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ElementaryBrass Players
Instrumental music in the United States has become a basic part
of the music curriculum in most schools. The importance of this
early instruction to the total school instrumental music program has
been noted by the Music Educators National Conference (now
MENC-The National Association for Music Education) in The School
Music Program: Description and Standards (MENC, 1986). Recommen-
dations in this document include beginning wind instruction no later
than Grade 5.
Given the importance of this instruction, little is found in the
research literature concerning effective teaching techniques for
METHOD
Subjects
The subjects in this study were all of the 64 brass students repre-
senting five elementary schools within a moderate-sizeIllinois school
district. Prior to the beginning of the study, the researcher set a min-
imum attendance level of eight lessons during the 10-week instruc-
tional sequence. Three students did not complete the study:one did
not meet the minimum attendance requirement, one student moved
out of the district, and one student dropped out of the instrumental
program. Therefore, 61 students completed all the requirements of
the study.
Subjects were grouped by instrument class for lessons, and these
same groups were used in the study so as not to disrupt the school
schedule and possibly bias the results (since students might have real-
ized they were in an experimental research setting). The instrumen-
tal lesson groups were randomly assigned to experimental (breath
management instruction) and control groups. The lesson groups
were matched for group size prior to assignment to treatment or con-
trol; that is, groups of five students per lesson were assigned equally
to treatment or control, groups of four students per lesson were
assigned equally to treatment or control, and so forth. The 61 sub-
jects that completed the study included 34 trumpet students, 6 horn
students, and 21 trombone/baritone students; tuba students were
not a part of the study due to the lack of tuba players in these grades
The duration of this study was 16 weeks. During the first week, all
preliminary dependent measures were taken. There followed 5 weeks
of breath management instruction in weekly group lessons. This
treatment period was followed by 4 weeks during which the subjects
prepared for a solo and ensemble contest. No treatment was given
during this 4-week period. During the final 6 weeks, treatment
resumed for 5 weeks, and the final week of the study was given to
posttesting.
Instructional Procedures
involved in the study. The investigator explained the goals and theo-
ries behind the development of the manual, the physical characteris-
tics of proper breathing and posture, and the procedures to be fol-
lowed for record keeping. The teachers were given demonstrations
and tried specific exercises and activities for each lesson.
The first portion of the instructional sequence included postural
exercises to reduce muscle tension. The next part of the instruction
was the establishment of the technique of abdominal/diaphragmat-
ic breathing, the type of breathing recommended by almost all brass
experts (Taylor, 1968/1969). The students' instruments were not
used in the first exercises.
The second set of breathing exercises were designed to improve
the exhalation portion of the breathing process, which determines
the actual tone production on brass instruments. These exercises
were intended to improve the action of the muscles involved in
breath management. Activities such as deflating the abdominal area
with the hands, exhaling in varied counting patterns, and exhaling
while tonguing imaginary quarter notes ("toh, toh, toh," etc.) were
part of these lessons. The instruction manual included instructions
that the chest should remain expanded as much as possible and
should not be restricted in any way for maximum volume of air
(Staples, 1988). The application of breath management instruction
to the subjects' instrumental playing occurred during the second 5-
week period of lessons. Students performed long tones throughout
their ranges while the instructors checked for application of abdom-
inal/diaphragmatic breathing to tone production. Another exercise
consisted of tongued patterns designed to ensure that the breath
management remained the same in all styles of playing.
The sequence of treatment exercises were presented to all of the
lesson groups in the experimental group. Depending on the lesson,
5, 6, or 7 minutes were spent on this instruction during the regular
30-minute lesson; the remainder of the lesson was spent playing out
of the method book or working on solo and ensemble pieces. The
control group played only out of the method book or worked on solo
and ensemble literature.
Data Collection
posttest periods.
The measures of thoracic and abdominal displacement were
obtained using respiratory inductive plethysmography. This method
was originally developed for monitoring medical patients, but has
been used for studying respiratory activity in singers and wind players
(Cugell, 1986; Fuks & Sundberg, 1999; Phillips & Sehmann, 1990;
Phillips & Vispoel, 1990). The instrument used was a Respitrace unit
(Ambulatory Monitoring, Inc., Ardsley, NY). This breath measure-
ment device consists of two gauze-like Respibands placed around the
subject's torso, one at upper chest level and one at the abdominal
level. The Respibands contain sensors that, when connected to a pen
chart writer (called a "penwriter"), are able to transmit the amount of
torso displacement at these two levels. Measures of displacement were
produced by the penwriter tracings and were measured in millime-
ters. These measurements were made during the performance of long
tones. A statistical analysis of the sum of the measurements for the
three trials was done for both thoracic and abdominal displacements.
Lung capacity was measured before and after the treatment peri-
od with a Respiradyne pulmonary function monitor. The investigator
recorded the lung capacity, called "vital capacity" in the medical
world, in liters on three separate trials. Statistical analysis was done
on the total of the three trials. Three trials have been used in previ-
ous studies (Bencowitz, 1984; Huttlin, 1982; Phillips, 1983; Staples,
1988) and have been accepted as reliable. Lung capacity was includ-
ed in the study to determine if taking a "deeper" breath (abdomi-
nal/diaphragmatic mode) increased subjects' lung capacity. A signif-
icant increase in capacity was not expected.
Tone quality was assessed using an 6tude from a beginning level
band book, Best in Class (Pearson, 1982). The subjects' performances
were recorded and later scored by judges experienced in working
with beginning brass students. Prior to listening to the taped exam-
ples, the judges attended a training session and practiced using the
rating scale on sample etudes. Four items from a multiple item 5-
point rating scale (Abeles, 1973) for clarinet performance were used.
The range test consisted of subjects playing scales from music pro-
vided by the investigator. The investigator recorded the highest and
lowest pitches played by each subject on three trials. The number of
half-steps between the highest and lowest pitches was calculated, and
the total number of half-steps for the three trials was the score for the
range measure.
The measure of duration determined how long each subject could
sustain a pitch. The same concert pitch (the concert B-flat nearest
middle C) was played in the same register by each instrument (on the
staff, these appeared for the trumpet, as middle C; for the horn, as
the F above middle C; and for the trombone, as the B-flatjust below
middle C). Research shows that equivalent concert pitches produce
the same airflow rate on all brass instruments (Cugell, 1986;
Bouhuys, 1964). To ensure similar playing levels, the subjects first
practiced the pitch while looking at a decibel meter (100 dB at one
meter). When the reading on the decibel meter dipped to the line
below the set level, the subject was instructed to stop playing. This
procedure was repeated three times.
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
Table 1
MANCOVAand ANCOVAResultsfor Breathingand PerformanceMeasures
MULTIVARIATE
F= 6.35** F= 0.44 F= 1.90* F= 0.73 F= 0.98
(6, 40) (12, 80) (12, 80) (12, 80) (12, 80)
UNIVARIATE
Thoracic displacement
F= 0.03 F= 0.01 F= 0.19 F= 0.48 F= 0.09
(1, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50)
Abdominal displacement
F= 8.83** F= 0.20 F= 1.82 F= 0.35 F= 0.24
(1, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50)
Vital capacity
F= 2.72 F= 1.15 F= 0.28 F= 0.67 F= 2.22
(1, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50)
Range
F= 12.51** F= 0.11 F= 1.92 F= 0.57 F= 0.55
(1, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50)
Tone quality
F= 1.45 F= 3.59* F= 0.13 F= 0.65 F= 1.14
(1, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50) (2, 50)
Note.Multivariatetests were run using the GLM procedure from SAS (1989). Pretest
scores on all six dependent variablesserved as covariatesin the MANCOVAanalysis.A
single covariate (the appropriatepretest measure) was used in the follow-upANCOVA
analysis.
brass playing. Group main effects for the dependent measures were
found to be significant for the sample of fourth through sixth grade
brass players. The results of the study reinforce the view that improv-
ing the brass player's breathing will improve the player's perfor-
mance (Dale, 1965; Johnson, 1981; Kohut, 1985; O'Donnell, 1987).
REFERENCES