~0.3)
nw, no = Corey exponents (4-6 ; 2-3)
Krw_or = end pt perm, relative water perm at residual oil saturation (.1-.4)
Kro_wir = end pt perm, relative oil perm at irreducible water saturation
(0.6-0.8)

Corey, A. T., 1954, The interrelation between gas and oil relative permeabilities, Producers
Monthly (Nov), 38. 106
Homework:
12. Using the previous Corey-relative permeability functions, compute the water cut
changes in a transition zone as Sw varies from 80% to Swir, 20%
using the following values:

krw_or= 0.2 nw = 4 Swir = 0.2 w= 1.0 cP

kr0_wir= 0.6 no= 2 Sor= 0.3 o= 3 cP

Remember a number of values will be unphysical, i.e., negative or > 1; ignore

these values.

107
Relative Permeability

Relative perm to oil at irreducible water saturation Swir is 100% or 1.

With increasing Sw, kro decreases until it effectively reaches zero at some
high water saturation corresponding to Sor, residual oil saturation.
krw, on the other hand, commences effectively at zero when the rock is at Swir and
increases as Sw increases.
For a given Sw, kro is generally less for an oil-wet system than for a water-wet system.
Conversely, krw is generally greater in an oil-wet system than in a water-wet one.
A plot of log(krw/kro) vs Sw is linear for a water wet system and S- shaped for
108
oil wet system.
Relative Permeability:

gas
liquid

109
Relative Permeability:
Relative permeability in a
brine - CO2 system for 4 sand
packs (10 ft. long) having perms
from 17.8 to 262 Darcys.

Note:
1. rapid decrease in liquid
perm with slight decrease
in liquid saturation
2. liq perm 0 @ Swir > 0
3. rapid rise in gas perm @
relatively high liq saturations
4. ~100% gas perm at low
kg+kl water saturations

Advantage of using relative perm

is that regardless of sand perm
one can say that at liq sat of 82%
liq perm will be cut in .

110
Muskat, 1949
Relative Permeability:
(consolidated and unconsolidated sands)
495 md Buff sandstone (2.5 ft.long x
4 dia) k = 495 md, = 21.8%
Relative permeability in a
brine - CO2 system.

Complete overlap at Sw > 90%

17.8 darcy
Hard rocks:
liq perm curve drops faster
gas perm curve rises faster

While these curves display these

general shapes, the quantitative
Brine- CO2 differences are all important and
dependent upon pressure,
wettability, oil composition,
viscosity, etc.

111
Muskat, 1949
Real rocks:
When these laboratory observations are translated into terms of reservoir fluids we
see that water can be drawn up into what would otherwise be a 100% oil column
by the capillary effects of the small pores in the rock system.

Reservoir with large pore throats, r, will have short transition zones, and the transition
zone at a gas/oil contact will be shorter than that at an oil/water contact.

Rock pore systems are made up of a variety of pore sizes and shapes. A single value
of r can not be assigned to a reservoir. The water saturation above the
oil/water interface will be determined by the exact distribution of the pore throat
radii.

In a water wet system, during oil migration not all pores will be filled by the
oil due to high capillary pressure in the narrow pores. The maximum oil
saturation is controlled by the relative number of small and large capillaries. If
looked at in terms of water saturation, this translates into a minimum possible
water saturation and this is referred to as irreducible water saturation Swir.

Shaly, silty, low-permeability rocks with their attendant small pore throats tend to
higher Swir as compared to clean high permeability sands.

112
 T
Capillarity:

A capillary tube of radius r will support a column of water of height h. The pressure
differential at the air-water contact is (w - a)hg. This pressure differential acting
across the cross-sectional area of the capillary is exactly counterbalanced by the
surface tension, T, of the water film acting around the inner circumference of the
tube. At equilibrium forces are balanced:
2 r T cos = (w - a)hg . r2

h = 2Tcos / (w - a) r g

i.e. the smaller r gets, the larger h gets. 113

 Homework:

13.The giant redwoods in California can be 300 feet tall. Assume a contact angle, =15o,
and an interfacial tension for air-water, T, to be 75 dyne/cm, calculate the radius of
the trees capillaries required to bring water from the ground to the top most leaves.

114
Capillaries and Water Saturation

Rocks are comprised of a range or spectrum of pore throats or r values.

115
Fluid Distribution in Reservoirs:
In an open container the fluid distribution is controlled simply by gravity
segregation. In rock the boundaries between the fluids become blurred.
Pore Pressure

Water-wet reservoir 0 Water saturation 100

Reservoir @ irreducible
Water saturation Oil gradient
Gas
Continuous oil phase

P Capillary
c
pressure
Oil Transition Zone

Oil/Water Contact
Brine Reservoir @ 100%
Water saturation Water gradient

Continuous water phase

116
Swir
References:

Bear, J., 1972, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Dover Pub., New York, 764pp.

Beard, D. C. and Weyl, P.K., 1973, Influence of texture on porosity and permeability of unconsolidated
sand: AAPG Bull., 57, 349-369.

Bourbie, T., O. Coussy and Zinszner, B.,1987, Acoustics of Porous Media, Gulf Publishing Co.,
Tichnip, Houston Texas, 334pp.

Chilingarian, G. V. and Yen, T. F., 1986, Determination of permeability of sandstones from thin
sections, Energy Resources, 8, 2/3, 255-259.

Corey, A. T., 1954, The interrelation between gas and oil relative permeabilities, Producers
Monthly (Nov), 38.

Craft, B. C. and M. Hawkins, 2015, revised by R,. E. Terry and J. B. Rogers, Applied Petroleum
Reservoir Engineering, 3rd ed., Prentice Hall, NY.

Craig, F. F., 1971, The reservoir characteristics of water flooding, Monograph Series, SPE, Vol. 3.

Craze, R. C., 1950, Performance of limestone reservoirs, Trans. AIME, v.189, 287-294.

117
References:

Doveton, J. H., 2014, Principles of Mathematical Petrophysics, Oxford University Press,, New York,248pp

Dullien, F. A. L., 1992, Porous Media: fluid transport and pore structure, 2nd ed.,
Academic Press Inc., San Diego, CA, 574pp.

Este, R.K., and P. F. Fulton, 1956, Gas slippage and permeability measurements, Petrol. Trans.,207, 338-342

Florence, F. A., J. A. Rushing, K. E. Newsham and Blasingame, T. A., 2007, Improved permeability prediction
for low-permeability sands, SPE 107954, SPE Rocky Mountain Oil and Gas Tech. Symp.,
Denver, Co., 16-18 April

Heid, J.G., J. J. McMahon, R. F. Nielson and Yuster, S. T., 1950, Study of the permeability of rocks to
homogeneous fluids, API Drilling and Production Practice , 230-246.

Jones, F.O. and Owens, W.W.,1979, A laboratory study of low permeability gas sands,
SPE 7551 presented at the 1979 SPE Symposium on Low Permeability
Gas Reservoirs, Denver, CO., 20-22 May.

Kameda, A, 2004, Permeability evolution in sandstone: Digital rock approach,

PhD Thesis, Stanford University.

Muskat, M., 1949, Physical Principles of Oil Production, McGraw-Hill, New York, 922 pp.

118
References:

Nelson, R. A., 2001, Geologic Analysis of Naturally Fractured Reservoirs, 2nd ed., Gulf
Professional Publishing, Boston, 332pp

Pape, H., C. Clauser, and Iffland,J.,1999, Permeability prediction based on fractal pore-space
geometry, Geophysics 64, 5, 1447-1460

Sampath, K., and Keighin, C.W.,1981, Factors affecting gas slippage in tight sandstones ,
paper SPE 9872 presented at the 1981 SPE/DOE Low Permeability Symposium,
Denver, CO., May 27-29.

Scheidegger, A. E., 1957,The Physics of Flow Through Porous Media, Macmillan Co.,
New York, 236pp.

Tiab, D. and E. C. Donaldson, 2004, Petrophysics, 2nd ed., Elsevier,

Massachusetts, 889 pp.

Tickell, F. G., O. E. Mechen and R. C. McCurdy, 1933, Some studies on the porosity and
permeability of rocks, Trans. AIME, 250-260.

Zinszner, B. and F-M. Pellerin, 2007, A Geoscientists Guide to Petrophysics, TECHNIP. IFP Publication,
Paris, France, 384pp.

119
 Effect of Grain Size and Water Saturation:

A similar empirical expression for permeability (md) was presented

by Timur (1968): 4.4

k = 0.136
Swi2
Note this is independent of the hydrocarbon present and and Swi are given
as percentages.

Langnes et al. (1972) related specific surface area per unit pore volume Svp
to the porosity, , (fractional) , permeability, k, (md), and the formation resistivity
factor, F: 2.11 x105
Svp =
F 2.2 1.2 k

Formation resistivity factor, F, is the ratio of electrical resistivity of a formation

100% saturated, Ro, to the resistivity of the formation water, Rw.
Ro
F=
Rw 120
Relative Permeability & Overburden

121