Literature Review

International migration is an ever- rising phenomenon carrying significant progress effects on

both sending and receiving countries. For the country which is sending its people to other
countries receives in return remittances which lead to improved incomes and less poverty,
enhanced health and educational upshots, and ultimate it also promotes economic development.
However, these advantages might bring some considerable social costs as well to the migrants
and their families. Further migration is a decision which impacts the welfare of entire household,
their home community, and largely entire economy in numerous ways (Azam and Gubert 2006).
However, the welfare effects of migration on the source country are most often, though not
always, substantial and encouraging. There are mainly two methods though the migration
reduces the poverty and enhances the income from remittances, ability to smooth consumption,
enabling to form new business, as well as tapping on to the knowledge and resources provided
by the international community of the migrant diaspora. Along with pure financial gains,
migration and remittances boost for higher investments in health care and education as well.
Still, not all of the impacts are positive: it has negative results as well like exploitation of migrants
by corrupt recruiters or employers is apparently widespread; separation from family can be
stressful for migrants; and large scale immigration can pose serious challenges to a nations own
identity and sovereignty in the longer run. (Lubambu, 2014)

Migration related policies tend to focus mostly on financial aspects, although the non-pecuniary
effects of remittances and migration are equally important. Levitts study (1998) focused on
social remittances shows how migration drives forms of cultural diffusion and social change. She
describes social remittances as being the ideas, behaviors, identities, and social capital that flow
from receiving-to-sending country communities. According to her these transfers play a vigorous
role in promoting immigrants entrepreneurship, formation of family and community, as well as
their integration into politics. She further categorized the social remittances in three categories:
normative structures which includes ideas, values, beliefs such as gender appropriateness,
systems of practice e.g. political participation, skills and social capital this includes all the values
and norms that are socially forwarded. These in-kind remittances seem to have greater
association with the human development outcomes in number of fields like health, education,
gender equality beyond the only monetary benefits. According to Soysal (1997), the sustained
transnational relationships between migrants and communities of origin may lead to the
emergence of a transnational public sphere through which social remittances ideas and
behaviors of economic, political and cultural globalization are diffused in both home and host
countries. (Lubambu, 2014)

Moreover, migration can have important implications for its domestic institutions and politics. It
can impact the country in many ways, like migration of talented people may cause loss of
governance capacity in countries with fragile institutions. Likewise, emigration can serve as a
mean for release of political pressure, which lessens the motivations of the conventional political
elite to bring reforms; it upsurges the corruption, which ultimately diminishes a governments
overall effectiveness (Castles & Delgado Wise 2008, Chami 2008).
Further in this regard, some observers have also suggested that much reliance on migration can
create a remittance-based development model where maintaining socio-economic stability of
the country heavily relies on the remittances. (Delgado-Wise and Mrquez 2006, Delgado-Wise
and Guarnizo 2007). Further migrants may also a source of transmission of democratic attitudes
and behaviors transferred from their host countries to home through their routine visits, as well
as cross country communication and permeant settlement which can also improve the
accountability of home institutions (Levitt 1998, Perez-Armendariz & Crow 2010, Cordova &
Hiskey 2009).

Correspondingly, migration also forms values and attitudes towards gender roles within the
household (Ghosh 2009). As when the men emigrate, women get empowered to take more
prominent part of the community decision making, controller of their income, and increase their
role in the domestic domain (Deshingkar & Grimm 2005, p. 39). Likewise, changes are seen in
other domestic norms, e.g. more emphasis on girls education, marriage in higher age. These
effects of destination countries also reach to the sending society (Fargues 2007).

Further the social effects of migration also include changes in family composition, its gender
roles, involvement of a child in work or education, cultural effects and issues related to
lawbreaking. Migration through remittances, increases household income can reduce a childs
chances to involve in labor and increased the educational attainment opportunities. On the other
hand, migration also alters family structure and roles within the family which may have adverse
effects on success and outcomes related to education of the children of migrant family. Further
the children of migrant families have to be raised in single parent families and face many issues
like family breakdown and family stress. Adolescents of the migrated family can also get a shift
in orientation, e.g. there are the chances that children take migration as their final goal and
select their higher studies in the same background to increase their prospects of migration. These
could have direct, positive, impacts on schooling outcomes and educational attainment.
(Mountford 1997, Vidal 1998, Beine, Docquier and Rapoport 2001 and 2003). McKenzie and
Rapoport (2006) and McKenzie (2006) highlight that migration itself may well have an impact
on education of children, and not just the remittances from that migration. (Paper & Issues,
2006)

Similarly, political interests and activities of diasporas is not a new topic. Studies carried out on
immigrants indicate the involvement of diasporas in politics traces back to 100 years ago.
Presently, it can be observed in many ways, similar with many previous forms in which
internationally dispersed social groups mobilize and undertake a range of electoral and non-
electoral political activities. Different diaspora-based associations can lobby to form certain
policies in favor their homeland or they challenge homeland governments; influence homelands
through their support or opposition of governments; providing financial and other support to
political parties, running social movements, and civil society organizations; or sponsor terrorism
or the perpetuation of violent conflict in the homeland. The weight of diaspora interests and
support sometimes leads to special forms of representation in governments or dedicated
ministries for diasporas. The money sent by diaspora populations is highly sought by all countries
developing or not. Therefore, many governments give their nationals abroad special foreign
currency accounts, incentives or bonds for expat investment, customs or import incentives,
special property rights, or privileged access to special economic zones. To keep the diaspora
politically interested as well as to sustain financial flows, politicians in countries of emigration
often invoke solidarity among their expatriate nationals. (Steven, 2005)

Dispersed in all over the world, Pakistans diaspora reaching to seven million is not only enormous
but diverse as well. They belong to both categories Pakistani citizens or Pakistani origin. They are
in different countries like UK, living as second or third generation, US and as temporary workers
in the Middle East (ME)/Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries for a better income. Besides,
a huge number of Pakistani students also live abroad some return back to benefit the country
with the knowledge, skills and expertise or some opting for permanent residence in host country.
Cumulatively, overseas Pakistanis contribute around five per cent of Pakistan s Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) through remittances i.e., around US$ 13 billion per annum. Emigrants of Pakistan
mostly comprise of working class who leave their homeland in search of better living, though
over the decades the number of people from a better socio-economic band, professionals and
businessmen has also been rising. Main objective behind migration is economic; or to get a stable
financial life for themselves and their families back home. The Pakistani diaspora makes tangible
as well as intangible contributions to their country of origin as well as to their country of
residence. Studies have explored the changing dynamics of migration, issues of citizenship,
religion, opportunities and challenges Pakistani migrants are facing in their countries of
residence. However, the field which have been very less explored is the influence of overseas
Pakistanis on their country of origin in terms of remittances, philanthropic donations, support for
political parties, transfer of knowledge and development of human capital etc. At the political
level, the Pakistani emigrants contributions are two-ways, at home that they not only associate
with but also donate money to the political parties of their choice; whereas in the adopted
countries they participate in political activities like political lobbying, being part of interest groups
and participate in various forms of political activity. In this regard, many Pakistanis have attained
very noticeable positions in the political systems of their host countries. (Potential and Prospects
of Pakistani Diaspora, 2013)

Regardless of ongoing social transformation in Pakistan influence of Pakistani diaspora on the

native community highlights significant aspects of religious extremism in Pakistan. Undoubtedly,
in Pakistan thinking patterns are converting due to the influence of changing socio-cultural,
religious-ideological and politico-economic dynamics in the country and around the globe. But in
recent years, Pakistani emigrants in the West have come forward as one of the vital factors
determining the viewpoint of the upper classes in the country. Regarding religious remittances
Pakistan has mainly seen Salafi movement influx through its diaspora in Arab countries as well as
West. The Pakistanis working overseas especially in the Arab countries bring the conservative
salafi tendencies back home. This can be seen taking root among the lower middle classes in the
country. Whereas, the second stream coming from the West is influencing the upper middle and
elite classes of Pakistan. (Rana M.A, 2014)
To capture the influence of religious remittances a study conducted in Egypt on Emigration and
the diffusion of political Salafism: Religious remittances and support for Salafi parties in Egypt
during the Arab Spring. The study argued that family members of emigrants were more likely to
vote for Salafi parties for many reasons, including the transfer of religious remittances by
Egyptian emigrants to the Gulf and the influence of transnational Salafi networks. The study
through public opinion survey of 1100 people after the Egypt Parliamentary elections revealed
that individuals with family members who had emigrated to the Gulf voted profoundly for
Islamist parties of the Egypt. (Karako, Kse, & zcan, 2017)

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