The 2010 Sir Henry Bessemer Lecture
From trial and error to computer modelling of
thermomechanical processing
C. M. Sellars*
Since the 1950s, thermomechanical
processing in the iron and steel industry
has progressed from being skills based,
using results from trial and error
development work, to being science
based, using computer modelling for
process optimisation and control, and
prediction of product properties. Some
of the steps in this evolution are
illustrated in the lecture, using hot
rolling, as the main example, because
The University of Sheffield has been
involved in research in this field over
the whole of the period. As basic
understanding of the physics of the
microstructural changes, and the speed
of computing have increased, there has
been a continuing trend for more
complex models to be used for offline
optimisation and for online control and
property prediction. Such models are
now accepted as an economically
valuable tool for thermomechanical
processing.
This lecture provides an opportunity for
me to summarise some of the research
that has contributed to the award of the
Bessemer Medal, and to acknowledge
the major contributions of more than 150
people who have worked with me. These
people include research students, post-
doctoral research associates, research
visitors and colleagues in academia and in
industry. They are too many to name, but
they know the contributions they have
made to the transition, which is the title
of this lecture.
I start in the 1950s, because this is
the time when I studied for my degree
in metallurgy at the University of
Sheffield. It was a period of rapid
advances in the steel industry, but
these were mainly generated from
work trials and empirical data. Although
steel companies carried out basic
research, e.g. the United Steel
Companies had a major research
Department of Materials Science and
Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Mappin
Street, Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
*Corresponding author, email c.m.sellars@
sheffield.ac.uk
2011 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining
Published by Maney on behalf of the Institute
250 DOI 10.1179/030192310X12706305605817
laboratory in Swinden Laboratories in
Rotherham, and US Steel had both
Fundamental and Applied Research ferrite of high stacking fault energy and
Laboratories in Monroeville on the
outskirts of Pittsburgh, there was still a
gulf between production metallurgists
and laboratory research. This was partly
because of the complex conditions of
industrial processing and the
simplifications that had to be made for
systematic study in the laboratory. The
gap was first bridged by studies of
product properties and their dependence
on microstructure, but before electron
microscopy of thin foils, many critical
features could not be observed, and there
was still much learning by rote in
metallurgy degrees. The systematic study
of the dependence of microstructure on
the processing conditions during hot
working was a relatively late
development, which for steels can be
considered to start with the hot torsion
testing carried out by Claude Rossard at
IRSID and published in 1958.1 By 1969 in
a review of strength and structure under
hot working conditions,2 there were still
only 176 relevant references on steels
and non-ferrous metals, but the physical
metallurgy foundations on which later
modelling was built had been established.
Flow stress and microstructure
The stressstrain curves for a carbon
steel austenite and for a 25%
chromium ferritic stainless steel are
shown in Fig. 1. These display
important similarities and differences
between austenite and ferrite during
deformation under hot working
conditions. The flow stress for both
steels is highly sensitive to strain rate,
and other tests in the systematic study
showed a similar sensitivity to the
deformation temperature, indicating
that the flow stress is determined by
workhardening balanced by thermally
activated dynamic softening processes.
It is clearly evident by comparison of
Fig. 1a and b that, despite its high alloy
content, the ferritic steel has less than
half the strength of the austenite under
the same deformation conditions.
Tests on pure iron at the transformation
temperature (Fig. 2) established that
Ironmaking and Steelmaking
this difference arises from the diffe-
rence in crystal structure, with bcc
high diffusion coefficient undergoing
rapid dynamic recovery, leading to low
flow stress and low stored energy,
which has the consequence that recry-
stallisation is relatively slow. Conversely,
fcc austenite, which has a relatively low
stacking fault energy, undergoes only
slow dynamic recovery, leading to high
flow stress and high stored energy. In
Fig. 2, the flow stress ratio is about 4 in
the high purity iron, but this ratio decrea-
ses with increasing carbon and other
alloy element content.
In Fig. 1b, the flow stress of the ferrite
rises with strain to a steady state value,
which decreases somewhat with increa-
sing strain because of the temperature
rise produced by deformational heating
at the higher strain rates. There was
discussion about the possible role of
grain boundary migration, but reversed
torsion testing of aluminium, which
behaves in an analogous way to ferrite,
showed that the original grains still
existed to high equivalent strains of
about 2 (Fig. 3). The heavily distorted
grains after forward twisting are clearly
returned to their original size and shape
by the reversed twisting.
In Fig. 1a, the flow stress for austenite
rises to a peak, then falls to a steady
state value, with oscillations in the stress
at low strain rates. These oscillations are
analogous to the oscillations in strain
rate during creep tests at constant
stress, e.g. on nickel, which behaves in a
similar way to austenite during hot
deformation (Fig. 4). These oscillations
had been shown to arise from the
occurrence of repeated dynamic recry-
stallisation. There was lively debate
about whether dynamic recrystallisation
could be fast enough to take place at the
higher strain rates of interest in hot
working, and whether the observed re-
crystallised grains had formed statically
during cooling after deformation rather
than dynamically during the deformation.
The observation (Fig. 5) of tangled
dislocation subgrains inside the
recrystallised grains in nickel established
that the grains had been formed during
2011 VOL 38 NO 4
 NEWS AND VIEWS

1 Inuence of strain rate on stressstrain curves derived from hot torsion data by Rossard and Blain1 on a 0.25%C steel
in the austenitic condition and b 25%Cr ferritic stainless steel2

2 Temperature dependence of hot
strength of ferrite and austenite in
zone rened iron: dashed curve
estimated from the Ac transforma-
tion temperatures3
nucleation and limited growth. From
these, and many other equivalent ob-
servations, the basic physical metallur-
gy of deformation under hot working
conditions can be summarised as
shown in Fig. 8.
Quantification
With this basic understanding, it was
possible to describe the flow stress by
equations that are physically reasonable,
even though the fundamentally correct
form of the equations was not known.
Following work by Garofalo on high
temperature creep, it was found that
flow stress s at a constant value of
strain, the peak flow stress or the steady
state flow stress could be closely corre-
:
lated with the strain rate e and the (instan-
taneous) absolute temperature T, over the
whole range of interest in hot working
using only two experimentally determined
material dependent parameters: a, a
strength coefficient, and Q, an activation
energy for deformation. An example of
such a correlation is shown in Fig. 9.
The whole stressstrain curve could
then be modelled for any combination
of strain rate and temperature. This is

deformation, and modelling (Fig. 6)

demonstrated how overlapping cycles of
dynamic recrystallisation could result in
the single peak in stress observed at
high strain rates. Sakai and Jonas7
showed that the conditions for over-
lapping cycles of recrystallisation arose
when the recrystallised grain size is less
than half the original grain size, so that
recrystallisation takes place as a series
of necklaces of new grains, which start
forming at the grain boundaries.
Under these conditions, it was found
that the recrystallised grain size did not
change during recrystallisation (Fig. 7)
and that the grain size is uniquely
related to the steady state flow stress,
and therefore to the strain rate and
temperature of deformation. Thus in
contrast to classical static
recrystallisation, which proceeds by
nucleation of the new grains followed a 5z5 rev., 62; b 525 rev., 62; c 5z5 rev., 620; d 525 rev., 620
by their continuous growth, dynamic 3 Effect of reversal in direction of twisting during torsion testing of aluminium
recrystallisation proceeds by repeated at 400uC4

Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2011 VOL 38 NO 4 251

NEWS AND VIEWS

pass reduction, to give e, the roll speed

4 Creep curves for nickel under constant stress in compression, showing
repeated dynamic recrystallisation5
a e51.6361022 s21, e57.0; b e54.9561021 s21, e54.5
5 Electron micrograph of thin foil of pure nickel deformed in torsion to true
strain of 7.0 at 934uC and strain rate of 1.661022 s21 (Ref. 6)
illustrated in Fig. 10 for ferrite, when
dynamic recovery is the only softening
process balancing workhardening. For
this situation, there is a continuous
exponential decay in the rate of rise of
flow stress from an initial value so to
the steady state value. When dynamic
recrystallisation also takes place after
some critical strain, which is less than
the strain to the peak flow stress ep
(Fig. 11), the initial part of the curve can
still be modelled by the exponential
Validation of the model for industrial
equation for workhardening and dyna-
mic recovery, leading to an extrapola-
ted steady state stress se at higher
strains. Beyond the critical strain, the
additional softening Ds is then modelled
from the kinetics of dynamic
recrystallisation, as illustrated in Fig. 11.
From the quantitative relationships
for the stressstrain curves, the mean
flow stress required to compute the
rolling load and torque can then be
computed from the roll geometry and
:
to give e and the mean temperature to
give T for each pass. The problem was
to know the mean temperature,
because, in industry, pyrometers can
only measure the surface temperature,
which changes continuously. In the
laboratory, an internal temperature
could be measured using embedded
thermocouples, but a finite difference
computer model had to be developed to
interpret the results.13 A heat transfer
coefficient to the rolls could then be
found, which gave good matching
between the modelled and measured
thermocouple temperatures, as
illustrated in Fig. 12. In this figure, the
short time during a pass gives an almost
vertical line with an increase in
temperature at the centre of the slab
because of deformational heating, but
severe chilling at the surface. In the
1970s, the model had to be run over-
night on the main frame computer of the
university, but now essentially the same
model runs in a second or so on a PC!
The model enabled mean temperatures
to be computed for any roll passes.
rolling was obtained by comparing
predicted surface temperatures with
measured pyrometer temperatures, as
shown for example in Fig. 13. The roll
loads and torques could now be
computed for any pass for which the
stock entering the pass is in a fully
recrystallised condition.
Interpass microstructural
changes
The high temperature of hot rolling
means that recovery and
recrystallisation of the deformed

6 Modelled stressstrain curves for hot deformation when dynamic recrystallisation takes place at a low and b high
strain rates6

252 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2011 VOL 38 NO 4

 NEWS AND VIEWS

7 Dependence of dynamically recry-

stallised grain size on fraction re-
crystallised in commercially pure
nickel deformed at 880uC and
1.161021 s21 (Ref. 8)

microstructure can take place rapidly in

the time interval between passes.
Because there is no concurrent
deformation, these processes are
referred to as static to distinguish 9 Correlation between ZenerHollomon
them from the dynamic changes that parameter Z and sinh function of 10 Comparison of experimental and
take place during the passes. These peak ow stress for 0.25%C austenite modelled stressstrain curves for
static processes cause significant from data such as those in Fig. 110 pure iron in the ferrite tempera-
softening, as illustrated in Fig. 14 for a ture range of workhardening and
notional six-pass rolling schedule. The dynamic recovery11
upper curve shows the situation if
static recrystallisation is too slow to
start in the time between passes, and
the minor effects of static recovery are
neglected, so that the strain effectively
accumulates from pass to pass. This
means that the original equiaxed grain
structure becomes progressively more
elongated and develops a crystallo-
graphic texture. This situation is
common in aluminium alloys, which
means that modelling microstructural
evolution under rolling conditions is
primarily concerned with controlling
texture, because of its important
effects on properties and surface
quality. The same situation can also
occur in ferritic stainless steels, but for
steels that are single phase austenite
under rolling conditions, static
recrystallisation is rapid, leading to 8 Summary of microstructural changes resulting from a workhardening and
complete softening between passes, dynamic recovery, and b workhardening, slow dynamic recovery and
as shown by the lower curve in Fig. 14. dynamic recrystallisation9
The recrystallisation also leads to grain
refinement of the austenite, and to
subsequent refinement of the product
microstructure formed by the
transformation on cooling after hot
rolling, and so grain refinement is a key
feature of modelling the rolling
conditions for austenite.

Modelling methodology
Modelling must therefore compute the
kinetics of recrystallisation, the
recrystallised grain size produced, and
the rate of subsequent grain growth
(coarsening) in order to characterise the 11 Comparison of experimental and modelled stressstrain curves for Ti bear-
microstructure entering each pass. ing CMn steel austenite tested at 900uC and strain rate of 4.9 s21 (Ref. 12)

Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2011 VOL 38 NO 4 253

NEWS AND VIEWS
12 Temperature change during experi-
mental rolling of a 19 mm slab of
type 304 stainless steel13
Equations for these variables can then
be used to model the evolution of
microstructure pass by pass from the
initial reheated microstructure of the
slab/billet and the rolling parameters for
the passes, as shown schematically in
Fig. 15. In this figure, S represents all
the parameters required to describe
grain structure and S9represents all the
parameters required to describe any
second phase present. In an ideal
model, these would be internal state
variables, which might include grain
size, grain shape and their distributions,
dislocation density and its distribution,
texture, volume fraction of second
phase, particle size, distribution, etc.,
because all are known to influence the
subsequent evolution of microstruc-
ture, but, once again to make progress,
physically reasonable, but essentially
13 Computed temperature changes
during industrial of 230 mm slab
to 11 mm plate (lines) compared
with pyrometer readings of sur-
face temperature (points)14
254 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2011 VOL
14 Effect of static recrystallisation
between passes on ow stress of
micoalloyed steel during deforma-
tion at 900uC and a strain rate of
5 s21 (Ref. 15)
empirical equations, based on analysis of
available experimental data had to be
derived. Validation that these equations
are satisfactory for single phase austenite
is shown in Fig. 16, for which the rolling
variables of reduction and temperature
were measured and are shown in the
figure. The modelled reductions in aus-
tenite grain size after each pass for this
plate rolling schedule are compared with
experimentally measured values, to give
surprisingly good agreement.
In order to generalise the microstruc-
tural evolution model to other rolling
conditions, it was necessary to connect
it with other submodels, which generate
the necessary data flow, as illustrated in
Fig. 17. This particular interconnection
of submodels formed the basis of
collaborative work between research
groups in the University of Sheffield and
the University of Leicester, which led to
the development of a commercial model
for hot rolling, SLIMMER (Sheffield
Leicester Integrated Model for Micros-
tructural Evolution in Rolling).13 This
model greatly facilitated study of the
effects of the rolling variables on micro-
structure and flow stress.
Sensitivity analysis using the model
showed that in multipass rolling of
15 Schematic diagram showing prin-
ciples of modelling microstruc-
tural evolution during multipass
rolling16
38 NO 4
16 Comparison of predicted evolu-
tion of austenite grain size with
observations (points) by Sekine
and Maruyama during experimen-
tal plate rolling of vacuum melted
carbonmanganese steel17
austenite errors in prediction of micro-
structure after one pass tended to be
compensated in the next pass, so they
were not cumulative, and the predicted
microstructures tended to converge to a
grain size dependent on the rolling
conditions. This favourable situation is
considered to be a true reflection of the
behaviour of austenite, which minimises
the effects of cast to cast variations in
composition and initial microstructure,
and greatly benefits the steel industry.
However, when the model was used to
try to predict the variation in microstruc-
ture through the thickness of an experi-
mentally rolled slab of stainless steel, it
proved to be totally inadequate, as shown
in Fig. 18.
Finite element modelling was used
to compute the redundant shear strains
17 Schematic diagram of submodels
within model for industrial hot
deformation processes, showing
information ow: s5micostruc-
ture, t5time, W5work done, T5
temperature, e5equivalent strain,
:
e5strain rate, s5ow stress18

18 Predicted and measured distribution
of fraction recrystallised through
thickness of slabs of type 316
stainless steel rolled in experimen-
tal mill at 1000uC, quenched and
then annealed at 1000uC for 86 and
142 s19
that occur during rolling at all positions
away from the centre, and these were
then combined with the compression
of the rolling pass to obtain the local
value of equivalent strain e for substi-
tution into the recrystallisation model to
compute the local fraction recrystallised.
The large discrepancy between the
predicted and measured fractions
recryallised at all positions away from
the centre shows that, while equivalent
strain is an adequate surrogate for the
microstructural state variables for the
monotonic compression in rolling, it is
totally inadequate when there are
changes in strain path. A new genera-
tion of models is still being developed to
19 Analysis of contributions to mean
ow stress as function of nish-
ing pass number during industrial
plate rolling of X60 steel21
20 Stressstrain curves at 850uC and
strain rate of 5 s21 for reduction
schedules of 30/15/15/15% with
various time intervals between
deformations for X70 steel com-
pared with carbonsiliconmanga-
nese steel22
predict the local variations in microstruc-
tural evolution in rolling and forging when
there are major changes in strain path.20
Microalloyed steels
Modelling the microstructural evolution
of this family of steels has been particu-
larly significant in the overall development
of models for hot rolling, because the
steels are used in the hot rolled condi-
tion and their mechanical properties are
enhanced by optimising and controlling
the rolling variables. The key to the
enhanced properties is control of strain
induced precipitation of the alloy
carbonitrides. In the niobium microalloyed
steels, the precipitation of Nb(C,N) takes
place at low temperatures in the austenite
range and has a major effect on the hot
strength, as illustrated in Fig. 19.
In this figure, the crosses at the
bottom show the flow stress expected
for coarse grained reheated austenite
of low carbon steel, and the circles
show the increase in strength to be
expected from the grain refinement
produced by static recrystallisation
after each of the earlier passes. In the
X60 niobium microalloyed steel, the
niobium in solid solution and then
precipitation of fine particles of Nb(C,N)
is expected to prevent static recrys-
tallisation between the finishing passes,
leading to a major increase in flow stress
because of the retained workhardening.
There is also a contribution from solid
solution strengthening by the niobium in
solution. The sum of these contributions
Ironmaking and Steelmaking
NEWS AND VIEWS
21 Interaction of recrystallisation and
start of strain induced matrix pre-
cipitation as function of niobium
content of microalloyed steels
rolled by 15% reduction at mean
strain rate of 10 s21: RLT shows
lower temperature limit for full
(85%) of recrystallisation and RST
shows upper temperature limit for
stoppage (5%) of recrystallisation
in subsequent passes23
gave good agreement with the mean
flow stresses calculated from rolling
loads, measured by Tom Hope of Davy
Mckee, up to pass 6, but for subsequent
passes, the rolling loads are significantly
higher than expected. It was speculated
that this is a consequence of
precipitation hardening by the very fine
carbonitride particles.
Subsequent experimental plane strain
compression testing of an X70 steel
(Fig. 20), confirmed the contributions
from solid solution strengthening and
workhardening, and showed that
significant additional strengthening
could accumulate pass by pass at
temperatures where strain induced
precipitation takes place. The amount of
strengthening is sensitive to the pass
reductions and to the time intervals
between passes, as shown in Fig. 20.
Modelling the microstructural evolu-
tion of microalloyed steels therefore
required additional submodels to those
for single phase austenite. The first
was to predict when significant precipi-
tation would occur before recrystallisa-
tion is expected to start in the absence
of precipitation. This model, based on
the thermodynamic and kinetic equa-
tions for the precipitating species,
together with empirical equations for
the density of nucleation sites in the
deformed austenite led to C curves for
the start t0.05 of precipitation shown in
Fig. 21. Clearly, the kinetics are
sensitive to the niobium content of the
steel, and the model also showed the
sensitivity to the rolling variables, which
can be compared with the sensitivity of
the kinetics of recrystallisation in the
2011 VOL 38 NO 4 255
NEWS AND VIEWS
22 Predicted precipitation strength-
ening during three-pass rolling of
0.06%Nb steel at 950uC with 15 s
between passes25
absence of precipitation. The start of
recrystallisation for the rolling condition
of the figure is shown by the lines labell-
ed t0.05X, and the finish of recrystalli-
sation by the lines labelled t0.85X. It was
assumed that at temperatures above the
point of intersection of the line for t0.85X
with a C curve, there would be full
recrystallisation between passes if the
interpass times exceeded t0.85X. The
intersection point was labelled the
recrystallisation limit temperature.
Above it the start of precipitation would
be severely retarded from the C cur-
ves shown in the figure, because
recrystallisation removes the nucleation
sites for strain induced precipitation.
Because full recrystallisation between
passes in the roughing stage of rolling is
required to refine the austenite grain
size, the limit temperature represents
the lower limit of temperature for rough-
ing rolling, if mixed grain structures are
to be avoided.
At temperatures below the point of
intersection of t0.05X with the C curve, it
is assumed that the strain induced
precipitates retard recrystallisation to
such an extent that it does not take
place again for any interpass times in
industrial rolling. This is labelled the
recrystallisation stop temperature and
represents the maximum temperature
for the start of finish controlled rolling
so that deformation of the austenite
grains accumulates pass by pass. This
model successfully captured these
aspects of industrial rolling experience.
The second submodel is required to
predict the kinetics and particle sizes of
strain induced precipitation in order to
compute the residual microalloy
element content in solution during
cooling and transformation, which is
important in controlling the mechanical
properties of the product, and in order
to compute the strengthening effects
on the flow stress during multipass
finish rolling. This is a much more
256 Ironmaking and Steelmaking 2011 VOL
23 Overview of modelling philosophy of IMMPETUS26
challenging development, for which a
physical basis was provided by detailed
electron microscopic studies of a
microalloyed iron30% nickel
austenite, which remains stable on
quenching to room temperature. These
studies showed that strain induced
precipitation takes place on nodes in
the dislocation microband structure in
the deformed austenite.24 A conceptual
model based on these observations has
shown how incremental precipitation
can occur after sequential passes and
lead to incremental strengthening, as
shown by Fig. 22. Development of the
model with more realistic kinetics is a
topic of ongoing research.
Conclusions
This lecture has attempted to
summarise some of the important
steps in the transition from empirical
skills based hot rolling of steel to
computer modelling for optimisation
and control of the process variables. It
has concentrated on contributions
made by the research group at the
University of Sheffield to the basic
experimental work, on which the mo-
dels are based, to the development of
the models, and to their experimental
and industrial validation. It has not tried
to put this work in the context of con-
temporary research by other groups, or
of the developments in computer
hardware and software that have been
of major importance, but would require
additional lectures to cover. Also, the
modelling has not been brought up to
date, not because the research has
stopped, quite the contrary, it is
flourishing, but because I consider that
the transition period from trial and error
to computer modelling had finished by
the mid-1990s.
38 NO 4
In 1996, a multidisciplinary research
group, IMMPETUS (Institute for
Microstructural and Mechanical
Process Engineering: The University of
Sheffield), was established by collafbo-
ration between my group in the Depart-
ment of Engineering Materials (now
Department of Materials Science and
Engineering), John Beynon of the
Department of Mechanical Engineering
and Derek Linkens of the Department of
Automatic Control and Systems
Engineering. This was enthusiastically
supported by an Industrial Steering
Committee, showing the belief of its
member companies that modelling
involving microstructural evolution is a
valuable tool in optimising and control-
ling thermomechanical processing
conditions.
The range of skills in IMMPETUS
meant that a broad philosophy of
modelling illustrated in Fig. 23 could
be adopted. This has proved to be a
robust philosophy, which has enabled
the precision of data based black box
models to be combined in a hybrid
approach with the physical metallurgy
based white box models to develop
better understanding of new aspects of
thermomechanical processing. Model
predictions of product properties can
now be more accurate, and provide
more detailed information than sending
sample specimens to the test house.
This marks the maturity, or at least the
adolescence, of computer modelling of
thermomechanical processing.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to L. Sun, a
research student in IMMPETUS, for his
assistance in the preparation of the
figures for this lecture.

The paper is based on the 2010 Sir
Henry Bessemer Lecture of the Iron and
Steel Society of the Institute of Materials,
Minerals and Mining, given at the
Institute, London, on 7 October 2010.
References
1. C. Rossard and P. Blain: Rev. Met.,
1958, 55, 573594.
2. J. J. Jonas, C. M. Sellars and W. J.
McG. Tegart: Metall. Rev., 1969,
14, 124.
3. D. M. Keane, C. M. Sellars and W. J.
McG. Tegart: Deformation under hot
working conditions, Special report
no. 108, Iron and Steel Institution,
London, UK, 1968, 2128.
4. M. M. Farag, C. M. Sellars and
W. J. McG. Tegart: Deformation
under hot working conditions, Spe-
cial report no. 108, Iron and Steel In-
stitution, London, UK, 1968, 6067.
5. D. Hardwick, C. M. Sellars and
W. J. McG. Tegart: J. Inst. Met.,
196162, 90, 2122.
6. M. J. Luton and C. M. Sellars: Acta
Metall., 1969, 17, 10331043.
7. T. Sakai and J. J. Jonas: Acta
Mater., 1984, 32, 189209.
8. J. P. Sah, G. J. Richardson and
C. M. Sellars: Met. Sci., 1974, 8,
325331.
9. C. M. Sellars: Proc. 7th Riso Int.
Symp. on Annealing processes-
recovery, recrystallization and
grain growth, 167187; 1986,
Roskilde, Riso National Labor-
atory.
10. C. M. Sellars and W. J. McG.
Tegart: Int. Metall. Rev., 1972, 17,
124.
11. G. Glover and C. M. Sellars: Metall.
Trans., 1973, 4, 765775.
12. L. Leduc: Rolling of titanium
bearing steels, PhD thesis, The
University of Sheffield, Sheffield,
UK, 1980.
13. R. A. Harding: Temperature and
structural changes during hot rolling,
PhD thesis, University of Sheffield,
Sheffield, UK, 1976.
14. J. H. Beynon and C. M. Sellars: ISIJ
Int., 1992, 32, 359367.
15. C. M. Sellars: The Hatfield mem-
orial lectures, (ed. P. Beeley),
Vol. III, 143164; 2005, Cam-
bridge, Woodhead Publishing
Limited.
16. C. M. Sellars: Mater. Sci. Technol.,
1990, 6, 10721081.
17. C. M. Sellars: Proc. Int. Conf. on
Hot working and forming pro-
cesses, (ed. C. M. Sellars and
G. J. Davies), 315; 1980, London,
Metals Society.
18. J. H. Beynon and C. M. Sellars:
Proc. 13th Riso Int. Symp. on
Materials science: modelling of
plastic deformation and its engi-
neering applications, (ed. S. I.
Ironmaking and Steelmaking
NEWS AND VIEWS
Andersen et al.), 1326; 1992,
Roskilde, Riso National Labo-
ratory.
19. A. J. McLaren and C. M. Sellars:
Mater. Sci. Technol., 1992, 8,
10901094.
20. L. Sun, K. Muszka, B. P. Wynne
and E. J. Palmiere: Scr. Mater., to
be published.
21. B. Dutta and C. M. Sellars: Mater.
Sci. Technol., 1986, 2, 146153.
22. B. Dutta and C. M. Sellars: Proc. Int.
Conf. on Physical metallurgy of ther-
momechanical processing of steels
and other metals (Thermec-88),
Tokyo, Japan, June1988, Iron and
Steel Institution of Japan, 261268.
23. B. Dutta and C. M. Sellars: Mater.
Sci. Technol., 1987, 3, 197206.
24. W. M. Rainforth, M. P. Black, R. L.
Higginson, E. J. Palmiere, C. M. Sellars,
I. Prabst, P. Warbicler and F. Hofer:
Acta Mater., 2002, 50, 735747.
25. C. M. Sellars and E. J. Palmiere: Proc.
Int. Conf. on Microalloying for new
steel processes and applications, San
Sebastian, Spain, September 2005,
Trans Tech Publications Ltd, 314.
26. C. M. Sellars: Proc. XVth Physical
Metallurgy and Materials Science
Conf. on Advanced materials and te-
chnologies, Krakow-Krynica, Poland,
May 1998, Institute of Metallurgy and
Materials Science, Polish Academy
of Sciences, Vol. 3, 100107.
2011 VOL 38 NO 4 257