Steel Structure is an assemblage of different member such as BEAMS,COLUMNS which are

connected to one other, usually at member ends fastners,so that it shows a single composite unit. Steel
connections are structural elements used for joining different members of a structural steel frame work.
Connections are what bring the entire building together. They join these members together and must ensure
that they function together as one unit. There are four components of a connections; Bolts, welds,
connecting plates and connecting angles.

A bolt is a form of threaded fastener with an external male thread. Bolts are thus closely related to,
and often confused with, screws. Weld is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually
metals or thermoplastics, by causing fusion. Connecting plates are thick sheets of steel that are used to
connect beams and girders to columns or to connect truss members. Plates not only serve as a method of
joining steel members together but they also strengthen the joint.

Steel Connections are classified on the basis of connecting medium, according to the type of
internal forces, according to the type of structural elements and according to the type of members joining.
Under the basis of connecting medium are riveted connections, bolted connections, welded connections and
bolted welded connections. A rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener. Before being installed, a rivet
consists of a smooth cylindrical shaft with a head on one end. The end opposite to the head is called the
tail. On installation the rivet is placed in a punched or drilled hole, and the tail is upset, or bucked (i.e.,
deformed), so that it expands to about 1.5 times the original shaft diameter, holding the rivet in place. In
other words, pounding creates a new "head" on the other end by smashing the "tail" material flatter, resulting
in a rivet that is roughly a dumbbell shape. To distinguish between the two ends of the rivet, the original
head is called the factory head and the deformed end is called the shop head or buck-tail. Bolted joints are
one of the most common elements in construction and machine design. They consist of fasteners that
capture and join other parts, and are secured with the mating of screw threads. If the threads are included,
the bolt will fail, through an area equal to the root area lf the bolt threads. If the threads are excluded, then
the bolt fails through an area euqal to the gross area of the bolt.

Welded Connections

Welding is the process of joining two pieces of metal by creating a strong metallurgical bond between them
by heating or pressure or both. It is distinguished from other forms of mechanical connections, such as
riveting or bolting, which are formed by friction or mechanical interlocking. It is one of the oldest and
reliable methods of joining.

Welding offers many advantages over bolting and riveting. Welding enables direct transfer of stress
between members eliminating gusset and splice plates necessary for bolted structures. Hence, the weight
of the joint is minimum. In the case of tension members, the absence of holes improves the efficiency of
the section. It involves less fabrication cost compared to other methods due to handling of fewer parts and
elimination of operations like drilling, punching etc. and consequently less labour leading to economy.
Welding offers air tight and water tight joining and hence is ideal for oil storage tanks, ships etc. Welded
structures also have a neat appearance and enable the connection of complicated shapes. Welded structures
are more rigid compared to structures with riveted and bolted connections. A truly continuous structure is
formed by the process of fusing the members together. Generally welded joints are as strong or stronger
than the base metal, thereby placing no restriction on the joints. Stress concentration effect is also
considerably less in a welded connection.

Some of the disadvantages of welding are that it requires skilled manpower for welding as well as
inspection. Also, non-destructive evaluation may have to be carried out to detect defects in welds. Welding
in the field may be difficult due to the location or environment. Welded joints are highly prone to cracking
under fatigue loading. Large residual stresses and distortion are developed in welded connections.

Types of joints and welds

By means of welding, it is possible to make continuous, load bearing joints between the members of a
structure. A variety of joints is used in structural steel work and they can be classified into four basic
configurations namely, Lap joint, Tee joint, Butt joint and Corner joint.

For lap joints, the ends of two members are overlapped and for butt joints, the two members are placed end
to end. The T- joints form a Tee and in Corner joints, the ends are joined like the letter L. Most common
joints are made up of fillet weld or the butt (also calling groove) weld. Plug and slot welds are not generally
used in structural steel work. Fillet welds are suitable for lap joints and Tee joints and groove welds for butt
and corner joints. Butt welds can be of complete penetration or incomplete penetration depending upon
whether the penetration is complete through the thickness or partial. Generally, a description of welded
joints requires an indication of the type of both the joint and the weld.

Though fillet welds are weaker than butt welds, about 80% of the connections are made with fillet welds.
The reason for the wider use of fillet welds is that in the case of fillet welds, when members are lapped over
each other, large tolerances are allowed in erection. For butt welds, the members to be connected have to
fit perfectly when they are lined up for welding. Further butt welding requires the shaping of the surfaces
to be joined.

Butt welds:

Full penetration butt welds are formed when the parts are connected together within the thickness of the
parent metal. For thin parts, it is possible to achieve full penetration of the weld. For thicker parts, edge
preparation may have to be done to achieve the welding. There are nine different types of butt joints: square,
single V, double V, single U, double U, single J, double J, single bevel and double bevel. In order to qualify
for a full penetration weld; there are certain conditions to be satisfied while making the welds. Welds are
also classified according to their position into flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead. Flat welds are the most
economical to make while overhead welds are the most difficult and expensive.

The main use of butt welds is to connect structural members, which are in the same plane. There are many
variations of butt welds and each is classified according to its particular shape. Each type of butt weld
requires a specific edge preparation and is named accordingly. The proper selection of a particular type
depends upon: Size of the plate to be joined; welding is by hand or automatic; type of welding equipment,
whether both sides are accessible and the position of the weld.

Butt welds have high strength, high resistance to impact and cyclic stress. They are most direct joints and
introduce least eccentricity in the joint. But their major disadvantages are: high residual stresses, necessity
of edge preparation and proper aligning of the members in the field. Therefore, field butt joints are rarely
used.
To minimize weld distortions and residual stresses, the heat input is minimized and hence the welding
volume is minimized. This reduction in the volume of weld also reduces cost. Hence for thicker plates,
double Butt welds and U welds are generally used. For a butt weld, the root gap, R, is the separation of the
pieces being joined and is provided for the electrode to access the base of a joint. The smaller the root gap
the greater the angle of the bevel. The depth by which the arc melts into the plate is called the depth of
penetration. Roughly, the penetration is about 1 mm per 100Aand in manual welding the current is usually
150 200 A. Therefore, the mating edges of the plates must be cut back if through-thickness continuity is
to be established. This groove is filled with the molten metal from the electrode. The first run that is
deposited in the bottom of a groove is termed as the root run [Fig.3.176 (c)]. For good penetration, the root
faces must be melted. Simultaneously, the weld pool also must be controlled, preferably, by using a backing
strip.

Fillet welds:

Owing to their economy, ease of fabrication and adaptability, fillet welds are widely used. They require
less precision in the fitting up because the plates being joined can be moved about more than the Butt welds.
Another advantage of fillet welds is that special preparation of edges, as required by Butt welds, is not
required. In a fillet weld the stress condition in the weld is quite different from that of the connected parts.

The root of the weld is the point where the faces of the metallic members meet. The theoretical throat of a
weld is the shortest distance from the root to the hypotenuse of the triangle. The throat area equals the
theoretical throat distance times the length of the weld.

The concave shape of free surface provides a smoother transition between the connected parts and hence
causes less stress concentration than a convex surface. But it is more vulnerable to shrinkage and cracking
than the convex surface and has a much reduced throat area to transfer stresses. On the other hand, convex
shapes provide extra weld metal or reinforcement for the throat. For statically loaded structures, a slightly
convex shape is preferable, while for fatigue prone structures, concave surface is desirable.

Large welds are invariably made up of a number of layers or passes. For reasons of economy, it is desirable
to choose weld sizes that can be made in a single pass. Large welds scan be made in a single pass by an
automatic machine, though manually, 8 mm fillet is the largest single-pass layer.

Plug Welds

Plug welding is an alternative to spot welding used by vehicle manufacturers where there is insufficient
access for a spot welder. For DIY car restoration it's generally used instead of spot welding on panels
flanges that would have originally been spot welded.

Plug welds when done properly tend to be stronger than the original spot welds. Rally car builders often
use the technique, and it is acceptable in a UK MOT test as an alternative to spot welds where repairing
older cars (it would not be suitable for modern high tensile steels).

Welding Positions

Welding is often done on structures in the position in which they are found.
Techniques have been developed to allow welding in any position. Some welding processes have all-
position capabilities, while others may be used in only one or two positions.

All welding can be classified according to the position of the work piece or the position of the welded joint
on the plates or sections being welded.

Fillet, Groove, and Surface welds may be made in all of the positions shown in figure 6-31 above.

Flat Position Welding

In this position, the welding is performed from the upper side of the joint, and the face of the weld is
approximately horizontal.

Flat welding is the preferred term; however, the same position is sometimes called down hand.

Horizontal Position Welding

The axis of a weld is a line through the length of the weld, perpendicular to the cross section at its center of
gravity.

a. Fillet Weld.

In this position, welding is performed on the upper side of an approximately horizontal surface and against
an approximately vertical surface.

b. Groove Weld.

In this position, the axis of the weld lies in an approximately horizontal plane and the face of the weld lies
in an approximately vertical plane.

c. Horizontal Fixed Weld.

In this pipe welding position, the axis of the pipe is approximately horizontal, and the pipe is not rotated
during welding.

d. Horizontal Rolled Weld.

In this pipe welding position, welding is performed in the flat position by rotating the pipe.

Vertical Position Welding

a. In this position, the axis of the weld is approximately vertical.

b. In vertical position pipe welding, the axis of the pipe is vertical, and the welding is performed in the
horizontal position.

Overhead Position Welding

In this welding position, the welding is performed from the underside of

a joint.

Pipe Welding Positions

Pipe welds are made under many different requirements and in different welding situations. The welding
position is dictated by the job.

Advantage of Welding

Almost all metals and alloys, many (thermoplastic) polymers, most if not all glasses, and some ceramics
can be welded, with or without auxiliary filler. Still other advantages of welding are that -

1. there are processes that can be performed manually, semi-automatically, or completely automatically;
2. some processes can be made portable for implementation in the field for erection of large structures on
site or for maintenance and repair of such structures and
equipment;
3. continuous welds provide fluid tightness (so welding is the process of choice for fabricating pressure
vessels);
4. welding (better than most other joining processes) can be performed remotely in hazardous environments
(e.g., underwater, in areas of radiation, in outer space) using robots; and
5. for most applications, costs can be reasonable. The exceptions to the last statement
are where welds are highly critical, with stringent quality requirements or involving specialized applications
(e.g., very thick section welding).

Disadvantage of Welding

The single greatest disadvantage of welding is that it precludes disassembly. While often chosen just
because it produces permanent joints, consideration of ultimate disposal of a product (or structure) at the
end of its useful life is causing modern designers to rethink how they will accomplish joining.
A prime example is the need for the regulatory authorities in former West Germany to dismantle the nuclear
reactors in former East Germany that have designs similar to the reactor that failed in Chernobyl in the
former USSR.

A second major disadvantage of many welding processes is that the requirement for heat in producing many
welds can disrupt the base material microstructure and degrade properties. Unbalanced heat input can also
lead to distortion or the introduction of residual stresses that can be problematic from
several standpoints.

A third serious consideration, but not necessarily a disadvantage, is that welding requires considerable
operator skill, or, in lieu of skilled operators, sophisticated automated welding systems. Both of these, along
with the aforementioned specialized applications, can lead to high cost.

In summary,

Advantages
I. Joints of exceptional structural
integrity and efficiency, will not
accidently loosen or disassemble
2. Wide variety of process embodiments
3. Applicable to many materials within
a class
4. Manual or automated operation
5. Can be portable for indoor or
outdoor use
6. Leak-tight joints with continuous welds
7. Cost is usually reasonable
Disadvantages
1. Impossible to disassemble joints without
destroying detail parts
2. Heat of welding degrades base properties
3. Unbalanced heat input leads to
distortion or residual stresses
4. Requires considerable operator skill
5. Can be expensive (e.g., thick sections)
6. Capital equipment can be expensive (e.g.,
welds electron-beam guns and vacuum
chambers)

BOLTED-WELDED CONNECTIONS

Common Types

1. Shop Weld
2. Field Bolted Type
A large percentage of connections used for construction are shop-welded and field-bolted types. These
connections are usually more cost-effective than fully welded connections, and their strength and ductility
characteristics often rival those of fully-welded connections. The design of shop-weld and field-bolted
connection is also covered in the AISC manual on connections and in the AISC-LRFD manual.

According to the type of Internal

1. Shear (semi-rigid, simple) Connections

2. Moment (rigid) Connections

Shear Connections

Allows the beam end to rotate without a significant restraint.

Transfers shear out of beam

Most Common Types:

Double clip
Shear End Plate
Fin Plate

Moment Connection

Designed to resist both Moment and Shear.

Often referred - rigid or fully restrained connections

Provide full continuity between the connected members

Designed to carry the full factored moments.

Principal Reason - buildings has to resist the effect of lateral forces such as wind and earthquake.

Shear Connection - A beam bolted to a column. It is a shear only connection because the beam flanges are
not rigidly connected to the column. Note the gap shown between the bottom flange of the beam and the
column. A shear connection keeps something from sliding back and forth.

It is about reduction of the elements section, flexibility of connections allows to reduce internal forces in
the structure under non-mechanical loads such as thermal load. However, structural systems with semi-
rigid or hinged joints require spatial stiffening to ensure global stability of the system

The use of "semi-rigid" connection is recommended by SAFETY! Some times, the believe that a beam is
rigidly or pinned connected to a column can lead to ignore a little capacity in the last or a high cost design
in the former, nothing new.

But, most of all, there are conections which can behave like if it were 'almost' rigid lowing the cost and
others which behavior can be dangerous, as their response becomes negligible as the connection rotation
grows quickly after some point. And this is the problem.
The called 'same' connection can change the expected answers depending on the beam or the column, the
bolts, the undesired column stiffners, etc. where it is placed. Some apparently little changes in a connection
can also change the answer. This was forgiven in the past but it is a matter of cost unforgotten today.

A double clip angle connection is used in locations where a beam frames into another beam or into a column
flange or web. The connecting beam web is placed between the legs of the two clip angles. The other legs
of the angles are then connected to the supporting beam or column member. These connections are only
meant to transfer shear load, but can transfer some axial load depending on the connection design. Double
Clip Angle Connections are used so widely in industry, many engineering firms refer to these types of
connections as a standard shear connection and typically include a standard set of details for a steel
fabricator to default to unless a special connection is required. An example of how these standard
connections are handled within a set of engineered drawings is shown in Figure 2.2. The basic design is
covered in notes indicating what is considered standard and provides the fabricator with direction on the
assumptions to make if no other design considerations are noted. AISC tables are typically referenced and
a minimum number of bolts is indicated based simply on the depth of the connected member. For example,
a W12 beam would get 3 rows of bolts unless the design drawings indicate something different. These
connections are designed by the engineer unless the fabricator is specifically contracted to design these and
is provided the loading conditions.

Single plate shear connections, often referred to as shear tabs, have gained considerable popularity in recent
years due to their efficiency and ease of fabrication. Shear tab connections are primarily used to transfer
beam end reactions to the supporting elements. The connection consists of a plate welded to a support at
one edge and bolted to a beam web.

Moment (Rigid) Connection - A welded beam to the column. The beam flange welds transmit full flange
strength to the column. The shear tab, welded to the column, and bolted to the beam web, supports the beam
until it is welded and offers permanent shear resistance.

A moment connection keeps something from turning in a circle.

Moment resisting connections are used in multi-storey un-braced buildings and in single-storey portal
frame buildings. Connections in multi-storey frames are most likely to be bolted, full depth end plate
connections or extended end plate connections. Where a deeper connection is required to provide a larger
lever-arm for the bolts, a haunched connection can be used. However, as extra fabrication will result, this
situation should be avoided if possible.
For portal frame structures, haunched moment resisting connections at the eaves and apex of a frame are
almost always used, as in addition to providing increased connection resistances, the haunch increases the
resistance of the rafter.
The most commonly used moment resisting connections are bolted end plate beam-to-column connections;
these are shown in the figure below.
Instead of bolted beam-to-column connections, welded connections can be used. These connections can
provide full moment continuity but are expensive to produce, especially on site. Welded beam-to-column
connections can be prepared in the fabrication workshop with a bolted splice connection within the beam
spam, at a position of lower bending moment. Welded connections are also used for the construction of
buildings in seismic areas.
Other types of moment resisting connections include:
Splices in columns and beams, including apex connections in portal frames, and
Column bases.

One aspect that is not covered in this article is welded joints between hollow sections. However, guidance
on the design of welded joints for Celsius355 and Hybox355 hollow sections is available from Tata
Steel.
Joint classification
Design of joints in steel structures in the UK is covered by BS EN 1993-1-8[1] and its National Annex[2].
BS EN 1993-1-8[1] requires that joints are classified by stiffness (as rigid, semi-rigid or nominally pinned)
or by strength (as full strength, partial strength or nominally pinned). The stiffness classification is relevant
for elastic analysis of frames, the strength classification is for frames analysed plastically. The Standard
defines joint models as simple, semi-continuous or continuous, depending on stiffness and strength.
Moment-resisting joints will usually be rigid and either full or partial strength and thus the joints are either
continuous or semi-continuous.
In most situations, the design intent would be that moment-resisting joints are rigid, and modelled as such
in the frame analysis. If the joints were in fact semi-rigid, the behaviour of the joint would need to be taken
into account in the frame analysis but the UK NA[2]discourages this approach until experience is gained
with the numerical method of calculating rotational stiffness.
Clause 5.2.2.1(2) of BS EN 1993-1-8[1] notes that a joint may be classified on the basis of experimental
evidence, experience of previous satisfactory performance in similar cases or by calculations based on test
evidence.
The UK National Annex[2] offers further clarification, and in NA.2.6 comments that connections designed
in accordance with SCI P207[3]. (the BS 5950 version of the Green Book on moment connections) may be
classified in accordance with the recommendations in that publication.
SCI P207[3] has been updated to take account of BS EN 1993-1-8[1] and has been reissued as SCI P398 .
Rigid joint classification
Well-proportioned connections that follow the recommendations for standardisation given in SCI P398 and
designed for strength alone can generally be assumed to be rigid for joints in single-storey portal frames .
For multi-storey unbraced frames, rotational stiffness is fundamental to the determination of frame stability.
The designer must therefore either evaluate connection stiffness (in accordance with BS EN 1993-1-8[1])
and account for this in the frame design and assessment of frame stability or, if rigid joints have been
assumed in the frame analysis, ensure that the connection design matches this assumption. For an end plate
connection, it may be assumed that the connection is rigid if both the following requirements are satisfied:
Adopting relatively thick end plates and potentially a stiffened column flange
The column web panel shear force does not exceed 80% of the design shear resistance. If this is not
possible, a stronger column should be used, or suitable strengthening should be provided.

According to the Type of Structural Elements

1. Single Plate Angle Connections

A plate is welded on the supporting member and bolted on the web of the supported beam.
Single plate angle connections allows end-rotation since it is free to rotate and cannot
 resist/transfer bending moment to the supporting member. It have a lower load capacity
compared to double web angle connections.

2. Double Web Angle Connections

The in-plane pair of legs are attached to the web of the supported beam the out-of-plane pair
of legs to the flange or web of the supporting member. It is a shear connections and cannot
transfer bending moment and it only transfers load in shear. It has a higher load capacity than
the single plate angle connections.

The Single Plate and Double Web Angle Connections are the same since it is both shear connection and
allows end rotation on members. The difference between this two connections is their load capacity, which
is the basis when choosing between the two to use on a steel structural frame. For example, if you have a
low load then its best to use the single plate angle connections since it will be more economical and prevent
over designing the structure but if the loadings is high then the double web angle connections should be
used. This type of connections should only be used when theres no bending moment acting on the member.

The Seated Connections are connections which resist bending moment on structural members. The two
type of seated connections are:

3. Top and Seated Angle Connections

Two angle are bolted or welded to the top or bottom flanges of the supported beam and to the
supporting column. The top and bottom angle connection is used to resist a bending moment
either it is a clockwise or counter-clockwise direction. It is used when theres no heavy load
and have lower bending moment.

4. Seated Beam Connections

The seated beam connections consists primarily of a short length of angle that serves as a shelf
to support the beam. The welds attaching this angle to the column must resist the moment caused
by the eccentricity of the reaction as well as the beam reaction in the direct shear. The angle
connecting the top flange provides torsional stability to the beam at its end and does not assist in
supporting the reactions. It may be attached to the beam web instead of the top flange. The beam-
to-angle connections can be made with either welds or bolts and will not carry any calculated load.

Steel Connection according to the type of members joining

Beam to Beam Connections

Primary beam to secondary beam connection

Primary Beam: A horizontal beam connecting columns (simply supported or shear

connected.) Function: It will transfer the load from secondary beam (if present) to the columns.

Secondary Beam: A horizontal beam connecting primary beams (simply supported or

shear connected.) Function: It will transfer the load to the primary beam and not directly connected
to the columns.

Beam Splice
 Beam splices Beam splices typically resist large bending moments and shear forces. If a
rolled section beam splice is located away from the point of maximum moment, it is usually assumed that
the flange splice carries all the moment and the web splice carries the shear. Such an assumption simplifies
the splice design considerably.

Column to Column connections (Column Splices)

Column splice Column splices can be of two types. In the bearing type, the faces of the two columns
are prepared to butt against each other and thus transmit the load by physical bearing. In such cases only a
nominal connection needs to be provided to keep the columns aligned. However, this type of splice cannot
be used if the column sections are not prepared by grinding, if the columns are of different sizes, if the
column carries moment or if continuity is required. In such cases, HSFG bolts will have to be used and the
cost of splice increases. When connecting columns of different sizes, end plates or packing plates should
be provided similar to the beam splice

Beam to Column Connection

Fin plate connections are economical to fabricate and simple to erect. These connections are
popular, as they can be the quickest connections to erect and overcome the problem of shared bolts in two-
sided connections. A fin plate connection consists of a length of plate welded in the workshop to the
supporting member, to which the supported beam web is bolted on site

Typical flexible end plate connections are shown in the figure right. The end plate, which may be
partial depth or full depth, is welded to the supported beam in the workshop. The beam is then bolted to the
supporting beam or column on site.

This type of connection is relatively inexpensive but has the disadvantage that there is little
opportunity for site adjustment. Overall beam lengths need to be fabricated within tight limits, although
packs can be used to compensate for fabrication tolerances and erection tolerances.

Column base plate connection

Base plates and anchor rods are often the last structural steel items to be designed but the first items required
on the jobsite

Therefore the design of column base plate and connections are part of the critical path

Anchors to appear in concrete drawings with location of each anchor in x and y direction

Pedestal should be designed to suit the supporting column and anchors

Vast majority of column base plate connections are designed for axial compression with little or no uplift

Column base plate connections can also transmit uplift forces and shear forces through:

Column base plate connections can also be used to resist wind and seismic loads

Anchor rods are needed for all base plates to prevent column from overturning during construction and in
some cases to resist uplift or large moments

Grout is needed to adjust the level

Grout to transfer the load from steel plate to foundation

Grout should have design compressive strength at least twice the strength of foundation concrete

Most base plates are designed as to match the pedestal shape

A thicker base plate is more economical than a thinner base plate with additional stiffeners or other
reinforcements