CHAPTER 8

NUCLEAR ENERGY

8.1. Basic Atomic Theory

All matter is believed to be composed of small particles, callccl ; I ~ , O I I I S . '1'111-:11* 1 1 1 1 .

the smallest particles of any chemical element possessing the c l i ( : ~ ~ ~I iI ( . i11~) I , I I l1.11 )I.(

of that element. Most of the materials and substances that a l ) o ~ ~ ~i l rl t1l1 i l . I 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1

are manufactured have basic constituents, called molecules, that ;l.rt: ( . o I I I ~ ) ( 111 I I I I:> 1 11
different atoms.
The atom itself is not the smallest particle in nature but is I~clic:vc~(l 1.0 I ) ( - I.( 1 1 1 1
prised of various sub-atomic particles. Most of the mass of an at,o~llis (.(III(.(SIII.I.;I t 4 . 1 1
in its nucleus, which is composed of positively charged protolls i111(1 Z ( ~ I . ~ - I . I I I I . I j l , l * t I
neutrons, collectively referred to as nucleons. The nuclous is s11rro1111( I('( 1 I ),y I I I I I ( , ~ I
lighter, negatively charged particles called electrons which arc ill c . o 1 1 l . i 1 1 1 1 c ) I I S 1 1 1 1 11 i~ 11 I
in three-dimensional orbits.
In ally atom there are equal numbers of protons and electrons, r c ~ s ~ ~ l li .l li ~Z I~* jI O:
overall charge, and this number is called the "atomic aunlber" . 'I'll(: ; ~ . l . o ~ ~ lI iI cI I.I I I I 11.1
also represents the location of the atom in the Periodic Table of ( : I I ( , I I ~ ~ ( . ; I , ~ l ~ : l 1 * 1 1 1 t 11~ 1: I
and so characterises its chemical properties. For example, tlic: c:l(:l~lc.r~l. I I ~ I ~ I I I J ~ , ( -l iIl I
the lightest element with an atomic number of unity while tlic: I~c~;~.vicssl. 1lil.1111 I I I I \ ,

occurring element is uranium with an atomic number of 92.

Protons and neutrons have (very nearly) equal nlass b ~ (lo ~ 1101, t IIOI.III:III~ I,IIIII
bine in equal numbers. The total number of these nuclcor~sill ;LII ;a! o ~ ~ ~ I Ii I IcI ,,~ ( . I I ; (
is referred to as the at,onlic rriass nl11nl)cr in atomic 111:~s~ 1111il,s( ; I . I I I I I ) . 1 ~ : ; 1 ( ~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
has the valllc 1.66 x lo-" kg. It is l~ossihlcfor tllc: ; ~ t , o l ~I~I ~i I((.. ~ I ~ IoI fS ;I. ( . I I ( ~ I I I I I . I I I
c~lc~rient to 11;tvcSCV(:~:L~ v(:rsiolis, wl~(:r(:I)y1 . 1 1 ~Sillll(: I I I I I I I ~ ) ( I01'~ 1~1.01011s I I I ; I , , ~ 111' ( . I 1 1 1 1

I~ill(x1wit11 diff(:r(:~~t, I I I I I I I ~ )I (J: ~~~ IS~ ~ I I ~ , ~ ~O VI I~S I. ( :t,l~is I I sit,~~il,I,io~r :I,I.~S(SS I , ,I I ( - ( l i I l ' 1 ~ 1 n ~ 1 1 1
vc:rsior~sof tall(:c:lo~rlc:~~l. ; t r t r (.;1.11(-(1isol.ol)c:s. I1i)r (:x;LIIII)I(~, IIOI.III:I.I 11,y(lroj:1*11 II:I:. I I
I I I I ( . ~ I : I I S ( : o ~ ~ s i s I .oI'o111~ i ~ ~ g I)I.OI,OII wiI.11 ; I . ~ . ~ I I I ~I I(I.; I , S SI I I I I I I ~ I ( . I . I . I ~ I I I . l . 1 1 1 * 1 1 . i:; : I I : > I I
I.l1(5

;I. ~ ~ i ~ . l , ~ ~ r . ;~~( .. l( l. ,~ yI I . I . ~ I I JsI.i~.l)l(~

~, istrl,ol)(~111' I I , ~ ( I I . O ~ : ( & I I c . : ~ . l l ( . t l ( I I * I I ( , I & I . ~ I I I I I ( I ) ) I . I I : I I . 1 1 1 1 : . 11
IIIIC,I~.IIS ( . ( I I I ~ ; I ~ I I ~ I OI IJ I~I ', 1 ) 1 1 , 1 . 0 1 1 1,111:; 0111. I I I . I I ~ . I . O I I :;(I I . I I ; I I 11.:; ~ I ~ I I I I I ~III;~:;:;
C . I I I I I I I ~ I ( , I I:?
 I ~ I ~ I I I I I I I I I~I:; I,IIIIY. I : ; ( I ~ . o J I ~ . : , M'IIII 1 1 1 1 . : ~ : I I I I ( * i ~ I . o ~ l ~ IiI I( I .I I I I ) ( ' I . !I:! 1 1 1 1 1 III:ISS
IIIIIII~)('I.S
11 :':\,I,'.!:\!I ; I I I ~I '.!:\'i' I ' I I I , : ; ~ , i : ~ o l ~ ~ l ~i 1 c1 .~e ~: I <I S I I : I I I , ~ ~ I I ~ s ~ J : I I ; I I , ~ Y I I12:\,ll [ ):!?I :LIIII(l2:i8,
I I ~ : ~ ~ I I ~ ~ ~ I ~ I V ~ ~ I . V . : I , I . I , I I ; I ~ I I I I ; I S S ;I, I I , ~ ( ~ I . O ~ : ( , I I :I,I,OIII,
' I ' l 1 ( 9 ~*o~lsisI,i~~p, ol' OII(: 1)rot,o11 ~)IIIS
,111, 4.I1.c.lI . O I I , is 1 .007H:!T) : I . I I I I I , wl~il(\I.II(' il.(:t~~i~.I 111i1.s~ 01' ;L I I ( : I I ~ , Iis. OI .OOH(i7
~I iL11111. .I I l . ; ~ ~ l i t i l l l N uclcar
( ' I I ( , I I I I ( . : I , ~ I.(-;I.(.I,IOIIS I I S I I ~ I , I I ~i~~volv(:( ; o ~ ~ ~ l ) i ~of
~ i tllc
~ l , ii~1~oi11s
o l ~ o f clifferei~tele- 235 I fission
I I I I : 1.1 1 I I I I I I I ~ I S I 1 i 1 i 1I l k s of iL furt,ll(:r differeilt coinpollnd ranium-235 cxtra neutron
nucleus
, 1 1 1 I:.( : I 111.1.. Sc )~t~(:I,ill~(:s (.11(,111i(.il.l
I I 1 1 1 1 1111: I ~ I I Y ~ ~ , ~ O I IoS f i ~ ( l j i ~ ~ at,oins.
rcactio~~s take the form of ,intelractionsbetween the
( : i l t Some examples of this are given in Chapter 12 Slow ,/ ,. -\
-,- ) fission
neutron
1 1 1 ~ 1 I (*1;*1. { . ( I ( . ( ~ I . I . ; L ~ ~ Is~:~l~i(:ondlictor materials used in photovoltaic cells for solar en-
I . I ) , , \ , :~lll)lic.;l.l,ic~r~s. 111 c.Ilcn~icalreactions the nuclei of the atoms involved remain
1 1 1 1 111.1..

H.2 . I lasic: Ni1c:lear Theory

. .I . N.r~cleclrfission
Fig. 8.1. Uranium fission [l] (reproduced by permission of AEA Technology plc).
N I I I . ~ I ~~.cb:ac-l,io~~s
III are not the same as chemical reactions. They involve fragmen-
I I U I 1 0 1 1 I)\' :;olil.l.i~~g
of the nuclei of atoms for the purpose of releasing some of the
I , B I I . ~ I ( I I . I I I I I I , . l ) i ~ ~ ( lenergy.
i ~ ~ g Mass is a form of energy and Einstein expressed the where 11 = neutron and y = gamma radiation. The atomic mass numbers of tllc,
1 . 1 I ~ ~ ~ \ , ~ ~ I 01' ~ ( . ( .7)). and energy W in the form
~ . ~1rlil.SS +
fission fragments sum to 92 141 = 233, which is smaller than the mass nuiill)c~r
235 of the uranium. Now the atomic mass units add to 236 on both sides of (8.:<).
But each fission is known to release energy equivalent to a loss of mass (c*i~ll(,(l
the mass defect) of 0.215 amu or (0.215) (1.66 x which is 3.57 x 10 kp,
\\'II,.I 1. III Itilogrammes, 1V is in joules and c is the velocity of electromagnetic
I:, i r I
\\ . I V I . ( I I J : ~ I I , ) oro~)agation,(very nearly) 3 x 10' m/s. For example, the energy By Einstein's equation (8.1) each uranium atom fission therefore has th(s ('llcsrl:v
1.1I I I I \ ~ ~ I I ( , I I I01', I i~.t,oinicmass unit is equivalent of

= 200 MeV (H..l)

_- 931 MeV (8.2) atoms. If this is completely lissio~~c*(l

One kilogramme of U235 contains 2.5 x
I I I I ( 11.1. :\.I )I )I'OI )l.ii~l,c:physical conditions the nuclei of some heavy atoms can be frag- the energy released would be
I I I I ' I I I 1.11i f ' ( , I I ( ~iLr(: bombarded with neutrons - a process known as nuclear fission.

! ~ ; I I I01'I I (1.11(- . (:o~~s(:(]llcnt released energy appears in the form of heat. The best-
I, I IW I I ( 1 1 l c l 111os1,-11sc:d
10 example of nuclear fission, discovered in 1938 by two German
. t ~ , i:;l.:;, Ol,(.o11i~hnand Frit,z S t , r i ~ . s s ~ ~
~ ~ s ~ ~ l is~illustrated
i~ll, in Fig. 8.1 [I]. Whcn the
I I I I ~ , ~ I , I I :01'~ i \ . tJ2:<5 i~I,0111i ~ 1 ) ~ o r; \., Il\ ) ~ tnsI,r:1,I I ( ~ I I ~ , ~ Oit,I I divides , into two fragrrlcili,~
In comparison, thc thermal energy ~ : ~ I I I of I ~ ;of c.oi~1is ;I.I)oII~. :i j. 10"' .I
, ~ n: Iton
$ 1 1 I ~ I I I J : ~ I ('(11li1.1
~ , ~ III:LS g(:~~(:l.il.I.ill[:
~, I I l i l l J : ( ' I I I I I O I I I I ~ . of hoi~ta i d r(:l(!i~si~~g (,it,hcr t,wo
Oil(: kilogr;~l~llnc of fissioncd 1J235 is thc:rc:li)rc:roagl~ly( ~ ( l ~ ~ i ~ iil ~ l ~.. lI \ (( ' :~ .~l ~~
l i ll
(. -lI,I I,, I . J : V
I I I ' I I ~ . I . O I I S 1)111s : i 1 ) l l l c ' ~ : I I I I I I I I I I ~.~~.cli:~.l,io~l. 'I'll(> two 1issio11C ~ ; I , ~ I I I ( > I I ~ , S
111 1 . 1 1 1 c ~ 1 I~I I O I . ( '
l,o ( 8 x 101")/(:3 x 1 0 ' " )
t,c:r~~ls, 2700 1,011s01' ~ o i ~ , l11,. is i~dsoI . O I I J : \ I \ V ~ * I I I ~ I , J ~ , ~
: \ I , . ~ c * : ; l ~ . ( . l . i v c ~r l~, y ~ ~ c . l col' - i 1.111, ~ ' I I * I I I II I.III III II I!I III : I I I ( I Ic~.,yl)l,ol~. 'I'llis I ) I Y M Y ~ S s11ow11
S,
1.0 > I , I ) ~ ) I I ~ , 20[1[1I,OJIII~:S 01' oil.
~:(III~V;L!(:III,
111 l I:.( 1(.111lyi l l l n ' i ~ a , . 'i.I , 1.1111 11c. ( - Y I 111~11111'11 111 I 1 1 1 . I I I I ( . ~ ( * I I I .( . ( l l ~ j ~ , l , i o ~ ~

;:.:'811 1 11111 3 1 ' ~ l1 ~ s l1 1 1 1 1 :\I1 1 , ('i:{)

 SOIII(: 01. I , ~ I ( , II(,:I,V~(:U (.11(!111i(,i1,1 ( ~ \ O I I I ( ~ I I ~II;I,VI*
,S i:iol,ol)~*s
I , ~ I ; I . I , ; I , I , I , ~ I I I , I . ~ I I S I ( ~ ; I ~1111:;l
I J ~ i11111'
'1'llc.ir 1111('l(!i1111(1(:rgo s ~ ) o I ~ ~ , ; I(.IIo~~((:~~~~l (I :sr : i~l l. lo1.(1(tr
, i o ~ ~1,o ; I . ( : \ I ~ ( ' V ( ~ ;I. 11101'1' : ; 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 ( .
1
cblLc:rgyforni. S~~csli ulal,crials arc ki~owilas ratlio;~,c:t.ivtr ;r.ritl l,lltr l ) s o ( ~ ( ~01's s ( l ( , ) s : . ~ l t , l
:~.l.ionis kilowli as ri~dioactivedecay. Examples of ~i;~t,i~ri~lly o(:(:ilrri~lp, I.:I.~IIO;I(~I.I\,~*
s111)st~ances are radium, thorium and uranium. The d(,c.:~yc:hair~(11' :I.] I i ' 1 ( ' 1 1 1 ( ' 1 1 L 1 1 1
volves natural transmutation into a chemically differt:nt cle~ncllt.; I . I I ( ~ :I. S I I ( . ( . ( . : ; : . I ~ ~ ~ I
of such changes may occur.
For a radioactive source, the following features may be of int8cr(:s18:
(a) energy (intensity) level
(b) time-scale of decay
(c) nature of the radiation
= 2670 tons of coal (d) effects of the radiation

8.3.2. Energy and decay rate

NII I III : ~ I l yI ) ( . ( . I I I . u ~ I I ~ ;11r;lni71m
contains 0.7% of fissionable U235 and 99.3% of largely
116 111 II:,:.II ~ I I ; I I ) I ( ~II2:3X. Assuine that, in a particular fission process, only 1% of the The energy radiated from a radioactive source and the time rat,(:01' tIc~(.;~.,y
;\.I 1 . 111 1 1 11
I I . ' : \ ! ) \\.:I:, lissio11c.11.What mass of uranium ore is then the thermal energy equivalent proportional t o the number of radioactive atoms contained in it,.
0 1 lilllll lolls ol'~~o;1,l'! Let a source contain N radioactive atoms a t an arbitrary i11~l.it111.1. '1'111. l.ill~l<

rate of decay is then

\\'II~.II 1 1 1 1 11 . I I2:35 is c:onlpletely fissioned, then, from Example 8.1,
dN
- -- -AN = decay rate = activity
1000 tons of coal = 0.375 kg, U235 dt
The negative sign in (8.6) indicates that the number of atonis t1isi~1l.c~gr;l.I.i I 1 11' 111,
II I 111lv I 01' I . I I ( ~ IT235 is fissioned, then creases with time in the manner shown in Fig. 8.2. The unit of :~c:I,ivil.yis ( . i l . I I i s ( I I . I l i n
curie (Ci) , which represents 3.7 x 1010 atomic disintegrations/sc:(:o~~( 1. 11, 1,11(.1.(.1( 1 1 1 .
1000 tons of coal = 100 x 0.375
defines the quantity of a specific radioactive source of known clc:c:;~,yr:~.I,c*. ( ) I I ( * 1.111 1 1 -
= 37.5 kg, U235 is equal to the activity of about 1 g of radium. The t,erln X ill (H.6), ( ~ 1 . 1 1 ( ' ( 1 1.!11* 1Ii.l.ll~

constant, is a characteristic of the radioactive matcrinl and is c:r~t,ir.c.lyi l l ( l1.l 1 i . l l i I ( * l l I

I I I I:':\~I i: (.ill~(.;~it~(:(l
wit,hin the uranium ore in the proportion 0.7% (without any
of the physical conditions. A mathematical expression for thc ;tc:t.ivit,y01. t l i < t . l ~ yI 111 1.
1.111 1 i ~ l 1 1 1 1 ( ' 1 1 1 . ) , I.l1(:11
is obtained by integrating both sidcs of (8.6):

1000 tolls of coal = 37.5 x -100

(S 'i)
0.7
53357 kg, 17235
I f t,l~(!rcarc initially NO i~t,oinsprc:s(:ilt,, i ~ t(,, ==: 0, t,11c11at, i ~ i i~r\)it.ri\.sy
i I,il11cn 1 I ~ I I ~ - I ~t.1~ ~ I I I ~
 When N = , In-No
-No = ln10=2.3
10 N

A radioactive source decays to one-tenth its original value in 3.32 t,i~~lc>s

il,:; l l i l l l 1111.
[lor U235, for example, T+= 7.1 x 10' years, Therefore, U235 dc(:;~,,ys 1,o 0 1 1 ( # llalll1 1
i t s size in

tU235= 3.32 x 7.1 x 108 years

= 23.57 x 10' years
II I I
>
0 T ',?
= 2357 million years
Time ( t )

Fig. 8.2. Nature of radioactive decay flxample 8.4

Ixadioactive cobalt-60 (Co6O) decays to nickel, with a half-life of 5.3 y(,;lls. Wllll,r,
:\ III:I~
1.1 ii1.1\vil.li cxponential
;~i1 rate of decay does not reduce to zero until infinite
(,he value of the decay constant?
I IIIN. II~I:; ~I;I:;S(Y~.Eclliation (8.9) is zero only when t = m. In order to distinguish
I II.I:I\. I.~II~.S (;)I. (liflilrcilt materials, it is customary to define a decay rate in terms T I = 5.3 years
T
g l i l i s " , i.c:. thc time for one-half of the radioactivity to decay.
11 1 1 : - 'cl~;~.ll'
III (s.,Y), MJII(~IIN = No/2, the half-life Tl/z is given by

'rhe activity of this source is then

X = 0.131N curies
I I:III li\~c,:; V;II.,V l'l.0111fractions of a second to millions of years, depending on the
I :II~III:II./ ivo III;I,I,(~I~~~I,I.
wllcre N is the nlimher of at,oms of t,hc sourc:c.

A ~.;~.,lio;~(:l,iv(~
SOII~(.(: 01' s I . t . o l i l . i ~!I0 !):I..L!) ,~~.;I.I.s1.0 ( I ( ~ Y1'0I .0 1,1 ~
~ ~w~i~l l l,;1.1<1~ (' 1,1'111,11 (11
i0s o1.i~i11i1.1
six(,, WII;I.I, is I,II(: ( ~ ~ ~ I ~ ( ~ S ~II;I,II' ) ~ I lil'(-'!
I(~~IIJ~,
 H:I. Nllc:loar Radiation

u . .I . of radiation
I~'OT*~IL.V
' I 'I 1 1 - I II:I.~II Sorr~~s
of radiation from radioactive sources are:

(:I) particles ( a )
il.ll~l~i~
Fig. 8.3. Types of radiation [2] (reproduced by permission of AEA ' ~ ~ ~ ( ~ I I I)I I I ~ O J : ~
11l'
( I I ) i ~ ( , l , particles
i~ (p)
(c.) X rirdiation (X)
ic I) g;llllnla radiation (y)
wavelength). They can also be thought of as beams of photon ( ( ~ I ~ ~ L I I ~ . I I I11111 I I ) ( 1 1 11.11,

(I,) c.osr~~ic
radiation classed as "ionising radiation" tach carrying a discrete package of energy but having negligible 111;l.s~. '1'111' IB1'1l1'

trating power of y radiation is greater than that of X radiatiol~, X.:l. 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1

Il'il:
( I') ~~ctl~t,rons
(n)
(:an be screened by sufficient thicknesses of concrete or lead. G a i i i l ~ ~ri1.1
i ~l i :.l l 11 11 1 1 I I J I \ '
liave energy in the range 1-5 MeV. At sufficient dose rates and exposllrcSI , i l l 1 ( ' : ; , I H b I 1 1
:\ I I ~ I I I I I : ~ ~):~.~.l.ic.lc! ( a ) is a positively charged particle consisting of two protons and X-rays and y-rays can produce ionising effects and be dangerous ill I I I I I I ~ ; ~l I,: ;~: : I~I 1 '
1 \VIP III.II~.IOIIS, like the nucleus of a helium-4 ( i ~ e atom.) It has a mass number 4 lonising radiation impacting the human body does not cause t,l~c:I ~ o t l y1.0 I ~ ~ " ' " l l 1 1 '
; I I I I~ ; I I I ; I ~ , 1I 1 1 1 i c . ~ilimber2. Alpha particles are emitted from natural heavy elements
radioactive.
:.I 11.1 I :I:. I I I : I . I I ~ and I I I Lradium.
I This form of radiation has low penetrating power. For ( e ) Cosmic radiation
I , \ : I I I I I I I I * , 11, will not normally penetrate the skin and is harmful only if swallowed
Cosmic radiation consists of a variety of high energy (i.c:. low w:~.vc~lc*ll~'.~~ll~ Illrq.l1
I 1 1 1 1 1 c.:~.I.l~c~l illt,o the body. The energy of a particles is in the range 4-6 MeV.
1 Irequency) particles, including protons, that bombard t,llc: c;rrt,li 1'1.0111 0111,1'1 :)1)1111'
'l'hey are more intense at higher altitudes than a t sea lovcl ;r~ltlc : ~ ) ~ ~ s l , 2i l .I ~
~ ~~~ :l .. I(I *~ I I
11 I N ~ I . : I . ~);~.l.l,ic:lc:
(0) is essentially a fast-moving electron ejected from the nucleus LO astronauts in space.

111 ill1 : I ~ . O III(,Ihas

. no significant mass in amu but carries a negative charge. The I (f) Neutron radiation,
11 I:,:; I 1 1 : I / I ~);~rI,i(:le
causes a nucleus t o increase its atomic number by 1 and acquire A beam of neutrons is the most penetrative form of rit(lii~l,ioll~ L I I I I I . : I I I 1 1 1 ' l11l8.111v
I 11 l:;~l.ivcb('l~i~.rg(!,
while its mass number is unchanged. Some beta particles have (inngerous t o the human body. In nuclear rcactor syst,trr~isil, is 11(:(.1'sSill,Y : i l l l l ' l l l
~)c~~~(:t,riltilig
I ~ , I I , ~ ~ ~ . I ~ I . power than alpha particles. They can penetrate the skin but
1,lie neutrons behind great thicknesses of concrete.
1 a11 sl,ol)l)c~tl
111. by thin layers of metal, water or glass. Like a sources, sources
1 1 1 1 . :I I:;() 11;1,11gr!ro11s if ingested or inhaled into the body. The relative penetrative
~.11~.1.f.:; (11tv i ~ ~ i jj ( l radiation are depicted in Fig. 8.3 121. Both a and /3 particle 1 8.4.2. Units of measurement of radiotion
1I i 1 : i o i s i in t i they car1 result in removing an electron
I I I I I I I 11.:; i~,ssoc.i;~,/.(-(l 1)rot,o11i l l t,/~(!I,:I,I.J:I~~ i 1 ~ 1 ~ 0 1 1 1wlli(.li
, EBI~S(:S the target to charlpe its
f l l l ~ l l l l ~ ~ l ll:l,l,lll~(~.
l,l
' I .I I' I 1111l11111l:/l I l l , . . 1 1 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 1 1 I1 1 1 I ~ 1 ~ I l : l I I o I I1 1 ~ 1 ~ 1 ~ 1 \ 4 ~: (I II l. ( I (.Ill. l~Ill.I!',,, ;\I& 'I'lrt. 111Is.r II;I~ I~III;II ( 'IIIIIIIII:;:;IOII 1111 I ( I I ~ I I I ~ I ~ I .! I~\ , 1'11111.1-I
I~ 1 0 1 1 ( I ( ' I ( 1'1 II;I:. :.(.I :I 1 1 . 1

~ . ~ ~ I \ N I . I ~ I I I ~I I~ I I I I ; I I I:I~II;IIIIIII, ; I I ~ . I ~ . I ; I I I Y I I)\: ;I I.I.IIII I<III)WII ;I.>; ; I . "I~II(~II~.!:(.II ( S ( ~ I I ~ V ; I

I I I I I I I I I - I I I I I Y I I I I ; I S ~ I I I I I I I I I ~ ; I ~ ~ I 1;l 0I: , 1(, , . ~1'I1,1I1 I1 1 , . I ~ , I , I I I ~ I . : OI ~I I I I I I ~ . , ; I ( . O ! I 1 1 . 1 1 1 (11001 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1
, , I - r) I l l S v )I ) l . , . ,y(.;I,l. [ ' l . ~ , l l l ;l.ll :;O1ll.l.l.:;. ' 1 ' 1 1 1 . ; I : ; ; I " I - I Y ( . ~ I I : ; I . I . v ; I ~ . ~I .v ; I (I. .I I I ] : , I . O I I ~ . ~ I I I I I I I J ~ ,
11.111 111;111", Ill, ~~ll~llll~~~!s
1 ~ ~ ~ 1 1 0 1 1. 1 1 ~l ~ l ~ I:,l l 1~ 1 1 ~~ 1 1~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1~1 1 1 ~ ~ 1 . 1 l i ~ 1 ~ l ~ il 0~ 1l '1; ,l . l l , y l,,y[l(,, lLll;l,l,

1111. : 5 . ~ ~,Ili-(,t 1111 I I I I I I I : I . I I

I ) i~ t ~ ~l o j~ ! , i* c . ; l . l
~ I , ~ S S I I ( , ;I.S O I I ( : 1.;1.(101. ~ , ~ I . I I I I I I ; I01.
. X ri~,(lii~t,ioll01. ( ~lc~c~c~ssi~~.ily ) ;I I ; I , I . ~ ~ . I';ac.~.ol. 01. s;~.I'c-l.y I:!/
0 1 1 ~\<ll~)~l(:(\g,: of ril,(li;~t,i()ji (:\l'(~,l,s is (l(*~.iv(:(l l)ri111:1u'iiyf'ro111~ < I ~ O I ~ 01.~ ) S 1 1 1 ~ 0 1 1 1 1 ~
. I , ~ , I I ~ V I I ~ (~. h l l l ~ l ' ~ ! , , kI ' I * V ( ' ~ . ' I ' l l ( : l ' l ~ 1 l l Wi1,S ~ ~ ) l ' l l l ~ ! 1,11(! l ' ~ , ~i l l ~ , ( ! ~ l l i L ~ , 1 ~ ~St,iill(\il,r(I
11;1~~ llllit of
I , I ~ I I ; I I I O I I I ~ S ~ ) I ) S I Il (I , ~~ ~( : ~l . Sill(.(; t,11(: rc:111r(!~)r(!s(:l~t,s ti, r:~tll(:rl i ~ r g ~ of rii,(iiatio~l,
111iit; wl~oh;~vt:rcc:oivctl 11igl1tloscs. I{,;~clii~l,iol~
l)rol,,:(:t,io~~ iI.SSIIIII(' I.II:I.I. ; I . I I ~1 I ( I:.(
st,;~l~(l;~.r(Is
\ I , I I 1 1 II*~I,;I.I.(I 1.1) ~ I I I I I I ; I , I It.ol(:ratioi~, it. is (:oninloll t,o use thc! terhl rnillircrn (mrem) - 111' ~;~(liatioll,
110 matter how small, irivolvcs the possibility of risk t,o 1111 111:1.11 111'1111 11

1 I I I I I I I . ~ II I ; I . I . ~ . 01' ;I. ~ . ( : I Il+)r I . 1;irgc radi:ition dosages it may be lliorc convenient t o use I lowever, scientific evidence does not indicate any cancer risk or inl~~~c.tli:l~l,c~ 1.1 1 1 . 1 1 : i

I 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 i l . S ~ I ~ V ( : I . ( (SV),
, wlli(:h is 100 rerns. ;r.t, closes below 100 nlSv per year. At low levels of exposure, the hotly's I I I I - I . ~ I I I I I : ~ I II , '
sc:c:m to be adequate t o repair radiation damage to cells soon aftcr il. O(.I.III :: 1.11

I : Isjfix:t.s o f nuclear radiation

8.4.4. Sources and amounts of nuclear radiation
1 8 1 ,I I1 ~w I(,vc.ls 01. riuliation exposure the biological effects are so sniall they cannot
I 1,. ll~~.c~~.l.c~t
I I. I{i~tli;l.tionprotection standards assume, however, that the effect is 'I'lle total radiation received froin radioactive sources is composcci 01' I ~ I : I I I VIOI 1118, 4 11

1 l I I ~ ~ . l . lI )I.( v ~oort,io~la.lto the dose, even a t low levels. According t o this ('linear" 11aturalradiation and man-made radiation.
I I I ( Y I I \ , 01' ~.i~.tli;~.t,ioii
effects, if the dose is halved the effect, or the risk of any effect,
I : . I I ; I I v ~ Y I (:I/. Sollie iriforination on nuclear radiation doses and their effects is given 3.4.4.1. Natural radiation sources
I l l ' l ' : l l l l l ~ s. I 1/11,
'I'here are several sources of natural radiation:
Table 8.1. Effects of nuclear ra.diation doses [4]
(a) Radiation from space.
8 I I , : : ~~ \ , . . I I Typical background radiation experienced by everyone (b) Terrestrial radiation outwards from rocks i ~ l l ( I SI )i I . I I I ! 1';
(av 1.5 mSv in Australia). England the terrestrial dose rate is about 40-50 m r e l n ~ / ~ c ' i ~W,~rI ,I . I I . : I : :I I I
, I I I I ; ; ~ V / ~ , Y IAverage
I dose t o US nuclear industry employees. Aberdeen, Scotland, about 500 miles north, it is 80-100 n u . c : l ~ ~ s / ~t l cl l~c :1.1\ ~ ~ I

I I ! ! I I I V / IAverage dose t o Australian uranium miners.

granite rocks.
I I ! I 'Typical increment,al dose for aircrew in middle latitudes. Where the soil has a high content of uranium or thori~lrl~, i l l 1))" 1:' 01
*I ~ , I , ~ ; V / ~ I , ; I IExposure by airline crew flying the New York-Tokyo ~ o l a route.
r
India or Brazil, the background dose rates are very muc:h 11ig11c.1I . ~ I I I I I 1 1 1 1 \ 1 1 .
1 1 1 III:~O/YV;I.I. hlaximum a.ctua1 dose t o Austra1ia.n uranium miners.
,II I I I , ' ; \ , / ~ I , ; I I . (:urrerlt limit (averaged) for nuclear industry employees and uranium UK.
~r~iners. (c) Natural radiation within the body due to small tra.ces of ri~tIio:l.(.l,iv~. 1 1 1 11 11::

!,I) l l ~ : ; \ - / y , . ; ~ ~ , Forirler limit for nuclear industry employees a.nd U miners. Lowest level sium (K40).
;\I. which any increa.se in cancer is evident. It is also the dose rate which (d) Small amounts of radium in the drinking water and foot1 c,l~;l.i~ls.
arises from natural background levels in several places. Above this, the
(e) Small amounts of radioactive carbon in the a.ir. 'rirt: ~ L V ( ~ I - ; I J I:~~I ,I ! ; I . I 1 1 1 1 1 1
[xobabilit,y of cancer occurrence (rather than the severity) increases with
tlosc. natural sources in the UK, including ingcsted or i ~ l l ~ i ~ 1.1
l (11: I~I I l) ( 1111 . I I I :, , 1 1
I ' 1 1 1 I li1Ii111 Cri1,erion for relocating people after the 1986 Chernobyl accident. about 200 mrems/year (2 mSv/year).
IIIIIII II,>:V ;IS a dose accumula.ted over some time, 1000 lnSv would probably cause
;L ft~I.alcallcer many years later in 5 of every 100 persons exposed t o it
4 . 4 2 Mun-made sources
(i.c, if (.he nornial incidence of fatal cancer were 25%, this dose would
i ~ ~ ( . r ( , iit~ st o
r 30%).
1111111 I I I : ; ~ ;LS ~1101.1. I(\I.III (II)sI>: I . ; I I I S I . ( I . I * I I I [ ) o I . ~ I ~ ~ ) ra,dii~t,ionsickness such xs nausea
;I.IIII ( I ( Y . I . ( ~ ; I ~ I Yw~ l l i l { . I I I O O I I 1 . 1 . 1 1 ( . I I I I ~ I ~ ,I1111
, 1101. (lc!a.l,l~.
Al>ovc t.llis, st!vcrit,y
of' i l l ~ l ~ ~~I Is( .s~ ( , ; I : . ( , : ; w11 11 t l o : , t '
',IIIIII I I I : ; ~ ;IS :,IIUI~. 11.1111 I ~ I I : . ~ . \ v a 1 1 1 1 ~ l I t 1 1 1 I . C ' ( . I ' ~ V ~ I Iil
. I I M B I I I i~:tlI'1.11ost~ ~:
wil I I I I I ;I IIIIIIIIII
 (I) ( :IIIIIIIIII 1 r l ( 1 1 1 1 l 11111 : 8 1- I I ~: . I . I ~ I ~
II 1 1 1 1 ~. I : I . I I I~I I I . I I ~ . I~ r111y ~1.11.111 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 , ( 1 1 I.:IIII.(,I,

(1,) N I I I . ~ I . I I~ II O M ' I ' I( ' 1 I :;I);II'l' \ ' 1 ' ~ 1 1 1 ' ~ 1 ' : ~ :;;11.1'I111.1'!;
, ; I I I ( ~ SI';I ~)IIOY:;.

( 1 ) I O I ~ I I ~ ~ ; I 1I1 ( ~* 1 1I1 I1 : ;V ~1 1 1~ 1.111. . I ~ I I I O : ; ~ I ~ I ( ~ I I ~ (.;I,IIS(YI I),y I I I I ( . ~ I > ; I . I . W(';I.I)OIIS I , ( ~ s l . i ~ ~ ~

. I 111 1 ~I:I.sI, I I I I I . ~ I . : I I I ) ( 111111:- 'I'l~isis ( ~ ~ l , i ~ ~ ~ i ~1.0, l , IN! ( ' ( l I(' s s I , ~ I : I . I I I I I I I . ( : I I I / ~ ( : ~ L ~ .

1 111) N I I < . ~ ( ' : I . I . I I O W ( * I 'sl,:~,l,i( 111s;I,II(I I ' ~ I , ( I ~ o ~ I . ( ' I , ~ v ( w
! ~ L s ~(, (1! i ~ ~ ) SII,(:S. o ~ i ~ 'I'~I<:S(;
l : ~ r (~111)-
>
~ - I , (I v I , I ),y I;I,w, I,() t,Ii(: I I I O S ~ ,S ~ : ~ I I ~ I I I ~s(:r(x:l~i~~gOI~S ; L I I ( ~testing hy in(lcpc~ldel~t

r l I : i l ~ ~ . c ~ I . o ~ .I s)111.irig
. 110l.111iil oj)(:l.i~I,iol~ of a ~i~lclcar power; plant the radiation I('i~tfrom the radioactive decay of pli~toni~lm-2% (Ti = 88 yc:;lrs) fbrl~lsthe I)iisis
c*llisc.l,011 ~ , I I ( : 1)ill)lic: is 11c:gligil)lc. In Ellrope and North Alnerica the ac- 11' long-lived nuclear batteries. Applications include heart pacemakers, navigatiolli~l
t.ivi(,ic*s of' (.II(: ~~~tc:l(:;lr power industry create an average radiation dose of IcvLcons and space satellites and vehicles. The US Apollo space missions us(:(]
0 .I I I I I(:ss than the radiation from a T V screen. ~l~ltonium-powered batteries for equipment on the moon's surface. Deep spa(;('
~.c~sults,
like the Voyager spacecraft pictures from Jupiter and Saturn, were also
N.. I.P:.
1511ergisedfrom on-board nuclear-powered batteries.
oj ru~~clear
I I.w:.u radiation

8.4.5.5. Biological effects on human tissue

' I '111. I lio;~(.l.ivc:
111 (II:(:RYof the natural element uranium-238 (U238) has a half-life of
I(.;~diation which causes ionisation within human tissue can have very serious effc(:l,s.
.IoIt(I I I I I I I ~ ( I I I Y(:;LIS, which provides a basis for measuring the age of ancient rock
'L'his depends, to some extent, on the intensity of the radiatioli and the tirne-s(:;l.l13
1 4 31 1 1 1 1 1 1 1011s. 112:IH (I(!(:ily~,via a and P particle emission, through a chain that
c bver which exposure occurs.
. . I 1 4 I .:;:;i\11-ly liI ~ I I I S~.;~(liulr~,
-1 radon, polonium and finally lead-206, an isotope which
Every cell of the body contains molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) wl1i('ll
1,. 111 11 I t i ( );l.(.l.iv(:1)ilt is kuown to descend from radioactive parents. The age of a
store genetic information and control cell growth, function, development and r(:l)r.()-
I ~ I II: 1 1 1 1 I I I ; I . ~ , ~ I ) I(:ill1
I 1)c:c:st,in~atedby measuring the amount of lead-206.
tluction. It is possible for radiation to damage the DNA so as to cause cell dcatll 0 1 '
some harmful transformation (mutation). Slight injury to a chromosome may ;lltr(:l.
i 1 I ' .4 rr~lrtrc~olo!~iccd
dating one or more of the inheritance characteristics passed on to the next genera.t<i()ll.
( ';I I 1 1 4 111 1 l i o x i t I(: ill the air is assimilated into all living plants by photosynthesis (:ross chromosome injury would be likely to cause injury or death to the f~c:l.lls
IIII~I IIIJ:(*SI.IY~ I)y ;ill plant-eating animals and other animals that feed on plant- of a pregnant woman. Hospital X-ray procedures are not normally carried 011l. 011
t . r l I I I I 11, :1.1 \ i I I I:I,IS (i~~(:lildiiig humans). The atmospheric carbon dioxide contains small 1)regnant patients for this reason.
1 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 1 1 1 . : ; oI' 1,11(: r;lclioilctive isotope carbon-14 (C14), which decays with a half-life of Exposure to a large radiation dose, withill a short time span, causc:s ~ l l i ~ s i v l .
!I(;oII ~ I . ; I . I . s . Aft,c:r i(,s tlcath an animal or plant does not ingest any further carbon (:ell destruction. A whole body radiation dose of hundreds of rems in a f(:w l t l i l l l l l . ( ' : i
1 1 I 1 4 I 1.1 I(* c-x isl,i~~g (: 14 t,hcn decays without replacement. The ratio of C14 to regular c.;tuses damage to internal organs, blood cells and bone tissue such tlli~l,( l ( ' ; l , l , l 1
t I I I l I ( I I I I ' I I I ~ I slowly ~ 11t:creases and provides a time-clock for estimating the age of likely to follow within weeks. At radiation doses of thousands of rems dciltl1 is I I . ~ I I I )::I. (

111.:111 I I I j : ; ~ , t ~ i ( . ~ ~ l a I . ( : r iup
i ~ lto
~ , a few thousand years. certain to follow within a few days. The highly destructive effects of ra(li;ll.i()ll1111(111
I 1 : ; I I o I I I ( I I)(:~lol,odthat the C14 dating method must not be regarded as infallible. (:ell structure are used in cancer radiotherapy to try and limit or destroy ( : ~ ~ . ~ ) ( . I ' I . o ~ I : J
( '?(I 111 111 1.1 is I I O ~ , ho~rlogeneouslydistributed among today's plants and animals. l,issue.
I*;11 ~ ~ * ; : l l l ~ l r lvol(:i~.l~ic (~, carbon dioxide is known to suppress the C14 level of nearby Exposure to repeated doses of low-level radiation can be insidious k)~!(';llls(~ 1.11e.
v ( . r V . ~ . r .( ;. Il( 111. 111 ;~.(ltlit,ioi~ to spatial variations there are temporal variations. The c:i~rlysickness symptoms of high-level exposure do not occur. If the c x ~ ) ~ s l l r :r.r(L (.s
1 1 1 11.1.1.1( 111 01' ( !I ,I-I'r(:(:carbon dioxide into the air through smoke stacks suppresses widespread in time, then the natural healing of any ill-effects nlay 1nitig;~l.c: :LllY ( . I I
I I I I . l ~ , \ ~ ( ' l , wllil(\ : ~ . I(~XCCSS I of II~;LII-~II~L(I(:
C1.4 is injected into the atmosphere by 111111ative effect, but some damage may still occur. It is established tlli1.t ~v(:rcxll~slll'('
l l l l ( l l ~ l l l w(*;lq1011s l,(5sl,s. Lo low-level radiation can cause cancer of various typcs in ~ I I ~ I I ; L alld J ~ S s\l()l.lIc:l1 l,ll(n
lik:-span of cxperimcntal animals. Delayed heredit,;~rydcfccts 11;lvc:\)(:(:II(lisc,~v~,l,(~
i l l ill~ilnalsh ~ l tnot yc:t ill hililia~is. N(:vcrt,~~(:l~:ss, wit11 t,hc: r;~(Ii;~l,i()l~ (!xl)()sllr(* 01'
11111(:11 Or t.[l(:worl(1 [ ) O ~ J I ~ ~ ; L ~ ill(.l.(:;~.sil~g, ,~O~I 1.]1(: oo~sil)i]it,~ of wi(](!~~)I'('il,([ l . I l ~ ) ~ l ~ S, II Il I I I . ~ ~

J ~ , ( ~ I I I i ~l ~~ ), 1I 1~1~) 1 ~ 1 1 1 ; 1 ~l)os(-s ~ i l , i ~ ~:I,s ( ~ i s ~ , I l r ~ l ~) ~i ~ ~~ ( ~p( ,~ r l , ; ~ , i ~ ~ l , , y .

WOI'~<I-I.S 1'1111)lo,y(vIi l l I~osj)if,~~.~ I . I / I ( ~ ~ ~ ~ J ( :I YI ~ O ~ I I . ( , I ~ I ( . I I ~ .) ,S) ,1 ( * I I I I ( . ] I ' ~ I . I ' i l l ~ l l l : i ( , l ' , ~11.1111

I I I . I I I * I - I I I I . I . ~ . : ; I,I' I I I I I I I : ; I . I . ~ I I ( . ; I I ~ I I ~ I , w11,11I ~ ~ I O ~ ~ I ~ :~, I I~I I .I (I. I .. : I; \ r11.1.

I I . :I. : : l ~ c~, r l :~ ; l a ~' I '.I I ~I ~ ( I~I I J ~
~ , I Il
OIIIJII.I I I : I I I I I I I I ' . ~ I 11 1111.1.1 I \ 1. I 1 1 1 1 I I I I I ~ ' .. I I I I I 1'1. I I I ~:.r.tI '.;III. U,III I\IIIJV, ~,II,<,I.I~IIII.:. I III.\, III;I\',

1 1 : I I ~ ~ l I l l \ l l ~ ; ~ I II \l l' ., : . ; 1 1 1 . 1 Il1,lll I :11I1:1I 10 I l l I

I ~ \ ~ l l ~ L ~ l I 1I ; 1I 1 1I ~ I . I l l * ~ ' , 1 ~ 1 1 1 ~ 1 : 1~I , l l I l I l ~ ~ .

H.Tb. N I I I . I ~ ~l{t~:~(.l,o~.s
:~I.

/\ I I I I I . ~ I Y I I . I)OW(\I.s l , ; ~ I , i 1'o01.~ ~g(!ll(:ri~I,i~~g

(slc(:t,ri(:it,yis si1ilil:~r iri i~iostr(:spects to a
( O:II , I I : I ~ , I I I . : I , ~1ti1,s- or
oiI-fir(x1 ~ t , i ~ t i (111t(:lise
) ~ ~ . 11c::~tderived 'fro111 the primary fuel
(1.0.11, j8,:1s,o i l or ~lril,ili~llll) is I I S C ~to couvert water into steam, which drives a pressure
vessel
I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . J : I ~ I I I ~ ~ ; I . ~ , Osyst(:lll,
I. as in Fig. 1.5 of Chapter 1. In a nuclear reactor the heat
, 1 1 1 1 4 % IS I I I I I . ~ ( ' ~ I lissioli,
.I .~ cic:scribed in Sec. 8.2.1 above, using uranium or plutonium
.I.. ;I 1111'1.

A 1#,1-(.:11., ~)ossil)lytht: greatest, advantage of the use of nuclear power is that no

I, I : . : , I ~ 111c*ls i~rvI)urriccl and therefore no "greenhouse" gases such as carbon dioxide
: I I I . 1 . 1 1 1 i l . l . c ~ t l . 'I'~I(, sigriificailce of this depends on the issue of global warming is -

1 1 : I l.c~:~lil.,y,

H.T,. I .
;I, tlil.llgcrolis reality or a scientific misconception?

' I X e m a l (fission) reactors

t
I
- shielding a n d
containment vessel
Water

N .I I I I I :I I I I I . : I . I ~ ~ contains
II~~~ only 0.7% of fissionable U235. The remainder of the
Fig. 8.4. Basic form of Boiling Water Reactor [5]
I I I ; I I 1 . 1 1 : 1 1 , !)!).:$% l)y weight, consists of the uranium isotope U238, which absorbs

I I ~ I I I( 1 ~l l : i wil,bollt niucli fissioning, plus a tiny amount (0.0055%) of 11234. W r use

I I I . . I ) I I 1,. I.y1 )os of nuclear reactor the natural uranium is industrially processed to
f ,OUTER CONCRETE

1 . 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 11. so t,ll:lt it contains 2-3% of U235.

' I 'I r I )I.( )( Ill(:(: a corltinuous heat source the neutrons released by fission, illustrated f
1 1 1 I ~ ' I J ~ ,S . . I, llrlist strike other U235 nuclei, causing further fission in a so-called chain
*.
II.:II.(.IOII. A sllstainable chain reaction requires the presence of a certain minimum i
1 1 l.l.ll.i~.:~l
q 111;~~s of U235, configured in some particular design manner. In addition > *
1 1 1 :I : ; o I I ~ (of Y :neutrons, a sustainable chain reaction requires that the rates of 1
I I I . I I ~ . I O I I ~)t.o(il~(:tion and heat generation be controlled. Also, it is necessary to slow
I ~ ~ I W II I vclocitics of the neutron products of fission by containing them in an
I . I I ( . I O : , I I I I - wi(,Il ii lnoderator material, which is usually ordinary water, heavy water
( 1 1 ]:I ;~l)l~il,c:. I%c:calisethe purpose of the reactor is heat generation, it is often called
.I I II(.I'III:I,~ ~'(\il(:tor.
I s ' I ~ I . cnvc>ry 11nit of electrical output power MW, required from the generator it
I : . I I I ~ I . ( ~ S S ; t,o I . I . c:rc:ate
~ about three times this value in thermal power MWth in the
I I I I I , ~ ( * : I I l.(>;~,(.,l,or.

' I ' l l ( . ~)~.il~c,il)l(: oC :L boiling w:ltc:r ~lrlc.l(.i~.r ~.c:i~.('l,or core is illustrated in Fig. 8.4 [5].
' 1 ' 1 1 t . I I I I I ~ ~ ~ ~ ; 1'11('1,
I.I. I I S I I : L ~ I~I ~~ ~ L ~ I ~ Iosi~ll. IIII ( I OX), is (:~iclosedin metal cans or fuel
I O , ~ : :; I . I I I ~ (.:I,II I ) ( , r(q)l;t,(~~l W I I ( - I I ( , I I I > : I , , I I W , I I I : I ~ . ( , I ~ : I . is ~ S I ) ( ~ I I ~ ,Control . rods (not the
: , : I I I I I * : I : . 1 1 1 t . l 11111s) ~ I ' ; I I~ij;l~ly I I I , I I I I I I I I : I I I : . ~ I I l 1 t . 1 1 1 I I I : I ~ . Is11c,11~ I ~ i1.s ~ : I)ororl
I . ~ or (.i~(lltlili~~i
I . ; I I I 1 1 1 . I : l i : , l . ~ I I P I 11 I W I ~ I ~ I V I wil 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . I 8: I I I ~ I I III.:.I. I . ~ I I I . I . O I I.II(. ri1.1,c:01' lissioll rc~;l.c,l.iorl
)I 1 .

: I I I I I I I I . I I I X . 1 1 1 1 . I I I . : I ~ . ~ I I O I I I I I ~ I I I I I I \\'III.II 1 1 1 1 . I I I I I I I I I 1 0 1 1 : ; ; I I . ( . I ' l l l l y ~ I I S I ~ I . I , ( ~ ( I i11l.oI , I I ( % ( . O I . ( '

I
 ~ ' l : l j ~ , lj1,i1:;
1 . 1 1 1 1 1 : l l ~ t I~L I l l ~ l o ~1-,1 ; l ~ l l l l l lll ~t . : , l \ ~ , l l 1 \ 1 4 , , \ ' I l l I l l : , l , i l l l l ~ ~ l l l l l l l , I.lll!, l l l l l ~ l i l l l~ ~l l~ l ~l ~l l~ ~ ~ l
III l!l(i.(. I,'I.IIIII 1,111. ~ < I I , I . I ~l!)'iO:; I I I I I , I I 1 1 1 , . I I I I I ~ l!lS():; l , l l t b W ~ I 111 I I I I ; I . I k1.1 I' o I. II,;I.I.~,III:~

1*:11 ill1 I,,vI)(~.s Ill l l ~ : l . l ~ l ~ l l l ~l ,: l~l (, , 11l~:l~l~

l l ~ l l l lILl11~ l ~ l l l ~l l (; l~. ~ l,o l l ( %~ ~ x l , l ~ ~ l; l.l l <~l lI,r;\,lls-
~~~ll ~ l l I , l l t * 11s l i , ~ , l l l , ~ ~ l . l , l IBWl{
\v;1,s ~ l l l l l 1 i l 1 ; \ l ~ ~1j.y ~ l :;~ysl,(sl)\, W I ~ , ( . I Iw;1s il.11 l ~ l l ~ ~ ~ ~ , l1 o 1 1w l ~

I I . I I I V I I,II S I , I Y I , I I I t . i 1 1 , 1 1 i l , 01' I.II(, I , I I I . I I ( I ~ , ( ~ I I ( ~ I ~ ; I , ~ , O I'l'l~is

I L I I I . .. is (IoII(: (Iirt:t,t,ly 111 t,11(; I . I I ( ~ Al~lt:ri(:;l.t~ 111lt.l(:i1.1. . 1 1 l y (.II(: ( ! ; ~ . I I ; L ( ~ ~ ; I . I I( : / \ N I ) ( II.(*:I.(.~.I
S I I ~ ) I I I ; I . ~ . ~ I )I I( ~~I ~ : I ; I . I I I I I I ( ~ 0

I { I I I ~ I I I / * W:I.I,~SI.
, l l t ~ ; 1 1 ~ 1 , 0 (IiWIl,),
1~ wIlt!r(! o r t l i ~ ~ i wi~l,t:r ~ r y ( 1 1 2 0 ) i,s IISCO l ~ o t as l ~ i~~otl- ::111,vivt:tl;LS (:fI'(x:I,ivt!op~)osil,io~~ 181.
1 . 1 : I I 1 1 1 ; I 111 I ; I S ~ . I I ( L (.oo1;1.11l~ :1.11(1 1 1 ~ : l . t ~t,ri~.~~sSt:r f l ~ ~ i (Fig. l , 8.4. ?'lit: Prc:ss~~rised Water 7 7
Ill(: 1;lt~st(possibly t,h: fi11;~i) A I I I ( ; ~ I ( ;1111clcar ; L I ~ power 1)IiLIIts is WiLltl*~l j ; ~ , ~1 .,
I ~ I . : I I ~ I J I( I 'W l l ) , IGR. 8.5, i~lsouses ortlirlary water as a rnodcr&tor but this is en- wl~ichopened at Spring City, T(:nr~cssccill 1996 [g, 101. Tht: 1;~tc:stI3ril.isl1I)I:IIII.
I I1 I:.I.II w i l . l ~ i r;\.~ ~ ( ~ ~ ) ; i .(:irc~~it
r i ~ t , ( :f r o n ~the steam circuit [6]. Both the BWR and the Sixc:well B, which is also a PWR design, rated a t 1110 MW,, went " O I I S ~ . ~ ~I % II ;I.

I ' \ V l i II:;I* c ~ r ~ r . i c . l ~~c ~~l r i ~ i l ias

~ ifuel
i n and are widely used US designs. I!)% [ l l ] . No further nuclear plants are under construction or plannetl i l l I . I l ( . 1 lli
1 1 1 I.II(* Il li I.l1(> oltlcr range of nuclear reactors are called Magnox reactors, be- 01. the USA. But the prospects for nuclear power in the USA arc ini~)rovi~lt:. '1'111.
t ; I 11::t. 1 , 1 1 ( ~ I ' I I ~ ~ Iis ~ri~.i;l~ral
uranium clad in magnesium alloy cans with low neutron I IS Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) recently (2001) grantetl exljc-l~si( 111:l 1 1 1

II~I:.~IIO~.~IIII. (:r;~.~)l~it,(: is used as a moderator within the core and heat is trans- operate two reactors 20 years beyond their initial 40-year licences. Ot,llt:r 11s ( . 1 1 1 1 1
11.1 1r.11 1.11 ~ . I I ( ' t:~I.(:rllillheat exchangers using high-pressure carbon dioxide ( C 0 2 ) 1);inieshave petitioned the NRC for nuclear plant life extension [12]. M;~ny( ' O I I I 11.1 I l a l l
I h ~ l t l ~ Ic. (,Y . ( * I I ( , 1111c1ear stations in the UK use the Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactor are proceeding with large-scale nuclear programmes, including China, l"ri1.11(.1., 111

( A ( :I{ ) tl(,si~lr.'I'11i.s is similar, in principle, to the Magnox design but uses ura- tlia, Japan, Romania, Russia, South Korea, Taiwan and Ukraine. Th(: Ijil: I ' I I ~ . I I I I '
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I ' I I ( ~ (111rit.l1(:(1
~ to 2.3% content of U235. The fuel enrichment permits higher market for nuclear-generated electricity is the fast-growing Asian coul~l.ric!s01' 1 1 1 1 .
t q 1 1 . 1 r 1 1 I O I I ; ~ . ~I.c.111l)oratlrre and heat output than a Magnox type, requiring a smaller I'acific Rim, notably China [12,13].
I 1,111 It11 1.1 I I X . , :1.11(1 rf:srilting in a more efficient steam cycle. In both Britain and the USA, the nuclear industry has failed to ~ : O I I V ~ I I ( . I 11-
\I 1 J:II l,il.cll:~~-l,y elegant and successful design is the Pressurised Heavy Water sceptical public of the safety and the economic and environmental advi~l~l,il.~l,c's 01
( ' :\ N I 1 I I I ( . : I I . ~ . ( )I. (I'IIWR) developed at Chalk River, Ontario, Canada. This uses ~~uclear-generated electricity. The F'rench have continued to build ~u(:[(:~I.I. sl.i~.l.it )II:;

r r r 1 1 I I I : ~ l111 J I I I ~ I I I I Ii ~ fucl s and high-pressure heavy water ( D 2 0 ) as a moderator and so that now (2002) most of the electricity generated in F'rance is fro111I I I I ( . ~ I . I I I
111.11 I 1 I i l II:;I;II I I l ~ i ~ lA. comparison of some of the design details of various types of sources. Some of it is now sold to Britain, using undersea cables under t<ll(:l4:l1~:li:;l~
I 114.1 I I I ~ I I I I . ; I I . ~ . O I . S is given in Table 8.2 [7]. Channel.
I I I : ~ I O I ~c.;l.llyI,II(:world's first reactor to be connected to an electricity supply It remains to be seen which country has chosen the wiser course. Fr;~nc:c,,wllil.11
111.1 W O I I( wi1.s ;I. Mi~.gnox reactor in England in 1953. Britain and F'rance attempted has no oil, will eventually become totally nuclear. The USA and thc UI< iLl.(:1)01.11
oil-rich while the oil lasts and coal-rich while the coal lasts. What thcll'!
l i l l e 8.2 Performance data of thermal reactors 171.

PHWR 8.5.2. U r a n i u m supplies

Magnox BWR PWR (CANDU)
(UK) (USA) (USA) (Canada) AGR Natural uranium has to be mined and there is some uncertainty abotlt 111(!I.cblllnll1 1 I I I ' .
I I < . A I C1 0 1 600 MWe 600 MWe 700 MWe 600 MW,
(UK) reserve stock and the economic viability of mining it. The ovcrall I I T ~ I . ~ I ~ I 1I 1~1 1I' 1I
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I ~ ; I I I~ ~ . I I I I I ( : I I I , 0.7 2.6 3.2 0.7 2.3 supply situation depends on whether the uranium oxide (U3O8) is 11~(:(1011 ;I. " 0 1 1 l . t '
4,.
,. IIIJIIIIIIIII :!:\:I (natural) (natural)
t,hroughn basis only or whether the uranium fuel stock is replenisl~c!tlI)y I I I I ( . I I ' I I I
400 286 317 305
1 ' , M D ~ I I I I Io 1 1 ( . 1 t . 1 .
650 fuel reprocessing. Another option is to implement plutonium as filc:l, ( ) I )l.;li I I ( Y l
1 4 ' 1 1 ~ ~ # < !' 1l ~ . l l l t ( ~' I ( :)
through the use of fast breeder reactors described in Sec. 8.5.4 l>t:low. f111.1.11('1
option is the use of thorium as a fuel.
The nuclear power industry, wtiic:h 1ilrgc:ly uses nut:lt:;~riissio~l(I,llorll1:1.l)~ ( s ; I ( . ~ . ( ) I : ; .
is in recession ill t,he USA and thc 1JK t ) ~ ~ I I t~ ,; L I I ~ I I c:ollt,iliuc:s
II~ t,o IN:III'(:(I(!(~ ('IS(*W~I('I (-

~ L I I CL11c
~ dt:~r~i~n(i is growitlc. It, is (!st,i~~i;~t,(:(l t , l i i ~ t , l,l~(!r(! w(,us4:%7I , ~ I ( : ~ II .I~I* ;~ ~\ ~.~~. ~ , O
111 oi)(:ril,t,io~~ ;~ro1111(1 t,k~(:worI(1 i l l 2000, ~ I I ( . ~ I I ( ~ ~:%:% I I { i~l l I , ~ I ( ~ il,ll(I 1 1 1 1,111'

I IS(\, 'I';~.l)lc: 8.:%1 I?,]. l i s l , i l ~01'~ t,11(:111;1.,iol. ~ . ( ~ ( . O V ( > I . : I . ~ L.(*SOIII.(.(-S 01' I I I . ~ I I I ~ I ~ II ,IXI I ( 11.

is [ ; ~ v ( - IiI1 1 ' I \ I . I I I ( ~ 8.4 1 l:?l. 'I'l~(:st-. S[,O(.ICS t , ( ~ ~ (l l , ( ~1 ( , 1 ) 1 ( - ~ , ( - ~ - ; I I I. l y VI-:I.I. 1)11l. I . ~ I ~ . . V 1 t 1 . 1 ,

 A11:,1.1;111.1 ,',>,:{'I
I I1 I1 I
l\:lx;ll\ll>~t.#lll 1,115 I11 10
( !;111;11l;1 !,I 1 1 1 0 0
-- . -- -- - S O I I ~Al't.i<.;~
,II :{:,.I O I N I
I I I A I I N * I~IIII,I)IN(~ O N Oltlll+:It Ni1111il)i;1. 2:di IIOO
1 '( 11 lr4'1'1o' ;!.I :{I/7/11o I :1/70 01. 1'1 .ANNISIIJ 'I'O'I'AL 131.azil 232 000
. - -- - - -
No. MW,. NO. MW,. No. MWc No. l t ~ ~ s s i aFed.
n 157 000
. -
MWe USA 125 000
.\I I:#-II~ III,I .,
) 935 1 692 0 0 3 1627 Uzbekistan 125 000
World Total 3 340 000

Reasonably Assured Resources plus Estimated Atldi-

I \ I I I ~ , , , I I I;I (i 3538 0 0 0 0 6 3538 tional Resources - category I, t o US$ 80/kg U , fro111
1 '.~II,~~I.I IH' 12058 0 0 0 0 18 12058 Uranium: Resources, Production and Demand 1999,
( 'lllllil :{ OECD NEA & IAEA, July 2000.
1 '.m I1 ll<,[l 4 Brazil, Kazakhstan and Russian Figures above alx.
75% of in situ totals.
I,,!*,\ 1 1 1 0
1, I I I I . I I I < I 4
1'1 ,1118 4. 59 widely distributed geographically and are in accessible locations. '1'111% L V I I I I, I , I I . I I I ; I I
1 :#.I
I I I I I I I ~ 19
for nuclear-generated electricity continues to increase in most, ilrc-il.s, I<'i!: s.ti ; I I I ( I
I IIIIIJ:.II y ,I
Table 8.5 [14,15].
11,t11., I2
I l l l l <llll~.,l,l 0 There is no reliable data upon which one can accurately forc~c.;r.si. ;I I i 1 ' 1 + 1 1 1 ~ ( ~

11.111 0 expectation of continued natural uranium supply. It is being 11sc~l111) ; 1 1 1 ( l i:; I I ~ I

1.11).111 53 renewable. Even if major untapped deposits are found it is evidc:l~t,I,liir.l, I.II(. w01 111
I II (N) 0 uranium supplies will be exhausted long before the coal snpplicw. A 1 I I > S S11I 1i:d 1 1 .
I\<,I~,,IIll) (S) I (i
forecast would be that the uranium will not even outlast t,he oil. TI' IIII(.II~;I,I. li:;:'~(l~l
1 11 l111.1111.1 2
k l < . \ l <,, 2 (thermal) reactors are to continue to be used for electricity gci~~r:~t,ioll
il, i:; i ~ i ~ ' v ;ilIl l I ~ .
l l # , ll l < , l l;111,l:. 1 that this will require the widespread use of uranium fuel reproc~c~ssil~p) a1111; 1 1 : ~ ) ( 1 1 1 ,

1'11111 I ( ill1 2 development of advanced forms of fast breeder reactor. This will, ill ~ , I I I . I I , I I I ( . ~ ~ ' ~ I : S ~ '
1il~lll;llll:l 1 the amount of nuclear waste an issue that is discusscd in S(:c:. X.(i I I ( > I I I W
-

11 1 1 ~ . ~ , 1 . 1 2!)
"1'~\~<11,1<1 ti
:111\ 1.111.1 I
',*!ill 11 41'11 , , ; 1 2
,11.1111 59
Figure 8.7 shows the continuation of the nuclear fission proccss ill~isl,~.;~l,c.cl . I
~ I ~I " I J ' .S

' <!,.<.<l<.ll 11 This results in the production of radioactive plutoililiii~239 (1'11'L:j!)), w l ~ i ~ . 1:;l l : ~ I I
,I\\ I1 il.1 l.111,I 5 artificial chemical element isotope that does not occur ill n : ~ t . ~ l rI (' l l~1 1. 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 l l l I : , ; I
'1 .11\\~.111 (i metal, hard and brittle like cast iron, t,hat ca.11 hc nlcltc~l,1110111c1(511 ;i.11,1 1 1 1 ; 1 . ( . l 1 1 1 1 ( ~ ( 1
1~I.I.\III<, 14 It can also he soft, :tlloyed with otllcr liictnls to ~)roti~lc,c, wiixr i r . r ~ t l1111-(,;11 1 , ) 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 . 1
Ill\ :{:$
ll,';:\ l(l.2
pl~it,oni~im isot,opc:s exist,, not,i~I)ly P112:jX,P11240 i1,11(l 1'1124 I , id1 01' W I I I ( . I ~ ; I , I I , I K I ( ~ ~ o : ~ ( .
t,ivc:. Plnt,olli~unis llighly racliot.oxic, ; ~ l i t l~rnlsi.1111 ~lsc,tlIIII(I(SI. sl.l.ic.i.ly c . c ~ ~ r l . ~ o I l ( ' f :i Il I ~ ( I
~~i;~.rclotl c.oi~tiil,iol~sl (i] .
1 1 1 ; I (,11('1.111;~1 t~(';~.(~I.ot' 1,11(: 1'11.):\!)( . o I I ( , ( - I I ~ is lis:iioll(-,l 11,)' 111.1111.1111 ( . : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . illlll
' 1 ~ ~ 1 . 1 111 1 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 ~ ~ :1 . I . l l # I 111' 1 ' : l l l i l l l l . l l l I ' l l 1.1 1111,. \ 1c .,. 1 , , 1 . .
( . I I I I I , I . ~ I I I I I ( % : ; ; I I ) O I I I O I I ( > I I ~ i l . ( l 01' 1 1 1 1 . I I , * : I I . ! : ( . I I I . I . ; I I ( Y I 11,. 1 1 1 1 . I I ~ , I . I ; I I I I I I ~ I I I I I I I I I
l i : l : l l l ~ I ~

I)I.II~.(':;::, : I I I I I ( . : ; ; I I I I I ' 1 ~ I I I I , I I ~ I ( ~ : I : , I I I ~ ~1, 1 1 1 I I I I . I I I ( . I I I I O I I . , ' 1 ' 1 1 1 , I ~ : : : . I ( I I I I I I ! ~ , 1 1 1 I'II:':~!) +11',11

 I .I I ,

1 I, I , , , , , ' "

111.11111111, ' :I: I jl.lllllllll.' !'I

I 11 I I I , IN ,lll!~l,~,

I 1: ,!>I1 IN
I 'I i<1111 11 ,I!;
Nl l<All1 1 , '
1 I , ! ; '1'11,. 1111 I I I ; I ( , ~ ( I I I OC pl11001iium[IG] (reproduced by permission of A E A Technology plc).
(:ON1 ) I hl' ,I I ,:

1 I I..II I , I I O ; I ( . ~ ivc, fissioi~prodlicts siinilar to those from uranium and these form
I ,I(

1 BSII I~ of tlle rcactor cycle. The significance of the use of pluto-

I ( 1 1 I l l ( , I I I I ( . ~ ( ' ~ w;Ls~,(, REACTOR
I I I I I I I I IOI. IIII(.~(L;LI.-(:~(:(.~,T~(: gc11c:ration is largely in fast breeder reactors, described in
1 1 1 1 . I l ~ l l r ~ w sc~c~l.ioil. i~~g

Fig. 8.8. Configurat,ionof a fast breeder reactor [GI

H I,. I . Il'c~sl.b.r.eeder reactors f I!) 1 1 1 I I I I , , ,

or gas of thermal reactors. Tlle sodium becomes radioactive, wit,li 'I,!,
I; D 111 I I( ~ ~ c : ~ ~ tchain
I l l ( . ( , ;I. ; r o n reaction in a thermal nuclear reactor requires that the so that the radiation decays to insignificance about 14 days after 1)1i1,111:;I1111 I 11 ) W 1 1
1 1 , I I I I , 1 1 1 : ; I)(. slowc!tl tlown by a moderator before they will fission the atom of U235 'rhe fuel cans and uranium blanket need to be replaced about 011c.c: ; L , ~ I * ; I I . N(,\zllv
I I I I 111, 1111.1. 1 1 1 l)ot,l~ l l i ~ t ~uranium r~l and enriched uranium fuels, the proportion of c,reated plutonium is separated out and can be reused.
I I":I!) ; I ~ ( I I I I S is s111i~11 slid only a tiny part of the energy available from the uranium Much of the pioneering work on fast breeder reactors took p1;1(.(~ i l l 1.111, I l l i
, 1 1 1 1 1 1 . ~ , . ; l ) l o i l , c ~ c l . Tlle ahundant component of natural uranium (99.3%) is U238,
1
A fast reactor started up at Dounreay in Scotland iri 1959 : L I I ~ ~ri1.111 1 1 1 1 1 1 I!)';';
\ \ 1 1 1 , 1 1 ; I I I ~ I11.lls llc!l~t,ronsfrom the fission of U235 atoms, Fig. 8.7, to produce fission- It,s successor, the Prototype Fast Reactor (PFR), rated at, 250 MW,., II;I:. 1 1 1 . 1 . 1 1 1 1 1
.I 1 1 1 1 I'II:!:~!).il,lost,of' this plutonium remains unused in a thermal reactor cycle but operation siIlce 1974 [8]. The Phoenix reactor in f i ~ ~ n calso e , r ; ~ l . c ~; I (l. :!11lI 1\1\\',.,
c , 1 1 1 1 8 1 , sl~Ilsc~cll~(~i~l,ly soparated out by reprocessing of the nuclear waste. started up in 1974 and was succeeded hy super-Phoenix, a 1200 MW,. ( ~ 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ 1111 1 1
( : I I.:II c~~ll~il.~~c.c:iric:~lt, of a nuclear reactor heat generation capability is obtained size reactor. At present (2002) super-Phoenix is only pernlitt,c:tl 1.0 01 ) ( 3 1 . ; 1 1 1 . ; I [ I t
1 ,\, I 1 1 1 . 01' I11(,1 wliicll contains 20-30% plutonium plus 80-70% uranium. This 1)ower for experimental reasons. Fast reactor devclop~~lcllt progriLIII I I I ( > S1 I ; I L'I* I I I . I . I I
1 1 1 1 . 1 I : , l - i c . l ~ i l l ; I . ~ ~ ~ I that IIS can be fissioned by fast neutrons. A chain reaction can (:onsidered in Germany, Japan, Russia and the USA. The cost, oT :I I I I I I I I I I
I)11ilcli11/1,

1 1 , . : ; I I : ~ I . : I . I I I ( ' ( I wiI,liol~tthe use of a moderator and the "fast reactor" core is much f metal fast breeder reactor is higher than that of a thcrrnal rc!:~c:(,oro f I . l r ( . S ; I I I I I . I ( 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ .
. I I I ; I I I I , I ~ . I I : I I I ;I, t,li(:ri~i;~l reactor core, being of the order of 1-4 cubic metres. As the ;. I jecause of the need for finer ellgineerillg tolcralic:c:s, adt~cll~i~i,c: syst.cSir1s 1.1) :;il II./:IIII I I I
I I I I I I I I ~ I II I I i l l i.Ii(:(.or(: is consumed for electricity generation, the neutrons released
l l
t.11~use of liquid metals such as radioactive sodillill i~iltl~ L I s O OII(! ('(IsLs 1 1 1 I I : ~ I I I J ~ , ,
I I 1 :, I ~:>sil H I iI.t.(' i1.11sort)ed into a surrounding blanket of U238, thereby creating more t~ransportingand processing tllc llaza,rdo~lsfilcl ir~;~t,c~riills, 11o1,i~l
)1y 1 ) I 1 I[.( I 1 1 1 I I I)I

1 1 1 I , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . ' I ' ! i ( ~ [)ro(.(:sstherefore hrceds plutonium and the reactor is commonly

111
It is the :~~it,hors' view t,ll:~ttlie 1 1 s of
~ li~l(.l(>:~r lissio~iwiI,li I'II(%I I I I X Y * I ~ I I I ~ I~I ,. I I I I ,
1 , 1 1 1 I \ V I I :I:> : I "l.:~,st 111.(:o(I(:r r(!;i,(:t,or"or ~ I I S ~LLl)r(:(!(lc;r , reactor". By appropriate design, loiig-t,(:riil (qi(>rgyo ) ) i , i o ~l~i ~s rt,11(> wot.l(l, ; I S ( I I ~ ( . I I : ~ : > I * I ~ I I I
sc~iit,son(: of't,lie fo11r gr(\:~t,
1 1 1 1 . ; I I I I ~ I I I I I ( 01' ~ I ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~1I) rI o~ (Ii 1 I 1 I ( ~~ ~ l 1 1 1 ( ' ~ l l . i ~ . i ~ i(:an
J fro111 ~ i l ~be
l macic I(:ss than or ( !li:~ptcr14.
I . I I I I : I I I I I 1 1 1 ! : I . I . ; I ~ ( L I . (.II;III 1 . 1 1 ( ~o l . i j : i ~ l ; l l I I I I I I ~ I I ~ I I I I :iol~r(.(:.
I (lt.ilis;~t,ioii (IS t,li(! 772:$8 ill ;t
1 1 1 n.1.111.1 I I . ; I I . ~ ~ I I1 ,.; :II)IIIII fi0 1 ~ I I I I . : . I I I O I ( , I . I I ~ I . I I . I I I I I I ; I I I I I I ; I , I . 01' ; I I L I I ( - ~ I I I ~ I . I r(:i~(.t,or
[17].
' 1 ' 1 1 , . II;I:;I(. ::I I I I ( . I I I I ( I~ I I ' ; I I ~ I L I I I I ~ ~ ~ . ~ I I , ~~ I. I I, I O I I:. , , I I I I \ V I I ill l ~ ' i / ~ 8.8
,. 11s o l ) ( ~ r ; ~ , l , i o ~ ~
I . , . I I I I I I : I I , I I I 111 I I I ( . I ~ I I C . , I I I I II:II , ) I I 111.1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1
1111. 1 1 . ~ 1 11 1 1 1 : . I!(,:-~,I.~III.II i i ~ S I ~ IS.Y,.I... I,iclllicl

..IIIIIIIIII, 11..1.(1 11.. ;I ( 0 ~ ~ 1 ; 1 1 1 l .IIIII 114 ,II (1.111 11.1 I I I I I I I ~ I:. IIIIIII, ( ~ I ~ I . I I , I I I I ~ I ; I I I 1 1 1 1 . \V:I!,I.I.
 111t11u.l : I I ~ I I , .I., .I 1 ~ 1 . 1 01 ~ I N I \ ~ ' ~~ . 1I , 1 1 1 I~ ~ I I I I I I~1 1 1 8 1 1
<.IIII\'I,I I ~ 11. ~
111111 ;I I I I I~ I I I I I Al:io, 1111,
11111 II.:II I I I ; I ~ ~ ~ I I : I 1~1 ::~ ;1 ,1 ; 1 1 1 \ , I I I ; I I I I I I I I I : I I I I ~ / O I I I ~ I I ~ , I I I I ~ I I; I II I I. ~ 11ol I)I.I.:<I*III. ill (.III* 1'111.111

111.11 \\'I111111 I l l lIllf.l.ll\, 1 1 : ; , 1 1 l l l ~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 ~ ; 1 1\ V 1 ~ ; 1 . , ) 1 1 1 1 S . A S I ~ I . ~ O ;I~I. Sc . c . i c I c ~ r ~ Il I. I . I . I I I I . I . I I I , I I : I !):I(;I\.l\\',., I'WIt I I . ; I ( - I . I I I ;r.l. ' l ' l 1 1 1 . 1 , h1111.I : . I ; I I I I I , 11:11
'1'111, I I I I I . ~ I , ; I I - 1 1 : ; l i ~: I I ~ I I ~ I I ~ ~ ; Ii lI l I ~r -. c , ; r , c . l . ~ ~ o~ .l ) c > l . : r l , i c ~;\.I.(.:
l~ lrisl~l~r~g, l ' ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ s , y1llS,A v ; ~ i,t 1~ ~ I!)']!),
i ; ~ , IIIIIIIII.
, ; I , I I I I I J I I I . ;I,I'I,I*I. ; I I ~ I ~ : I , I ~ I , O W;I::
I~ :;IIII~. I~II\%'II
O I I ~ , o f s(:rvi(~:, :I, s(:rio~ls loss 01' (~OOI;I.III, I ) I Y , I I I . I . ( ~ I ( I I I ( ! Lo ; I , I I O J ) I ~ I I I Y I I.(-111-1' V ; I I \ ' I - 1 1 1 1 1
(.I) l ; \ i l 1 1 1 1 ~ 01' I . I I ( ~ sl.oc%l ~~rc~sslrrc:
vc~ssc:l or ovc:li nlolt(It>w~~
of t,llc corc clue t,o wi\.s not ~lot~,ic,otl. h i i x i l i ; ~ r~(YYIw;L~.(:I. ~ j)~l~lll)s U;1,il1\0 1.0~,ir(.~ll;~.I,(' \ , \ I ( ' II(Y.I%:;:;;I.I.~ W:I\.I,I

1 IIIC to valves that h ; ~ lt)(:cn (:los(:(l t,o l;~(.ilit,i~t,(t ~-o~~I,ili(: r1,1)i~i1.s ; I , I I ( ~ 111;1,i 111 I ~ I I ; I I ,
ll~:is/l:ll~l~ < ) I ' ~~ool;l,ll1,, 11

( II) I * : ; I . : I ~ ) I ~ 111' r;~.clioi~~(.f.iv(:

~li;lI,(:ri:~l
ilit,o tllc surroullding environment, Some other scrious operatio~~al crrors were nlatl(:. Tlio sc:vc,rc4y (I;I.III;I.~:I>I I I 1 . i 1 1 - t I 11
(I.) 111ll~ll~:~r w;\.sl,(~. (:ore became exposed with radioactive leakagc into tho snrro~uwli~\g ~ ~ I I ~ ~ ~ . ~ I I I I I I I . I

1181. There was no fatality or serious injury due to the ; ~ c c i c l ~;tI. ~ l 'I'III.IY*
t hlills I.,
I ' I I ~ . I . I I ! : ~ I I I ~ I ~ I . ~ I I(.0111,rol
~: syst(:lns for nuclear reactor operation are invariably dupli- land, either to the workers in the industry or to the public. Tllc T1lr.1~1~ Mill* I : ~ l i l ~ l l I

1.11 I .I I : I 1 1 1 I SI ~lll(~(~illl~:s t.ri[)licat,cdto sidetrack any equipment failures. Duplicated plant is no longer in use. It is noteworthy that this major accitl(:~itW:IS 111 11. ( 1 1 1 1 . 1 11

, , \ ' : , 1 1 ' 1 1 1 5 I I I ; I . , ~ I I ~ L V ( > 1,1i(' :~tlditionalsafety feature that they overlap each other and design errors or equipment failurcs but to human error - tlie si~f'(:I,,y 1 1 1i1.1 I ; I ~ : ~ - I I1 1 , 1 1 1

\ \ I ~ I li 1111 ;~Ii.(~rl~;~t.iv(: f ( : i l . t ~ ~For

r ~ ~example,
. the presence of reactor coolant, within system was flawed. The consequent bad publicity and loss of ( : o i ~ f i ( l ~ :111~ lI (l 1.1~, ~ 1111

; I I I : I I I \ J ~~~~c.losc:tl
11 1)rc:ssllrcvcssel, can be sensed using its temperature and pressure clear industry has played a large part in the effective curtailnlc~it,ol' ;I.II,V 1'111 ~ . : , I . I . I I I ~ I I ,
Ill, ll~~ll~lllll~ll~,l,y.
future expansion of nuclear power generation in the USA.
A l l I (,;~c,t.ol. c:ont,rols are designed to operate on a "fail-safe" basis. If the elec-
t I I I , I I \ , ~Il.i\,il~g l.ii(: coolant pumps or heat transfer system is cut off, even from the
8.5.6.2. Chernobyl
I 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 : ; I :I.II(III,v s ~ ~ ~ ~ pthe l i e control
s, rods fall under gravity into the core, Fig. 8.4,
.111#1 ..IIII!. 1.111, r(:;~(:t,or down. The reactor core, contained in a steel pressure vessel, The world's worst nuclear accident occurred a t Cherl~obylin t,llc Il ltr:~.illc-1 1 1 I ,l!ic;
1 , . I ~ : . I . I I I I I ~ . ; I ~ . within ~!~~ a very thick biological shield of concrete, Fig. 8.5. At that time a major part of the electricity generated in the th(:n Sovic.1. I ~ I I ~ O wrl:. II
' I ' l l ( . I )l~.~.;~.t.ion of nuclear reactors is subjected to the most rigorous engineering (and still is) nuclear-based. The standard thermal reactor systen~s,k~rowlli1.s I t 1 I h l l i
1 I~.,.I!:I I 1.1 )!(.I ;I.II(:(:s i~lldto extremely stringent safety management systems. Standard 1000, rated a t 1000 MW,, are boiling-water, graphite-moticrat,c:tl s,~sl,c~llls II:;IIIJ~,

.. 11.1 \. I ~ . ; I 1.1 I 1.1,sirlclude the monitoring and measurement of all the physical and enriched uranium dioxide and ordinary (light) water cooli~lg,si~riil:~.~. ill I ) I . ~ I I I ~ ~ ~ I ~ 111

I I I ( , I I I I ~ . : II 1 ~l.ol)(\rt,ics of reactor materials. There is an emergency core-cooling system. Fig. 8.4. Each reactor system consists of two identical reactors Lack-1.0-11;1.1,1i,r i1.l I * I I
I \ I . \ . I ~ , ; I . I . I I I - I . S o f iL i~llclcarreactor system are kept in physical separation to minimise at 500 MW,. In 1986 ten RBMK 1000 units were in service : ~ (:l~erl~c~l~vl, t \ V I I I I 11
: I I I \ , I ~ ~ I I I I : I ~ ~ (; l( ~ : i ( :to firc or flood. further eight units under construction.
On 25 April 1986 preliminary actions were begun prior to a11 cxl)(:ri~l~c*l~(. I 1 1 I 11%

termine if a turbine-generator would still power some reactor coolillg I 1111111 ):; w 1 1 1 11.
i . N I L C ~ C ( L T TeactoT accidents it ran down after its steam supply was removed. The test 11:1(1 ;L l(:gil.i111;1~1~1- 11111

? pose but was unplanned, unapproved and not properly supcrvisc:tl. As !);II 1. 111' 1.1 1 1 .
: . ) ~ i l . t . 111' ;!.I1 1.11(1 precautions, reactor accidents happen. For example, the conse-
111 11.1 I(.(' 1 1 1 ' si~:llili(.itliI, loss of coolant is catastrophe. In the presence of inadequate ! test preliminary procedure the emergency core-cooling systcln wi~sclisc.01111c.1.1.1.1l
nine hours - in contravention of written safety rules. Tllcrc followc*~l ; I :;I-I it.:,
11 1 1
11 I

I I 11 l l ~ l l r n , , 1.l11, (.or(: i.c:~nperaturerises rapidly. Risk exists of explosion of the pressure

major operational blunders, over several hours, in whicli cont,rol ro(1 sc~l.l.i~l~::, WI.I~.
\ . < . : . : ; l . l ~.ll~~i.:l.il~c~r, w11ic.hwould release radioactive liquid or gas into the local environ-
inaccurate, some manual fault-trips were deliberately tlisc:ug:l.gc>tl i1.1111 SI 111 1 1 % 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ,
I I I ~ , I I I Slij:l~t.risI( ;tIso exists that the reactor core could "melt down" illto a nlolten
coolant pumps becamc overloaded so that thc coolii~gwi~t,t :r 1,c:ullI I : ~ : I( ~ 1 w 1 I I I:~I, I ( 1

111.1:::; 1 1 1 ; 1 . 1 1 1 1 i ~ : l l l ~OVOII t)i~rnits way tllrol~ghthe steel container and concrete into
nearly boiling point,. A cornpllter print,ont, of t,llc: rc;rc:t,or I ) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ) I . ~ I I I.11;l.t ; I ~ I I :I; \ vI ( I \ W . 1~
1 111, !#.I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I J I ~ ~ I I W1.1~: rc:ilc.t,or I ) ~ i i l ( l i l11. ~ ~wo11lO . t.licreby become a highly dangerous the need for iminccli;tt,c r~l;tl~ual shl~t,dowl~, I)(:(.:LI~S(> ~.l~(:r(l w(:I.(-1.i1.1. l o ( ) I;YV 1.1 1 1 1 1 . 1 ( 1 1
. , ~ I I I I I . ~(11. , I I I I ( , ~ I I ~ , ; I . ~ I Iri~,(Iio;i,(:t,iv~*
I~(~ l~:~(li;~~I,io~l. '1'111% IO(;:LI heat, g(:n(:r>~te(1 ~ racii-
1 ) the; rods insertc(1 ilit,o t,h(: r ( ~ ~ c : t oW;LS r , ig~~or(:(l. ' l ' l ~ , ;; L I ~ ~ , ~ I I I ; I s;~,l'(st,,y
, ~ , ~ ( ~ S , ~ S ~ , I 1~I II; III I, W I I I I I ! !
.)I1 , 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 a 1 1 I I I I I . I I I I I , :( . I o I~
. I - I IWIO ~
I I I(I I~ J l r , ~ I I ~ ~ I ~;1.11(1 I I S I lik(:ly ~ t,o i~ic:rc:i~.sc:
1.11(, sl)rontl
li:~v(:t,ri1)1)(:(1(i.(:. s l i ~ ~(IOWII) t, t,I1(1 r o ; ~ , ( ~II;I(I l , o ~I ~ ) I Y * I I ov(~1.1.ii I I I I ~ I I 11.y 1 / 1 1 , I ) ~ I I * I . 1; I1 11 :, 1 1 )
$ 1 1 I ; I I I I : I I 1 0 1 1 I)y W : I I , IS.~I, I,> ; I . I I I I ) I . J ~ , I I : : I , : S ~ . : I I I I , : ; . ' l ' 1 1 1 . 1 . t . II;I,S I I ( , v ( > ~\ I ( Y \ I I i ~s18rio11s
, r1~;1,1,1,or I'i~,cilit,il,t,(:
t , \ ~ ( : ~ ) ~ O ~ ) ( I S t,(>sl,.
I ~ I \ [ I I I!{I'(Y.I,, \ r i l , : ~ , l s;~.l'~~t,,y ~ I I . O I ~ I Y ~ I I I \~V I( ~ IS, I , I J I , I I I I I I ~ I I~ I I * I . , I I I : L I ,
1 ~~111.11!1 111 I . I ) I I ~ ; I I I I I I I I . I I ~1;lil111~. ; I I I \ , I I . : I # l o
11131 I I I I * I I I I I I \ L , I I i l l 1111' (lli 01. I~'I.;I,II(.I-.
11
i,111* ~ ~ s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ iW~I *l I ~. I I~~I I I~( ~~I ~ ~II ,. ~ lI I ,I I *; 1~1 1 I~:;:.;III.I*
, l i s l [,, I,) 1.1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1 ) l 1 , 1 , 1 * I 111-11. W I 11 1,
 (111 '.'I1 \11111 I'lS11 111.,l 1'1 l10111:. .1111.1 (111. 11.:.1 ~ 1 1 0 1 ~ l ~ 1 1 1 1 1 11~1 1: ' !, ' , : 1 1 1 , 1~11111.1111 lo((:<
( ' I I I . I . I I I I I I \ , I \ r , ~ ::I ; 1 1 0 1 I ~ I I: . I l l 1 \ I ~ I I I I , , 10 111' I 1 I:. ;,I!,,III~I( ;III! I t ) IIOII. IIO\\'I.\I,I, III,II
$\,.I $. \ \ , 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 .1 I \ ~: I I ~I I I ~ I 1 1 1 , I 0 1 8 1 ; ~ ~ ~ 11 1 I I ~ I I I I I ~ ~I I~I I II I I ( . I ~ . : ~ . : ; I ,1.111. I . I , ~ I I . ~ . O I .I I I I W I ~ I .' .I ' \ I ( . I . ( ~ 11 \V;ls 1 1 0 1 1 , 1 1 ( . 1 1 1 i 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 1 1 ~ ~1:1;1 ; 1 1 , l : l l l v ~ I I 1 1 1 1 111, < ~ I ! I , I; I I I I I :, ; 1 1 1 ~ 1~11~:;l1',1l1~1:. \\.'I11 1 111.1 14.1

\\.I,, ,I 1.111111, ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ I ~ I I I I : ~, ( , ~ 1 1I 1 . I I II * :~I I .~ ~ , II I II . 1 1 1 1 i i ~ 1 . 1: I I I ( I I.III>I I~I~IIIII(~I~:I,~,III~(~, ~ , , ( ~ I I ( , I , ; I , ~ , ~; II. IIIK

~ , I I ( , I
t I I I 4 ' I !I,(.III.\.
I 1:1111i11,, 1 1 1 l l 1 l;1111 1 1 1 ; 1 , 1 1 ~ 1 , ~ , 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 ~ 1; 11 1I 1 1 l ..I 111.1 l l l ~ ~ l ! ; l ~ I~l ll 1 l ~: ; ;~l l l ' l~. v ~ l l l l l ~ l ~ l l l 1l1 l ~ ~ ~ ~
1 1 1 4 1 1 1 : ~ : , I ( , : I I I I ~ I I , I , ! X I I I I ~I I I I , I I ( * I , I I I I ~ : I I I ~(, . I I X . I I ~ ~ ,I. \ I Ii ~ l ( ~ 1 . 1sl~il'l,
, I'OI.(,III:I,II O I ~ < I ( ~ I . ( ~; L( II ~ I V I I I I I ~ I 1 1 0 1 , I I ; I . ~ I ~I I ; I ~ ) ~ ) ( * I I ( Y / . ' 1 ' 1 1 1 ~ I I I I ( . ~ I . : I I I I I I ~ I I : ;1.y
~ i l l I l ~ . i l , i ~ , i ~wl111.11
l, I:; 1 1 : 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 I \
: % I I I I ( , Ilow11 I I I I ~ , W:I.S ,illst, (,oo 1;1.t,(~. ' l 1 l ~ ( % (.o111,1.01
ro(1s (.0111(1 1101; 1)e fi~lly \ \ , ( , I 1 c , s ~ : ~ . ~ ~;1.1111 i s c ~w(\II t l 1.1111,illsist. l.11;1.t i t , 1.1111111 1101. I I ; I . ~ ) ~ ) ( * Ii Il l I ( I ( ' l lli ~ I I K ,01~ 1 1 1 1

1 1 I\\'I.I 1.1 1 III~ I I I I . ; I I H I I . I I ( * I I I . ; I I I ~ I I I I I I'II('I (.II;I,IIII('~

l 1~111)1~11r(:(l.
TWOst(:i~lii(!xplosions OC-
~ ~ I ( ~ ~ t . rg(:~i(!ri~f;(!(l
i(it,y i l l (,Ii(l vil,t.io~ls ~ ( ' s 111;1,(1(: 111) 1.111' S1 r\]ic.l. I 1 1 1 I I I 1 . . , . I 1 1 1
( . ~ ~ I I I I ~ , I . l.1ii1.t. II
1 111 I 1.1 1 , 111,1'1 . 1 1 ~ I1111.sl.il1g
~ 01' 21. s I , ( ' ~ L I I ~l)oil(tr, t,hi~l,IJCW111) the 1)rcssure vcssel and ~I~.~ivc:ci froill ~ I I I C ~ ( Ypow(:r L~ ;111(1 1;11(:1.(,;LI.(! 110 l)lil.lls t,o ( . 1 1 ; 1 , l i ~ (1.11t- ' : > i t II:I.I i o ~' 1 ~~ 1 1 1
I #..I# I (11 c,orill)l(~l.c~ly
I,IIII- ; I I I I ~ clc:st,royc:cl 1;lic ~.cnc.torhall. B l l r n i ~ ~radioactive
g de- ; I r a t o r a , l i o y l is o w t o 1 1i i o .~ I I I I I 1 11
111 I.. \v:I:, i111,oI , I I ( ~ ; ~ i r;1.11(ltir(:s wcre startcd. There was massive escape of
[.III.I ~ J I I
I lriginal site.
1 1 I!-,II I Y I ; I <l i ~~ ; ~ c . l . i \ v l:i\s , i111(1 ~ t , ( : i ~ l 1;11at
ii c:ontalniilated the ground area up to about 20 Sl~spicionsabout the safety of early Soviet reactor dcsiglis c,i~l~sc~cl 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 I I , . I ~ . I\ I I 1 1 ,
1 1 1 1 1 1 . : . ; I I I I I I I I I I I . I I ( . sil,~.. '1'11~local city of Pripyat, 116,000 people, was totally evacu- ; ~ ~ r i o n gengineers
st in the west. Since the Chernobyl accitl(,rll,, 1,111- :;;I 1 1 . 1 \ 11 I

. I I I., 1 '1'111. ; 1 1 1 ( . i t . 1 1 1 , i l . i i ( l l i ~ l . ~ city

(: of Kiev, 80 miles away, escaped major radioactive
SI~viet-designedreactors has improved vastly, due largely to t,li(\ c I ( > V I . I I 1 l 1 1 l l q . 1 1 1 11 1 1 I

4 , 1 1 1 : I I I I ~ I I ; I . ~ . ~ II ~I( I~ (~. ~ I I I s ( ' t,li(: prc:vailing winds did not blow for several days [19].
1.11ltlireof safety encouraged by increased collaboration bctwc:c:11 14;;~.st. ; I I I I I \ \ ' I , , . I; I I 1 1 I
' I ' 1 1 1 . : ~ c . l . i tl ( ~ 1 1 1 ,~l(!st,l.oyotl tllc: Chernobyl-4 reactor and killed 31 people, including :;~~l)stantial investment in improving the reactors.
'':? 1 1 I I I I I I : I ( l i ; ~ , l . i (!x~)os~ire.o~~ A further 209 on site were treated for acute radiation Since 1989 over 1000 nuclear engineers from the former Sovic:(. I I 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 I I ; I \ . I . ! , I , . I I a I
I I I . , ~l l l i l l j : , ; I I I I 1 i1.111011g t,lics(:, 134 were collfirmed (all of whom recovered). No- \Vest,erl1 n1lclear power plants and there have been many rc:c:il)~.oc,:~l \.r:.~l.. ()!,< I
I I, I \, 1 1 1 1 : . i l , ~ , sl~lI'(.rc:tlfro111 acute radiation effects. However, large areas of Belarus,
1,
:I0 twinning arrangements between East and West nuclear 1)1;1111.:; II;I\~I. 1 1 11111 111.1

1 1 1 . 1 . I I I I I , , I{~~:;si:a i l l i t 1 l)c,yoritl were contaminated in varying degrees. The Cherllobyl

i l l place. Most of this has been under the auspices of the Assoc,i;~.(.i~l~~ ~ I IN I I I t~ ; I I
14 I ~ . I I ~I : , I I I I < orlly c.i~sc:ill the history of commercial nuclear power where radiation-
1 11
( )perators, a body formed in 1989 which links 130 operators 01' IIII(.II%:I.I
I 11 1 ~ 1 . 11 I I , I 1 1 1 .
I 1.1 I I 1 . 1 1 :I l i I i1.s II;I.V(% oc.curretl. There have been fatalities in military and research
1 .(
i l l more than 30 countries [20].
!, t t ~ ~ l l f l l (1201.
i ~ 8 1 ~~l~s
: ; # . \ , < . I; I I ~ ~ . ~ : ; ~ ~ ~ ~have i s ; ~reported
~ t . i o i ~on
s the impacts of the Chernobyl accident,
1 1 1 ~r . I I 1 1 1 : l I ~ ) I I I I ( I cJitfic:~~lties in assessing the significance of what they have observed 6 Nuclear Waste 122, 231
1 1 t . n . I I I : . I . 1 11' ~ . I I ( >I );~.~~c.it,,y of reliable information on public health matters prior to 1986.
I I I I ')s!I I . 1 1 1 , \L'o~.ltlIJ(:alt,h Organisation (WHO) first raised concerns that local 8.6.1. Sources of waste
1 1 1 1 . n I 1 1 - : I \ :,~.i~>~ll.isl,s I ~ i l t li~icorrectlyattributed various biological and health effects to
111 any section of the chelrlical and mining iridustries, thc iiliiiii~g,()~.o(.(~ssilll~, ;IIII 1 I I , . ~ ,
I .11I1;11 I I I I I I~s\"'slll.c'.
1 ~f t,he raw material creates waste. In the illlclear indlist,ry, t.ki(! c.oll(sc,l.ic~r~,I r :I I I : , I 11 1 2 1 11

: \ II I I I I I ' I I I : I . ~ ~111i1.l
I At;oilii(: Energy Agency (IAEA) study involving more than
[.ion,processing, management, storage and disposal of riucl(:;~rW ; L S ( . 1.1 ~ ~1 1 ~ b ; I Ii I I I I - . I 1 1 1 .
, ' I11 I 1 . 11 1 1 , 1 1 1 : ; 1'1.i P I I I 22 c~o~~iit,rics and published in 1991 was more substantial. In the
~ u o s tchalle~lgingproblem of all. Nuclear waste is r;~tlio;lc:t,ivc:ii.11(1 is ~ I I I , ; I . I I I I . I ~I I \ r l
. I ( I V . V I I ( . I ~ 1 1 1 ' I ) I . I * I!)H(i ( 1 i ~ t . iit~ used a control population to compare those exposed
lll~mberof different activities:
I It l I : I 1 i l ~ I I . 'I'l~cs,y (;)1iii(1signiticant health disorders in both control and exposed
.I(

, * , I 1 1 1 1 I : . . 11111. ; I [ , 1,11:1!,
8 sl.;~g(:rlorle was radiation-related. (a) uranium milling and pl~rificat~ion
:;II 1 1 I I I . : ~ , i l l I . I I ( ~ I J k r i l i ~ ~Russia
c, and Belarus since have been based on national (b) fabrication of reactor fuel
I I . ~ : I . . ~ ( . I : : 1 1 1 ' I I \ ~ I ~ I 011(!
, il~illionpeople possibly affected by radiation. These have (c) nuclear reactor operatiori
1 1 11 I
I II I I 11 ,I I
I-isiI IJ: i~ic.icltrnc:c:of thyroid cancer arnong exposed children. Late in 1995,
:I (d) ~lliclearfuel reproccssilig
i 111. \\'I I ( 1 11 I I I((*( I I I I Y I . I . ~700 ~ c:1s(:s of tl~yroitlc:aiiccr among children and adolescents ( e ) nuclcar reac:t,or tl(:coln~~iissiol~ii~g
10 I ( ' I I ( > I . I I O I I , ~ I ; ~ ~ . ( ~ i ( l t:1,1i(1
111, ~ i i t ,~ ,I , I I I O I I ~t,li(>s(:soiiic~t e ~ i~lea,t,kisiire : ~ t , t r i l ~ ~ to ~ted (f) ri~~:l(:i~rw(~i~poiis f:~l)ri(:;~t,iol~
;1,1i(1t,(>st,i~~g
1.1t11.11 IOII 1 ' 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 i t . (211.

I : I I (:!llO:!) 1 1 1 1 ~ I I I . I . ( ~ ; I . S I ,1 1 1 ~ ( ~ I I ~ < ; I . I ~ I I1:;I I ~I II ~ ! ; I . I ~ I . I I ~ I ) I ( ~I , ) I I ~ , 1,Ilis is ( ~ x l ) ( ~ ~ 1,o

' i t ) t,(yl (;I,)~I,I,~I,,JI.,I;~I,,III,
TI~,,~II,,?TJ,!, ~ I : I I .T,,~~,~.,?]i(!f~,t.,io8~~.
~

I t , , ~ ~ \ . I I ~ I , I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 . I I I ~ X I I'I\\U I ~ I . : I I : :: I ~ O I I I < , \ V I I I I : I ! ~ , I I ~ : I ~ , I - II . ,~ I I ~ I I ~ I1101, I sl,;~,l,isl~i~~~~ll,y I I ; , , , i so I , I I ; I , I I I I I I I I I I I I I . ; I I I ~ I I I I I III~III.::.

'I'III, 111.1.11

I 1 . n I I I I ~ I I . , I I I ( . I I ~ I . I I I . I . 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 . 1 I . : I I I I I . I . ' I ' I I ~ . I ~ I, I ; I : : 1 1 1 . 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ I I I . I . ~ ~ ; I S; I {< I ~ - i l ~ ~ ~ t . i [ ~, ( I~ l ) l ( ~

( . I
I I I ~ I I Y ~ is I I I . O I I ! ; \ ~ ~ , l , [~, \ I ( , SIII,I':I,(Y,
~OI.(, :I,II(I Ii111,ly ~ ~ , I . I I I I I 111,
I ( ~ 111ill(,(1 I,II ( X I I I I . I . I I ~I :III. 111,.
( ' ~ l ~ ~ l l l ~I l l ~I Il ~ \ I ~I J ~ ' . ~ ~ I I I :~ 1 ; ~I 1~ 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 1 11 1. ~' r ~, 1 . ~I , I \ n ' I .,. ~ l I ~ ~ J ~ , I l 1 ~1 1l1 ~I 1 I~ 1l 1 1~ 1 ~1 1 ' : ; I l l .Ill\' 0 ~ , ~ 1 1 ' 1 ~ 'I1l1,:; /';\.(~ili(:\{,,-s 1,111* f . i ~ l ( - , l : ; l 411'
~ l ~ ~ l l l l l l :lI , l ; l l l l l l : l ~ ~ l l vj8,;1:;
l ~ l I 1 : l l ~ I:! llilll I l l (Ill,

I . I I I I . I ( I O I I I I I I I I I , t.11 ( I I , , ( _ . I . I I . III 111, I : I I I ~ I \I I ~ ~ ~ l I I~ I I I~ ~.IIII(.I

~ I L ~ III
I I ~ I I ~ I ~ I I I I ~ ; I I I; I~ II II, I; I:; I, ~ I ~ I ~ I J I , I . ; ~1 ~. l l : l i l l 111. 111;111111111, '(')I(. II.:,II~III.:, 110111 (11,.I I I I ~ ~ I I ~I I~ I~I ,I I . ~ ~ : ~I ,:, I; I,I I \ Y I I :I:, I J I I ~ I I I , ~ , : ~ ,
1111 I IIVI ,111a.141 1"Ol I I I ~ ; I "I , 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I '1'111. Ir~,:.l 1 1 1 , ; 1 1 1111.111 111 1111.
 8.6.2. W a s t e ctisposal

principal aiins of nuclear waste disposal are t,o tlilr~lc,[,lit: ~ ; r . ~ l i o ; l c ~ t . i v l l y 11

'1'11t: 111

I'III 01' 1,11(: 11ri~lli1111l

~ l i c , ; l , t , i ~ ~ ~ ~ conccntrate and its enrichment by adding U235 to I~irrmlesslevel and disperse it to the environrnent or to isolntc I.Ii(: ~ . ; ~ . c l i c ~ ; ~ c , ~ I I I I I I\,(.

1 ; 1 1 1 1 I ( . : I ~ . I L I . ( ~ ; I I . ~ . O I 1'11(:1
. ro(Is a11d pellets also produces waste. Enrichment plant waste (,(:rials under containment until the radioactivity has dcc:rc:irsc:tl t,o il~sij:lrilit: I 1.

I I . , I I ; I I I ~ (.~~rlsist.s 01' licl~litlc:ffluent containing low levels of decay products. 1:or convenience, the waste materials are classified wit11 rcgartl 1.0 1.111. 11.v1.1 111111

longevity of the radioactivity as low-level, intermediate-lcvcl o r I l i j : l ~ I t & v l . l \'*.Iv

low-level liquid and gaseous wastes are disposed of directly illl,o t.111, ( . I I \ , I I I I I I I I ~ ~ I I ( (

' I ' I I I . ( I ~ ~ ( . I . ; I . ~ , ~ o 01'

I I i1. 1111c1carreactor results in radioactive fission products, as de-
Some low-level solid wastes such as soiled laboratory clothiilg t,lli\.t.\\;I,\:(. ( 1 1 1 1 ~:.111:111
: , $ - I I I I I Y I i l l S(:(..8.2. Tlicsc are all contained in the fuel rods which are themselves
rontamination are packaged into metal drums and buried in l ; ~ l ll(l i l l :;il,t,:. \ \ ' I I , ~ ~
I I 1111 ; I 1111,tl i v i l . l l i 1 1 tllc rcactor containment system during reactor operation. Some
of a slightly higher radioactivity level, but still within the low-l(:vctl ( . I : I : , : ~ I I I I I \ \ I ~ I I I .
I I . ; I : , I , * I:, j)~.orlll(.t:(l ljy reactions between the neutrons and the coolant and the con- include wastes from hospitals and laboratories. These are c11cnsc:tl ~ I (I. I I I 1 1 . 1 ( 1 1 I . 1 1 1 111

I . I I I I I I 11.1 I 1. sysl.c.111 1 jut these remain inside the reactor until decommissioning, A small enclosed in steel drums. Such waste from the UK is tipped into t.11(~A { . ~ ; I I~ \tI(. ) ~ I , I I ~ I .
4 I I I : I I I ~I ( . \ , 01' ~.;l.tlioactive gaseous effluent is sometimes released but this forms only about 4 km (2 112 miles) deep, a t an internationally agreed lot:;~t,io~r ; I I , I I I I I i ~ l l l
. , I I I I ~ I ";, 11' 1.l1c:local natural background radiation.
)I
iniles off Lands End.
Intermediate-level wastes include reactor fuel cans, fiicl fragr11c.111 s, sl I l l ~ , ~ :~I I: 1. 1 1
I(

filters from liquid and gaseous effluent, plutonium-contaminat(:(l ( : ( J I I ~ ~ I I 1I1I1 1I. 1. I I ~

1'111. :.(.I 11 111:; I~;~.zi~.rtls
of nuclear waste begin when spent fuel rods are removed from
transport flasks and reactor components. Some of this waste (:all 11c: I . r . ( . : ~ l , ( * ( l 1 0 1 . t
I 111. I I.;II.I I 11 I;)r tlisposal or, more likely, for reprocessing. Spent reactor fuel is so
tract and concentrate the long-lived radioactive constituents, dis(:I~;~~.gil~p, \ . \ \ I . I(.:,( It:.
I : I I ~ I ~ I : I ( I I \ , ( *1.l1;1.t. i t has to be handled behind thick shielding or water. Waste re-
low-level waste. Much of the waste is encapsulated into blocks of c:o~lc.r.c~l.c*, I . ( ~ : ; ~ I I0 1
I 11 I I(,I.:;:;III~: i~lvolvc:~ dismantling the fuel cans and dissolving the contents in nitric
bitumen for longer-term, land-based storage and eventual disposi~l.S ( . I I ~ ; II:;, )I ~I : J:I ~
.I( 1 1 1 1 1 I I l,t.~.ic.vc: t.li(: reusable uranium and plutonium. There remains a liquid waste
ally made deep underground, a t about 300 m depth, at suitably si~f(: gc:olclj:ic.;~.l: , ~ I l . : i
I I 1 1 1 1 ; I I I I I 111: I( )lrg-lived radioactive fission products such as strontium 90, caesium 137
High-level nuclear waste is the most dangerous because o f tllc: lligl~I I ( S ; I 1. I ~ : . I I I . ~
: I I I I I 1 I 11 I I I I I I , (.I;LSS(!(I as high-level waste, which is concentrated and cool-stored. Var-
ation and the high level of radioactivity. Concrete-lined, stainl(!ss-sl.c:c,lW ; I ~ . I I~I II I I ~ ; : .
11 11I : ; J I , I I ( - I . w;i.sl.c:sinclude the metal fuel cans and the cooling water or gas. These
known as cooling ponds are used to store solid waste for 11p to t,crl yc:;~.l.s.A I'\.I*I c 11
. I I ~ .I,I:I:;SI~O ;I.S i~~l.c,rniediate level and are also stored.
ing, the fuel and weapons material can be retrieved for reproc:t:ssi~~g. A clii1.~:1i1111 111
( I . ) N//i.li,trr. decommissioning
~v,crc:lo~ ~1 cooling pond is given in Fig. 8.9 [22].

'1 ' 1 1 1 . 1I1.c.c l~lissiol~iiig

11 I I of a nuclear reactor involves either "mothballing" or "en- T High-level liquid waste is cooled for several years and t,lleli solitlilic,tl. 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 1 I I \
I . ~ I I I ~ ~ I 110t.11 I I ( ~ of
I I which
I , " , leave the radioactive hazard undisturbed but in need of and France the solidified waste is chemically incorporat,cd ill(.() gliiss vy li11( l t . 1 : . ( . I \
I I 11 1:;1 ; I I 11, I I I ( ~lli(.ori~lg. Di~lnant~ling a reactor, however, would involve handling thou-
f: cased in steel cans. The radioactive solids fuse with tho glass i11t.o; I , I I O ~ I ; I . I ~ I~ I8 ~. l 1~1 x l . lI
Y I I I I I : ; 1 1 1 I , O I I S01' I~iglllyradioactive material and would be undertaken only after a ceramic. In the USA the w a ~ t is e fusetl wit,ll a ccra~rlicl ~ yfluitl-\)c:tl c . ; ~ . l ( . i ~ ~ ; ~ , t . i' (l ~' ll ~\ c ,
111,1.1\, 1 1 1 ' (s:I.,v) Y ( , ; I . ~ t.o
s allow t,hc bulk of tlic radioactivity to decay. waste containment cans arc ;~ir-or wt~t,(:r-(:ooIo(I ill (:011(.1~:t;(: (.or~t.;~.ir~c*l. I II li lr I I I IJ~,:. I 11

hunkers docp uildcrgro~uld,ill s i ~ l for~ilat,iolw t or 11lilic:s ~,II;I.~, \)rc:vc311l ~ . I I ( , i l l t . l l ~ : ; ~ ( l l t

o f wat,cr 1231.
rl'li(: ~ , ~ ( > ; L ~ , I I N ! I I t,r;~.~~si)ort,:it,iot~
~,, ;LIIII (lisl)os;~,l 01' I I I I ( , ~ ( ~ ~ I w , I .; I s ~ , I *I ~ ,: ; I I I V ~ ~ ; I I I \ , I I I ~ - , I I
I(>V(,I \v;l,sl,(-,is ;I, l l l i ~ , j O l~~ ~ l l ; l . l l ~ ~l ,ll ll LI l~ l ~( *~ llll~~ll~:l,l~ ill~lllsll~,~. ' l ' l l l ~ l ~l l ;~l \ , l ~ l l ~ ~ l ~I bl Vl I l

I I ~ I . ; I . I ) I I ' i l ~ ( . i ( I ( ~i ~~ ~~vl ,osl \ ~ Ii, I~I ( l> ~( , S: ( . : I O ( * 01 1 . ; 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 ; ~ . ~ . lI,IiIv; 1I .~( . I ~ I . ~ ; I ~;L(.: CVIIIII:;(.;II(. ( I I O \ V
Sc~II:~lic~l~l), I';IIJ:I:IIIII, ~ I II!li".? ; I I I I I ; I . ( . I I : I , I I I I I I I I , L V : I : : I I I I I ~ ~ , I . I I I I ,S A , i l l I!)',':\ N o I O I I I S ,
h ' l l l l 1 1 1 l * I I ' l ' l ' t : ; : ; l ~ l ~ I1 .l1 1~ l l ; l \ ' l ' :l.l'l'I llc'l~ 11 lllll 1 . 1 1 l l l * l 1 1 1 1 l l l l ~ l l ~ '. 1 ' 1 1 1 . 1 , \ . 1 ' 1 : 1 1 1 :.:lll't \' 11'1'11111

111 (111' 11 I\ 1 1 1 1 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ 1 1l 1l l ~ ~ l I l \'~ 1. ' 8~ l ' h l ~ ' ~ ~ 1 ' 1 1 ~

 Ill:,loll 1l';I.l l1,lIl;; l l l ~ l ~ l l Il l l llll. :;Ill1 ;lll<l ,,I ll,.l ,,l,11:, lllll l)lll\ :I ll,\\, :,Ill I1 14,311 I IODII,.

;\,I.,. I l l ( , 1 ; 1 , ( ~ 1 1 , ~ ; 1 1v ; l l l l l . 1 1 1 1 . ~ 1 1 ~ 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 , 1 : 11 1. 1 1 1 . 1 ! ' , \ . ~ 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 l ~ 1 . 1 0 1 111 1 1 I . : I I l l l . ' l ' l l l ~ : , l ~i l l 1 l l l , ~ O I \ ~ l ~

, . ; I I I . , : \ I I I I .i 1I. 1(1 ; I : ; : - ; I I I I I I Y ~ 11111 I ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I ~ SI I ~. ( .I( I I( . ~I ~I I ~* ( I. ~~I IYI I I I ~ S S ~ ~ I I ~ I I ~llli~~ois

:. I)O~(II. lSOl.O[)(!.Y 0 ~ ' ~ . ~ 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ ~1 l ~~ 1l 1~ l1 O~ J~ ~1 l '1'I '1~I lll. l. ' l ' 111 ~ 1 , ~ 1 ~ 1 ~ l I ;~I 'l l~' ' I~ IO l l l \ V l 1 : ~ l \ ' l ~ l ~ l ~ ' , l ~ I I
l:,llItlIH':i

1 , 1 1 1 . 1 1 $ ! ) s I I I I I I I ~ I Ii l l I~(~I~IIIIIIII~SS~OII~II{:I ' I I I I C ~ S 1.0 AIII(T(:(:II it11cI is c:o111111il,t,(:(I 1.0 I,ritl~s-

I
(Il), t l t : ~ ~ l , t r r . i ~( ~I )l) l ~ ; a l ~ t l I . ~ . i l , i l ~( ~' I li )~.
I I I I ( . I ( ' ~ 01' ;I.II I.III.(.I' iso1.0111.:;
'1'111% I . ~ I I I ~ : I I I 0I1 1 1 .
0 l'111ly h~~rcl
1 1 . 1 I I I I ~ , ,: ~ t l t l ~ I . Ii IcI : I . ~ I ' I I I I I ~ S s 1 1 f I i c . i c ~ l 11.0 I.Ii(: ('v(:lil,~litI(l(:(.olllliiissio~lirl~ of' the 11roto11,wi~i(.l~ I , ~ I ( : I I I ;IS I'OI.IIIS 01' ( , I I ( ~ (-I(,III(*III, I I , ~ ~ ~ I . o ~ ~ , ( - 1I 1I 1. ; I I ~ 1I 1 1 11 1 1 1 ,
(~l~:~,r;~,(:l,(:ri.~(:,s
( '111111)11 11':1(~1~01.. l,\i(: dcut,c:riurn 1111c*lc:11s
11:~soil(: 11(:11t,ro1i il.11(1 ~,II(:t.riLil1111 I I I I ( : ~ ~ I I I S11i1.s I.WO I I ( . I I ~ . I ~ I I I , ,
k I I )I 1, I (,r,c,~lI.l,y,
Ilc )w(:vc:r,1)ric.c:~ li)r I I I I C ~ C ~powc;r
L~ assets .have risen markedly. For 111 each case, the neutral ator11 113s one elc(:trorl out,sidc: t,llc ~ i ~ ~ c . l1.0 ( >I r) ;~I ~s; I ~ I I I . II I~I I .
I I I . : ~ : I I I I Y ~ i, l l I ~ ' I ~ I ) I . I I ; L I . ~2000, I':nt,c:rgy ixgreed to pay the New York Power Authority (,large of the single proton.
'I;oI;'~' 1 1 1 1 1 l i I~I I (;)I. I I I ( \ ~ ; I . I I I'oint 3 a11d Fitzpatrick, a record high for nuclear sales to Several different nuclear fusion reactions can be used to reli:;~sc:( * I I ~ : I . J : , ~ 1; ) I 1 1 1 1 )-.I.
I 11:11 11:11.15. ' I ' l l ( , I ~ i ~ l ~ c1)riccs rl. paid for nuclear assets in recent sales may reflect not scale electricity generation. All of these have in common tlial tlic: I ' I I s ~ ~ I I :I :I . I I I I I I 1.

1 ~ 1 1 1 ~ 1 . 1 1 ( . c111;1lil,y 01' t , l l o assets sold but also an improved environment for nuclear high energies obtained via very high working temperatures. At, ;I. l ~ ~ l ~ l l ) ~1*1 1~1 . i$ 1~1 . l
I , ~ \ \ , I , I I I I I L I I I * IISA 1121. 40 million kelvins (4 x lo7 K) the electrons separate from their ;~.ssoc.ii~.l.~~l l IIII~ 14.1

The resultant ionised gas is known as a plasma, in which individ~r;~I I I I I ~ ~ ~ I ~I ' :I II I I 1 1 1 11.81

each have an average energy greater than 5 keV. High temperature: I ) ~ ; I S I I I ; I : 1.1; 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I
H. 7 . 2 . N11.(:1(:(~7* generation in the UK [24]
electricity and can be confined and controlled by electric and niagr~c~l~i(. I;II.I.~~:;
11, I ')!)II~
I,II(. l J l i govc:rnn~entannounced that it would privatise its more modern Deuterium (D) or heavy hydrogen occurs naturally in seawater i1.11t1 II:I.:; 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1
number 2, as discussed in Sec. 8.1. In a thermonuclear bomb two tlc:~~l.c~r~r~:; III:.~. 1
IIIII I I . : I I :;I:I.(.~oIIs wliilc: rct,aining the ownership of older stations. In 1996, more
I I I ( ,,I t . I I I ,-%l.:~.l.ic111s wcm: privatised and British Energy became the holding company forin helium 3 plus a neutron, Fig. 8.10(a). For the purpose of clcc.t.ric.il.,~ ~ : ( ' I I I , I 111 11 1 1 1

N I I I I ~ . ; I I I<:l(*c.l.l.ic: :~litlScottish Nuclear, which merged in 1998 to form British by nuclear fusion, the most promising reaction is the deuterilllrl t j r i t , iI ~I ~I 1.1111~ 111. 11

/''I .I 18 . l . i ttlie nation's largest private nuclear generator and the world's
( : ~ . ~ ~ l a ~ . ; ~111, illustrated in Fig. 8.10(b) [6].
III ,.I \v 1 1 1 ,lly ~)l.ivir.t.isc~tl nuclear utility. British Energy operates eight power stations Tritium (T) is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, with the rili~<sI I I I I I I I ~ I ' I :{ : I I I I I
1 1 1 r 11,. I 1 li (:l.s wc:ll :is sc:vera,l in the USA through its AmerGen subsidiary, which half-life Ti = 12.6 years. It does not occur in nature and has t,o IN: I I I : I I I I I ~ - I I ~ I ~ I I I I I ~
I,. 11 ~ ~ I ly I I ~ w ~ l c - wit.11 tl PECO). Each station consists of two advanced gas-cooled from the natural chemical lithium (Li), which is a plentiful i~iki~li IIII*I.;L~ ILlli~l I,,

I , . . I , I ) I : , , ~hsc~-l)(,
1 Siec:wc:il B, which is a modern pressurised water reactor. Nuclear x~idelyavailable commercially. The deuterium-tritium (D-T) rc:;tc.t,io~~, IYj:. s . I ( I ( 1 1 )

I w1.1 : ; I , ; I , ~ , I O I I S wclrc: not privatised simultaneously with non-nuclear stations. No and equation (8.12), produces the inert gas helium plus energy il11t1 I'III.I.II('I 1 1 ( ' 1 I I I I ~ I I . .
I I I , \ V I 1l;111l.s Il;~.vc:I)(:(:ii built since 1995. But because of limited domestic coal and to sustain the reaction.
l f . : l : . I I ~ : ; I ~ I V I ~ 11c:wS, c:olist,ruction is under discussion, a t least to maintain nuclear's
I I I : I I Ii1.1. :;II;II.(, its o1(1(:r nl~clearplants are retired. Of the UK's 33 reactors, 26 are 2~ + 3T 4 4 ~+e'11 + 17.6 MeV
111 I 1 1 1 . 1 l l t l Mil.g110~ t1c:sign. Six of the Magnox reactors are being decommissioned,
: I : . tv1.11 ;I.. 1 \ I ( : I)o~lrlrc:ayprototype fast reactor. The remaining Magnox plants are

I 1 1 1 1 l1y 1 1 1 1 , S I , ; I , I , ( \ - O W I I ( : British~ Nuclear Fuels. British Nuclear Fuels operates the

: ; ~ . I l : ~ l i ~ . I l ~.c.~)~.oc~c~ssil~g
l plant and is one of only two companies in the world that
I 1 I \ , 1 1 I ( $ ~.~q)~'oc~c~ssir~l:
11 itlid recycling technologies. The British nuclear industry is DEUTERIUM DEUTERIUM HELIUM 3 NEUTRON
I I . I : I I I:) 1.1.1 I I I,V ~ . I I ( : l~)c:l)ilrt,inent of Trade and Industry Nuclear Directorate.
 ,111 Ilbs~~IvI~:>,
,\I:;11, l l l l l l ~ 1 ; 1 1 l ~ l \l \ I l l 1 \ I l l . 1 ,,:.I, , I 111.1 1, 11;1(111:,1 )',;I:. "1 l l l l , ~ 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ,1.

\ ~ 1 1 ~ 1 . 1 1 : 114'
1 Ill.1..

I , i l . ] l i ~is
r ~; I~~ ~
~ I I I I ( I ; I I I I , I ;, ~I \ J ; I I ~ ; I ~ , I~I I~ , .I , I : ; ( . I . I I I I . 1;1.1111 II:I,SIYI : ; ( I I I I I . I - > ; . s1111.1. 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 11
IlOs, (:11il1: 11;lsI I I Y . I ) I I I ~ : 1.111. 1;1.1.~;1::;1. l i l . l l i 1 1 1 1 1 ~ . I I I - I I ~ ~ I . ; IOI.IIIIII(Y,I .~ I I I 1,111' w l l ~ l c l ;1\11:;1 I;III;I
( ' I I I I I ~ I . , Ii,llssii~; ~ i ( l1,111; IISA W I ~ I X :l;lrg~u~ ~ I ~ I I I [ ~ ~ (; I: , II ~~I ~I . . s AIISI,I.;I.I~;I,, ( ':III:II~ ; I I:I II I
Xi I ~II)~LJ>w(: W V ~ ( 111;~jor ? ~)roO11(.(:1~s oS Iit,llillll~or(: ( : O I I ( . ( : I I ~ , ~ ; L ~ , ( \ S'1'111' . I IS A 1.1.1 I I ; I I I I I . I I
I Ilc: leading consurncr of lithiunl ~lliileri~ls and conlpolllltls i ~ ~ I,II(: i d II';I.( I ~ I I J S . I ) I 1 11 1 1 11 1 . 1
1 ,I' value-added lithium materials. Because only one c:oiiil);~,l~y 1)ro(1I I ~ ' ( *1( 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
c.ol~lpoundsfrom domestic resources, reported productioil slit1 V;LIII(~ ( 1 1 ' I ) I - I ,I 1 1 1 1 . 1 11 1 1 1
111 I IIIY r I 111. I I 11 IIIIII I ) I I M I I ~ ( Y Y ill
~ (8.13) is recycled ill (8.12) t o produce a resultant I i;lt,a cannot be published. An estimation of value for the litlli~ull ; l Il I I I I , I I I I I ~ 1I, .
~ ~ l i ~ l ( l l . 1.1

I I I I I O I I ~'roducedin the USA is extremely difficult because of the miuly ( . ~ t l l l ~ ~ ~ l I~I ,l. ~) , :I I
i r ~a wide variety of end uses and the great variability of t,he pric,c!s f ~ l .I I I I , 1 1 1 l l 1 . 1 1 . 1 1 1
'I) + %i -3 +
2 4 ~ e 22.4 MeV (8.14) { c:ompounds [26]. Some details of the production and reservcs ol' l i l , l ~ l ~ l l: I~ I l1 ' ) : I \ , ~ , I 1
1 . 1 11 I:I I II 11 I ( s .I . I ) sl~oivsI . l ~ i(l(:~lt(:ri~im
~t and lithium are the basic fuels for nuclear fu- ill Table 8.6 [26].

I I ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ ;~I Iy. I * 1)111.I1 11;~t,llri~11,~ occurring, abundant and stable (i.e. non-radioactive). Identified world reserves of 13 million tonnes exist against t l ~\)r('s~'l : 1 1 11~ : ~ I I I I ~ I
('1

1 111.1t. ;III. ~ r ; ~ ~ l i ; l!sff(:(.t.s,

. t . i o ~ ~llowcv~r,because the intermediate tritiun~reactiorl and l ion of 13,000 tonnes per year for industrial lubricants ant1 c(!r;l.lllic~s. 1 I I I 1 1 1 1 . 1 I ' , I ,
I 1 1 , . ~ I I I ~ 1.111-1.!:y
, ~ I I I I ~ I I ~ ~ r(11cased
~ O I ~ S by fusion make the reactor structure radioactive. rcserves of lithium also exist in the oceans but would cost mu(:ll I I I O I I ~ 1.1, lrslI 111 I
I 111. II I 1 . 1 111 i 1 y I )I' il.(.I.iv(: ~ ~ i a t e r iin
a l a fusion reactor would be up to 100 times less The two basic fuel ingredients of nuclear fusion, deutcrill~lii1111I l i l 1 I I I I 1 1 1 , 1 3 1

I 1 1 . 1 I I I I I ; I 1 1 1.1 l ~ ~ i \ ~ ; ~fission l ( ~ ~ ~ reactor.

t. Moreover, the intermediate fuel, tritium, has a 1.llerefore abundant, cheap and non-radioactive. For this rci~soll1111i,11.;11. l l l : m ~ ~ ~1 , l. l
1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 t . 1 1 1 I :!.(i,YI';~.I.s,c:oiiipared with billions of years for uraniunl and 24,400 years
1 1 11 I , I I I I I 1 1 I I I I I I I (31. O t lier forrns of fusion reactions are possible but these require Table 8.6. World mine production, reserves, and reserve bas(: 01' l i l . J l i ~ I J I I/:!I;)

( I . I I I I ~ ~ . . I I( 1 1 1 1 . : ; 1~vc.11 I~igliert,llan that of the D-T reaction, which is the most viable. -
- -.

1 1 1 . 1 1 1 I T I I I I I I 1.1 ~~~st.it.l~t,(>s 1/7000 of the hydrogen in seawater. Complete fusion of Mine production ReservesZ Itc:sc.l.vt. I I I I : ~ ~ . "
I 1 1 , . ( 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 . 1 i l l 1 1 1 i l l 1 (.l~l)ic metre of seawater would yield 12 x 1012 joules of energy, 1999
.
- 2000
- -

1, 1 1 1 1 1 1 I : . I Y ~ I I ~ V ; I ~ It,o ~ I i~1)out
~ ( . 2000 barrels of oil. Rather more startlirig is the fact United St,ates W W :~X,000 I Io,llllIl
N :\
Argentinao 200 200 NA
I 1 1 . 1 I I . ; I I . \ I 1 . 1 I l ) i l . liilolllc:t,rc:of ocean contains enough deuterium that, if fully converted Il,II,IlIllI
Australiao 2,200 2,000 150,000
I I ~ t , . l l I P Y I I I I I . ~ ( ' ~ I S~lsioll.
T would be roughly energy equivalent t o the earth's know11 - -
0
Bolivia 18, IOIl,llIlIJ
N .\
Brazil 32 30 9l 0
:\l,ll,llllll
Canada 710 710 180,1100
:\,II!III,IlIIII
Chile 5,300 5,500 3,000,000
N .?
China 2,300 2,000 NA
I .I
Portugal 140 I40 NA /\

Power outpt N ;\
nussia0 2,000 1,800 NA
Zimbabwe 700 700 2:3,000 :!';,!)Ij l J
-- --- -. .
~'!l,.lllll,~lllll
World tot.al ()nay be ro~lnded) "4,000 "13,000 4:3,40~),00~)
-.- -
-

World Resources:
- 'I%(, id(!nI,il'(xj l i I , l ~ i , l r~~(~: ~ ( J ~ I ~ C{,ot,;~l
C S 7(;0,000 1011s i l l 1 1 1 ~I ~! l l l l ~ ~ ~ ~ :~I,I(~"#
// / Slearn boiler Turbine Generator ;LII(! rriorc ( , ~ I ; I , I I 12 ~ ~ i i l l i t.otls
o ~ i ill 1)(11(~1.( ~ I ) ~ ~ I I ~ . ~ I ( ~ s .