ASTRO

AERO

16.682 - Prototyping Avionics

Spring 2006

LECTURE 5
February 22, 2006

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS

Alvar Saenz-Otero
 Outline

• Power Regulation
– Transformers
– Rectifiers
– Linear Regulators
– Switching Regulators
• How much power?

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 Transformers

• Exchange voltage for current to reduce potential difference

(voltage) across two points
– The difference in number of turns between the two windings determines
the ratio of voltage input to voltage output

v1 N1 i1 i2

= T
v2 N 2 +
+
i1 N
= − 2

i2 N1 v1
v2
v1 i
=− 2 -
v2 i1 N1 N2

– Note: no conductive element between v1 and v2!

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 Transformers: Multiple Types
+ T +

• Single-tap V+
T
Vpos

– One voltage output v1 v2

V
- -
• Multiple-taps/windings N1 N2
– Provide multiple voltage outputs Single Tap
Vneg
– Multiple taps T
V+ Vpos
• Must share common point
T
+ +
– Multiple windings v2
V
• Can use in series (like a tap) to get vref V0
v1

multiple voltages or in parallel to

increase current output v3

- - Vneg

Center Tap Two Windings

configured for +V & -V

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 Rectifiers
• DC vs AC
– DC = Direct Current: used in most electronics & batteries V
1.5

+V
– AC = Alternating Current: used during common electricity
0ac
0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 t
generation (power plants, motors with rotating magnets)
-Vac
-0.5

-1

-1.5

• Preferred method to transmit over long distances

• For DC projects must convert AC to DC: use rectifiers Note: Volts AC is

given in RMS value,
which means the
D T
T Vac+ D peak is at
Vac+ Vdc
1
Diode Vd V pp = Vac
0.707

Vac-
Vac- AC Voltage Plot
GND

GND
Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Bridge V

– Many types:
• Most common: half wave and full wave
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+Vdc
0 t
5 16.682 - Prototyping Avionics
 Full Wave Rectifier

• A full-wave bridge rectifier effectively provides abs(Vac) at the output

– A capacitor “flattens” the sinusoidal AC signal for a relatively flat DC output
– The output will always have some ripple, must use a regulator to fully flatten the
signal
D

Vdc
1.2 T + 1.2
1.2
C2
0.8
1
D 1

0.8
1

0.6 0.6
0.8

0.4 0.4

0.2
Vpos 0.2

0.6

-0.2

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0

-0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

0.4

0.2

0
+
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
GND

v ac>0 - vdc>0
GND
Capacitor

T - D
0.2 1.2

0 1

-0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Vpos 0.8

-0.4 0.6

-0.6 0.4

-0.8 0.2 1.2

-1 0

+
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
-1.2 -0.2
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

vac<0 GND
vdc>0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

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 Linear Regulators

Vin U Vou
• Regulate an input voltage to: 1 3
IN OUT
– Reduce voltage to exact needs C1 GND C2
– Provide constant output

2
• No ripple
• Regardless of load (even changing load)
GND
• Simplest design of all regulators
– Only needs capacitors as external components, no high-frequency elements
• Input voltage (abs) MUST be higher than output voltage (abs)
– Linear regulators cannot increase or invert voltage
• Power lost in regulator is linear WRT current pull and voltage drop (Vin-Vout)
– Useful for small currentand/or small voltage drop
• Efficiency is linear WRT the voltage drop (V in -Vout)
– Most efficient with small voltage drop...

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 Linear Regulator Model
• The simplest model of a linear regulator is a variable resistor:
vout
Rreg
iout =
Rload
Vin Vou
Rload iin = iout
Preg = iout (vin − vout )
Pout iout vout v
eff = = = out
GND Preg + Pout iout (vin − vout ) + iout vout vin

– The effective resistance of the circuit, Rload, determines the necessary current
• The input current must be the same as the output current
• Example:
– Vin=7V, Vout=5V, i=100mA
• Preg = 0.2W, Ptot = 0.7W,, eff =71% reasonable use, no heatsink
– Vin=7V, V out=5V,, i=1A
• Preg= 2W, P tot= 7W, eff=71% NEED heatsink to dissipate 2W!
– Vin=20V,Vout =5V, i=100mA
• Preg= 1.5W, P tot = 2W, eff=25% UNreasonable use, a lot of power wasted, low efficiency!

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 Switching Regulators
VCC(15V)

• Regulate an input voltage to: C17

4.7uF
C18
0.47uF
Current
C19
– Decrease, increase, and/or
4.7uF Q1 “switch”
NDS9407/SO
invert a voltage
Input Caps
U6

10

8
• Allow for large input/output
L1 D1

VH
IN
voltage differentials
4
3/5 EXT
9
22uH
Inductor
EC2IQ506
7
/SHDN
• Can only increase or

Regulator CS 6
Feedback
decrease voltage, not both
2
Controller
VL
OUT
5 R8
40m Resistor
– Practically get rid of ripple 3 VCC(3.3V)

GND
REF

MAX1744
• Complex design C20 C21 C22
Output

1
4.7uF 0.1uF 220uF

– Uses many external components Capacitor

• Design uses an inductor to create the necessary voltage by driving current through it
at high frequencies (~100-500kHz)
– Utilizes feedback of both current (through sense resistor) and voltage (at output)
– Output voltage has small noise at operating frequency, usually insignificant

• Usually 80-95% efficiency, dependent on current pull

pul
– Driving the high-frequency signal requires a minimum constant power input, even if the
output is disconnected (no current)

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 Switching Regulator Model

• No simple model
– It is a feedback loop where the sensor drives the “current switch” as necessary
• For design purposes can assume that power in equal power out, plus the
efficiency factor
– For design one must know the necessary current supply for Vin

viniin = Pin = Pout = vout iout

vout iout 1

iin = ⋅
vin eff

• Example: from datasheet, since the model of

a switching regulator is not always the same
– Note different curves for different input voltages
– Note very low efficiency for low output currents

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 How much power do you need?

• Remember it is very simple:

– P = IV, always as far as we’re concerned
– Power can be added
• If you know the power of individual components, and are given the voltage &
current for others, add the power together!
– Account for regulator efficiency
• Select the best type of regulator for your needs, consider both design (linear
is simple) and efficiency/power dissipation (usually switching is better)
– Allow for at least 20% margin
• After considering regulator efficiency

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