Heat and Mass transfer LAB

Submitted To:
Maam Hibbah Akhtar
SYED TAUQEER HAIDER
2015-ME-81
 Experiment No :01
Fourier law of heat
conduction.
Heat and Mass transfer LAB |

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Objective:
To investigate Fourier law for linear conduction along a circular bar using a
Conduction heat Transfer unit.
Apparatus:

Conduction heat Transfer unit

A Bar that could fit in the heat transfer unit
Procedure:

First of all we placed conduction heat transfer unit on the table and then we
placed the bar of concerned material in the unit and then tightened it.
We then turned the power supply on and waited for almost 15 minute to get
a uniform temperature distribution and conduction process to stabilize
although not completely.
After that we noted down the values of temperature along the length of the
bar at each 10 mm because sensors are attached to the bar at requisite
length and we turned the knob from the panel to get value of temperature
at that position.
We now plotted the value of temperature against the linear distance.we
then calculated value of slope.
From this value of slope we are going to find value of K.
We know did calculations for theoretical values also.

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Theoretical Background:

Heat transfer:

Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation,

use, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems.
Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal
conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy
by phase changes.

The fundamental modes of heat transfer are:

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 Conduction or diffusion:
The transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact. Thermal
conductivity is the property of a material to conduct heat and evaluated primarily
in terms of Fourier's Law for heat conduction.
Convection:
The transfer of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion.
The average temperature is a reference for evaluating properties related to
convective heat transfer.
Radiation:
The transfer of energy by the emission of electromagnetic radiation.

Conduction:
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In Conduction, heat transfer takes place due to a temperature difference in a body

or between bodies in thermal contact, without mixing of mass. The rate of heat
transfer through conduction is governed by the Fouriers law of heat conduction.
Q = -kA(dT/dx)
Where, Q is the heat flow rate by conduction
K is the thermal conductivity of body material

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A is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of heat flow and
dT/dx is the temperature gradient of the section.
Convection:
In convection, heat is transferred to a moving fluid at the surface over which it flows
by combined molecular diffusion and bulk flow. Convection involves conduction
and fluid flow. The rate of convective heat transfer is governed by the Newtons
law of cooling.
Q = hA(Ts-T)
Where Ts is the surface temperature
T is the outside temperature
h is the coefficient of convection.
Radiation:
In radiation, heat is transferred in the form of radiant energy or wave motion from
one body to another body. No medium for radiation to occur. The rate of heat
radiation that can be emitted by a surface at a thermodynamic temperature is
based on Stefan-Boltzmann law.
Q = .T4
Where T is the absolute temperature of surface
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
Types of conduction:
Steady-state conduction:
Steady state conduction is the form of conduction that happens when the

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temperature difference(s) driving the conduction are constant, so that (after an
equilibration time), the spatial distribution of temperatures (temperature field) in
the conducting object does not change any further. Thus, all partial derivatives of
temperature with respect to space may either be zero or have nonzero values, but
all derivatives of temperature at any point with respect to time are uniformly zero.
In steady state conduction, the amount of heat entering any region of an object is
equal to amount of heat coming out (if this were not so, the temperature would be
rising or falling, as thermal energy was tapped or trapped in a region).

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 For example, a bar may be cold at one end and hot at the other, but after a state
of steady state conduction is reached, the spatial gradient of temperatures along
the bar does not change any further, as time proceeds. Instead, the temperature
at any given section of the rod remains constant, and this temperature varies
linearly in space, along the direction of heat transfer.
In steady state conduction, all the laws of direct current electrical conduction can
be applied to "heat currents". In such cases, it is possible to take "thermal
resistances" as the analog to electrical resistances. In such cases, temperature plays
the role of voltage, and heat transferred per unit time (heat power) is the analog
of electric current. Steady state systems can be modelled by networks of such
thermal resistances in series and in parallel, in exact analogy to electrical networks
of resistors. See purely resistive thermal circuits for an example of such a network.
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Transient conduction:
In general, during any period in which temperatures change in time at any place
within an object, the mode of thermal energy flow is termed transient
conduction. Another term is "non-steady-state" conduction, referring to time-
dependence of temperature fields in an object. Non-steady-state situations appear
after an imposed change in temperature at a boundary of an object. They may also
occur with temperature changes inside an object, as a result of a new source or sink
of heat suddenly introduced within an object, causing temperatures near the
source or sink to change in time.
When a new perturbation of temperature of this type happens, temperatures
within the system change in time toward a new equilibrium with the new
conditions, provided that these do not change. After equilibrium, heat flow into the
system once again equals the heat flow out, and temperatures at each point inside
the system no longer change. Once this happens, transient conduction is ended,
although steady-state conduction may continue if heat flow continues.
If changes in external temperatures or internal heat generation changes are too
rapid for the equilibrium of temperatures in space to take place, then the system
never reaches a state of unchanging temperature distribution in time, and the
system remains in a transient state.
An example of a new source of heat "turning on" within an object, causing transient
conduction, is an engine starting in an automobile. In this case, the transient
thermal conduction phase for the entire machine is over, and the steady state
phase appears, as soon as the engine reaches steady-state operating temperature.
In this state of steady-state equilibrium, temperatures vary greatly from the engine
cylinders to other parts of the automobile, but at no point in space within the

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automobile does temperature increase or decrease. After establishing this state,
the transient conduction phase of heat transfer is over.
New external conditions also cause this process: for example the copper bar in the
example steady-state conduction experiences transient conduction as soon as one
end is subjected to a different temperature from the other. Over time, the field of
temperatures inside the bar reach a new steady-state, in which a constant
temperature gradient along the bar is finally set up, and this gradient then stays
constant in space. Typically, such a new steady state gradient is approached
exponentially with time after a new temperature-or-heat source or sink, has been
introduced. When a "transient conduction" phase is over, heat flow may still
continue at high power, so long as temperatures do not change.

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 Example of transient state conduction:
An example of transient conduction that does not end with steady-state
conduction, but rather no conduction, occurs when a hot copper ball is dropped
into oil at a low temperature. Here, the temperature field within the object begins
to change as a function of time, as the heat is removed from the metal, and the
interest lies in analyzing this spatial change of temperature within the object over
time, until all gradients disappear entirely (the ball has reached the same
temperature as the oil). Mathematically, this condition is also approached
exponentially; in theory it takes infinite time, but in practice it is over, for all intents
and purposes, in a much shorter period. At the end of this process with no heat sink
but the internal parts of the ball (which are finite), there is no steady state heat
conduction to reach. Such a state never occurs in this situation, but rather the end
of the process is when there is no heat conduction at all.
Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction
The law of heat conduction is also known as Fouriers law. Fouriers law states that
The time rate of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative
gradient in the temperature and to the area.
Fouriers equation of heat conduction:
Q = -kA(dT/dx)
Where Q is the heat flow rate by conduction (W)
k is the thermal conductivity of body material (Wm1K1)
A is the cross-sectional area normal to direction of heat flow (m2) and
dT/dx is the temperature gradient (Km1).

Negative sign in Fouriers equation indicates that the heat flow is in the
direction of negative gradient temperature and that serves to make heat
flow positive.
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Thermal conductivity k is one of the transport properties. Other are the

viscosity associated with the transport of momentum, diffusion coefficient
associated with the transport of mass.
Thermal conductivity k provides an indication of the rate at which heat
energy is transferred through a medium by conduction process.

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Assumptions of Fourier equation:
Steady state heat conduction.
One directional heat flow.
Bounding surfaces are isothermal in character that is constant and uniform
temperatures are maintained at the two faces.
Isotropic and homogeneous material and thermal conductivity k is
constant.
Constant temperature gradient and linear temperature profile.
No internal heat generation.
Features of Fourier equation:
Fourier equation is valid for all matter solid, liquid or gas.
The vector expression indicating that heat flow rate is normal to an isotherm
and is in the direction of decreasing temperature.
It cannot be derived from first principle.
It helps to define the transport property k.
Thermal conduction applications:

Splat cooling:
Splat cooling is a method for quenching small droplets of molten materials by rapid
contact with a cold surface. The particles undergo a characteristic cooling process.

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Metal quenching:
Metal quenching is a transient heat transfer process in terms of the Time
Temperature Transformation (TTT). It is possible to manipulate the cooling process
to adjust the phase of a suitable material. For example, appropriate quenching of
steel can convert a desirable proportion of its content of austenite to martensite,
creating a very tough product. To achieve this, it is necessary to quench at the
"nose" (or eutectic) of the TTT diagram. Since materials differ in their Biot numbers,
the time it takes for the material to quench, or the Fourier number, varies in
practice.[5] In steel, the quenching temperature range is generally from 600 C to
200 C. To control the quenching time and to select suitable quenching media, it is

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 necessary to determine the Fourier number from the desired quenching time, the
relative temperature drop, and the relevant Biot number. Usually, the correct
figures are read from a standard nomogram.By calculating the heat transfer
coefficient from this Biot number, one can find a liquid medium suitable for the
application.
Gas sensor:
The principle of thermal conductivity of gases can also be used to measure the
concentration of a gas in a binary mixture of gases.
Working: If same gas is present around the all the Wheatstone Bridge filaments,
then the same temperature is maintained in all the filaments and hence same
resistances are also maintained; resulting in a balanced Wheatstone bridge.
However, If dissimilar gas sample (or gas mixture) is passed over one set of two
filaments and the reference gas on the other set of two filaments, then the
Wheatstone bridge becomes unbalanced. And the resulting net voltage output of
the circuit will be correlated with the database to identify the constituents of the
sample gas.
Using this technique many unknown gas samples can be identified by comparing
their thermal conductivity with other reference gas of known thermal
conductivity.The most commonly used reference gas is Nitrogen; as the thermal
conductivity of most common gases (except Hydrogen and Helium) are similar to
that of Nitrogen.
Other applications of conduction include:
A heat exchanger uses a hot fluid to conduct heat to a cooler fluid without
the two touching.
If you touch a hot stove, heat will be conducted to your finger and your
skin will burn.
If you are cold and someone holds you to warm you, the heat is being
conducted from their body to yours.
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Heat will transfer from a hot burner on the stove into a pot orp pan.
An ice cube will soon melt if you hold it in your hand. The heat is being
conducted from your hand into the ice cube.
Heat exchanger
Casting process
Etc.

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 Materials that Are Good Conductors :
Aluminum
Brass
Bronze
Copper
Gold
Graphite
Iron
Mercury
Steel
Silver

Observations and calculations:

No. of
Obs. Q(w) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9

1 5 48.6 47.1 46.4 45.8 45.2 38.55 31.9 31.3 31.2

2 8 60 58 57.1 56.6 56.1 44.2 32.3 31.8 31.3

3 10 71.3 68.2 65.9 63.85 61.8 47.4 33 32.3 31.6

Distance vs Temperture[ For 5w]

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60
48.6 47.1
50 46.4 45.8 45.2
38.55
40 34.9
TEMPERATURE

31.3 31.2
30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
DISTANCE

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 Slope= 48.6-47.1/(0-10)*10^-3=-150
K=Q/A(dt/dx)
K=5/4.90625*10^-4(150)
K=67.9Wm^-1K^-1

Distance vs Temperture[ For 8w]

70

60
58 57.1
60 56.6 56.1

50
44.2
TEPERATURE

40
32.3 31.8 31.3
30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
DISTANCE(MM)
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Slope= 60-58/(0-10)*10^-3=-200
K=Q/A(dt/dx)
K=8/4.90625*10^-4(200)
K=81.5 Wm^-1K^-1

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 Distance vs Temperture[For 10w]
80
71.3
68.2
70 65.9 63.85 61.8
60
47.4
TEMPERATURE

50

40 33 32.3 31.6
30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
DISTANCE

Slope= 71.3-68.2/(0-10)*10^-3=-300
K=Q/A(dt/dx)
K=10/4.90625*10^-4(300)
K=67.9 Wm^-1K^-1

Comments:

As we can see from graphs temreture line are not perfectly staraight even

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though fourier law predicts linear temperature profile.
This deviation from original path is due to reasons
1: Heat loss
2: isotropic material characteristics
3: Not perfect environment
4: Faulty temperature sensors
Our apparatus had a little fault that its fourth sensor wasnt working correctly
also the sixth sensor so we had to take the average of the previous and the
reading following that temperature. So it is possible that this reading is not
the perfect one and causing the experimental errors.

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 Due to changing values note the value quickly in one go.
We waited for 15 minutes to stabilize temperature. In actual material
requires a lot more time to be thermodynamically stable so this is the other
possibility.
Sensors that we used Im not sure that they were giving perfect values and
even 1 of the sensor was not working.
Material flaws can be other reason we temperature profile is not uniform.
Heat and Mass transfer LAB |

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