Panic, Prestige, and Project Mercury: How John Glenns Orbital Launch Impacted the

Medias Outlook on the United States Position in the Space Race

Elena Romesburg

History 395

Dr. Raymond Hyser

Fall Semester 2016

 Godspeed, John Glenn were the words muffled over the radio broadcast by Project

Mercury astronaut, Scott Carpenter, during the launching of fellow Mercury Seven pilot, John

Glenn, into Earths orbit in February 1962. This expression would become a staple in the

achievements of the United States and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration

(NASA) as they began their battle for space supremacy against the Soviet Union while the Cold

War and Space Race intensified. Entire nations tuned into radio broadcasts, television

programs, magazines, and their local newspapers to watch as global super powers struggled for

supremacy in the space race. Project Mercury was NASAs first manned space flight program,

created in response to the Soviets earlier successes in launching satellites and men into space.

Media coverage of the early events in the space program and Project Mercury reflect the

antagonist outlook toward the Soviets and demonstrated both the accomplishments and failures

1
of the United States early space exploration. John Glenns launch, in particular, reflected the

optimism of American space travel as a result of Cold War agendas.1

The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as global superpowers as well as

international adversaries at the conclusion of World War II in 1945. Growing ideological

distrust, ongoing during the world war, between the two governments led to decades of political

and economic competition following the Allied victory. Totalitarianism and communism in the

Soviet Union contested the western ideals of capitalism and democracy in the United States. The

development and use of the atomic bomb by the United States completed through the Manhattan

Project, without the consent of the Soviets, proved to be a profound, yet controversial,

technological advancement. Soviet Union leader, Joseph Stalin, viewed it as unnecessary and

barbaric. This caused further fracturing within the Allied forces, but opened the door for a

global competition in science. The tension cemented the antagonist post-war attitudes that were

1
For further reading and for general understanding of the Cold War, reference John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A
New History (New York: The Penguin Press, 2005); Campbell Craig and Fredrik Logevall, Americas Cold War:
The Politics of Insecurity (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2009); For sources that look more closely at the Space
Race look at Gene Kranz, Failure is Not an Option: Mission Control From Mercury to Apollo 13 and Beyond
(New York: Simon & Schuster Inc., 2001); Deborah Cadbury, Space Race: The Epic Battle between America and
the Soviet Union for Dominion of Space (New York: Harper Collins, 2006); John M. Logsdon, John F. Kennedy and
the Race to the Moon (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010); Yanek Mieczkowski, Eisenhowers Sputnik
Moment: The Race for Space and World Prestige (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013); For more
information of Project Mercury itself and for books by the Mercury astronauts themselves, reference Loyd S.
Swenson Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury
(Washington D.C.: NASA, 1998); Scott Carpenter and Kris Stoever, For Spacious Skies: The Uncommon Journey of
a Mercury Astronaut (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2003); Alan Shepard, Deke Slayton, Jay Barbree, and
Howard Benedict, Moon Shot: The Inside Story of Americas Race to the Moon (Nashville, TN: Turner Publishing,
1994); John Glenn and Nick Taylor, John Glenn: A Memoir (New York: Bantam Books, 1999); Gene Gurney,
Americans into Orbit: The Story of Project Mercury (Clear Spring, MD: Dorley House Books Inc., 1962). For more
sources regarding the Soviet space program, look at Phillip Clark, The Soviet Manned Space Program: An
Illustrated History of the Men, the Missions, and the Spacecraft (London: Salamander Books, 1997); Jaime Doran
and Piers Bizony, Starman: The Truth Behind the Legend of Yuri Gargarin (New York: Walker Books, 1998);
Newspaper articles and coverage by the media on the space program is discussed in Alfred Robert Hogan,
Televising the Space Age: A Descriptive Chronology of CBS News Special Coverage of Space Exploration from
1957 to 2003, Quest: History and Spaceflight 16, no. 1 (2009): 1-91, accessed November 15, 2016, JSTOR; John
W. Finney, U.S. Lags in Space Race 8 Months After Sputnik 1: U.S. Still Unsure on Race in Space, New York
Times, 25 May 1958, accessed November 15, 2016, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-
free/pdf?res=9E06E2D9173DE634A25756C2A9639C946992D6CF.

2
prevalent throughout the Cold War that would continue for decades as the two superpowers

competed for international prestige. Both countries used and strived for the development of

rocket and military technology (or arms race) to represent their superiority starting during

World War II and extending throughout the Cold War. A monopoly in technology would be a

decisive factor in Cold War politics and foreign policy.2

Military advancements accomplished during World War II, such as the German

production and use of V-1 and V-2 rockets3 to bombard Great Britain, sparked the intrigue and

growth in rocket technology. German missile technology and its scientists set the precedent.

After the war, the United States believed their nuclear weapons monopoly would last decades,

but the Soviet Union quickly produced their own atomic bombs by 1949. News that the Soviets

had nuclear weaponry produced unyielding concerns for national security in the United States,

and many people urged the rapid expansion of technological research. Both the United States and

the Soviets recruited German and international scientists into their research program, particularly

for the development of rockets in order to accelerate their advancement. German engineer,

Wernher Von Braun,4 joined the United States National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics

(NACA)5 to develop and utilize aviation technology for military and national defense purposes.

2
Swenson Jr., Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, 8-18; Craig, 44-56; Lewis-Gaddis, The Cold War, 25-
27.
3
German scientists achieved many technological feats during World War II. They pursued the possibility of using
rockets as military weapons and began to develop guided missiles. These Vergeltungswaffle (Vengeance), or V-1
and V-2 rockets, were used in World War II to frighten civilian populations. After the war, V-2 rocket designs and
models helped pave the pathway to space flight.
4
A German rocket engineer who was instrumental in the development of V-2 missiles during World War II.
Following the war, he moved to the United States due to his affiliation with the Nazi Party, but also, to help develop
ballistic missiles for the American Army. Later, he was employed by NASA to help advance their space technology.
Von Braun is one of the most successful rocket engineers in history.
5
From NACAs creation in 1915 to its dissolving and transition to NASA in 1958, NACA was the United States
prime program for aeronautic development. They succeeded in developing aviation breakthroughs, such as the
Boeing B-17 bomber used in World War II and even broke the sound barrier, reaching supersonic speed in 1947.
NACA also revolutionized the way aviator pilots were trained.

3
In contrast, political and economic motives fueled the Soviet aviation program as a part of

Stalins Five-Year Plans.6 The Soviet space program operated both in high levels of secrecy, and

was constantly under investigation of the Central Intelligence Agency (C.I.A)7 in the United

States. The American government had difficulties predicting and perceiving what the Soviets

were trying to accomplish with space technology, intensifying the competition between the two

countries. Despite differing ideologies, both the Soviets and the Americans developed

sophisticated rockets over just a few decades, a testament to the commitment in strengthening

their reputations.8

News of successful Soviet rocket launches spurred a new focus toward the potential

ability of space travel. On October 4, 1957, the space race began when the Soviet Union,

succeeded in launching a ballistic missile known as Sputnik I into Earths low atmosphere, the

first artificial satellite to reach outer space. This was the first case that truly put the Soviet space

program into national light and out of its political secrecy. News reports and media coverage

across the world erupted with admiration and praise as the Soviet space program became more

visible to the public. Sputnik became a global sensation and symbol of national pride for the

Soviet Union. They had beaten the United States to space and made it abundantly clear they

wanted to bolster their leery global image through technological advancement, a common agenda

during the Cold War. Sputnik gave the Soviets the first step to conquering space, one of the last

6
Five Year Plans were the economic brainchild of Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin. They were based on fulfilling a
quota of production every five years in order to plan and centralize the economy in the communist country.
7
Created in 1947, a United States government agency that focuses on analyzing national defense intelligence from
foreign sources for federal protection purposes.
8
Swenson Jr., Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, 6-25, 56-74; Leonid Vladimirov, The Russian Space
Bluff, trans. David Floyd, (New York: The Dial Press, 1973), 17-21; William Shelton, Soviet Space Exploration:
The First Decade (New York: Washington Square Press, 1968) 2-15; Karsten Werth, A Surrogate for War The
U.S. Space Program in the 1960s, American Studies 49, no. 4 (2004): 564-566, accessed November 15, 2016,
JSTOR.

4
unclaimed frontiers and argued by leading nations as important to establishing a prestigious

national reputation. Early in the space race, the Soviets were able to get an early upper hand with

their advanced rocketry, proving that their technology was seemingly far ahead of the United

States. This contradicted the common impression that the Soviet Union operated in a

backward and completely isolated manner compared to the rest of the world.9

American media outlets depicted the launching of Sputnik I as one of the countrys

darkest moments. They produced the ideas of the so-called Sputnik panic and missile-gap,

causing the United States public to doubt the countrys technological capability. The New York

Times released an article in May 1958, eight months after the dawn of the space race, declaring

the United States far behind the Soviet space program, with a steep, uphill challenge to climb in

order to be competitive, though this might have been exaggerated. Writers at the New York Times

and other media sources, like television news anchors, expressed uncertainty on if the United

States would even accept the challenge created by the Soviets following Sputnik. Many

politicians and citizens believed there was a threat to domestic security, while others were more

so aggravated that the United States had not yet pursued a manned orbital mission. Vice

President Richard Nixon along with Senate Majority Leader, Lyndon B. Johnson and Senator

John F. Kennedy, in particular, argued for an aggressive response to the Sputnik launching,

claiming American defenses were insufficient. The same New York Times article stated: .

civilian and military research officials are convinced that the Soviet Union has a long-range

coordinated space program that presents a definite threat to the security and scientific prestige of

the United States. It concluded with an assessment from a top military official who said, I

dont know why it takes a calamity to wake us up all the time. Many high ranking officials and

9
Mieczkowski, Eisenhowers Sputnik Moment, 14-15.

5
media networks reacted very strongly to the early events of the space race, upset and antagonistic

for what it could mean for the United States on a global level. Newspapers and broadcasters, in

turn, negatively characterized and blamed President Dwight D. Eisenhower for allowing the

Soviets to surpass the United States in space technology. Originally, the President showed little

urgency to respond to Sputnik and increase expenditures for the American space program,

evidence of conflicted reactions within the government regarding the new space race.

Eisenhower realized that American defenses were still highly capable of handling potential

security threats, and even congratulated the Soviets on their Sputnik mission. He tried to react to

Sputnik in a rational manner that would not cause a national uproar because of the medias

exaggeration of the Soviets lead in space technology. However, distressed government officials

and press outlets continued to worry about the United States loss to the Soviet Union and the

countrys current status in scientific facets. Previous small American satellite plans like, Project

Orbiter and Project Vanguard,10 showed promise, yet collapsed and were unable to make any

significant aeronautic breakthroughs. These failures and lack of progress frustrated the press and

politicians. Additionally, Eisenhowers inability to see the space race as a symbol of national

prestige caused reluctance to spread around the future of the United States space program.11

10
Project Orbiter was an early proposed satellite program run by the U.S. Army and Navy. The idea program was
cancelled in 1955 in favor of Project Vanguard. Project Vanguard was another satellite program run by the U.S.
Navy and aimed to use prototype rockets to reach space. The project struggled with only three of eleven rockets
reaching orbit, and any small successes it achieved were eclipsed by the impressive accomplishments of the Soviet
space program.
11
Mieczkowski, Eisenhowers Sputnik Moment, 16-33; Swenson Jr. Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean,
82-113; Werth, A Surrogate from War, 565-567; Bradley G. Shreve, The US, the USSR, and Space Exploration,
1957-1963, International Journal on World Peace 20, no. 2 (June 2003): 69, accessed November 15, 2016,
JSTOR; Robert A. Divine, The Sputnik Challenge: Eisenhowers Response to the Soviet Satellite (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1993), 5-20; Zuoyue Wang, In Sputniks Shadow: The Presidents Science Advisory
Committee and Cold War America (Washington D.C.: Library of Congress, 2008), 71-78; Finney, U.S. Lags in
Space Race 8 Months After Sputnik I, New York Times, May 25, 1958; Cadbury, Space Race, 34-46; Vladimirov,
The Soviet Space Bluff, 17-19.

6
 In April 1958, President Eisenhower sent legislation to Congress that established the

National Aeronautics and Space Agency (later changed to Space Administration -- NASA), a

non-military, civilian program dedicated to the advancement of United States space technology.

NASA made some early successes after the transition from NACA, but the Soviets had already

turned toward the moon with their Lunik project, which sent a variety of satellites around and to

the moons surface, proving that the Soviets were still slightly ahead in the space race. The

media attacked United States space policy and questioned why the leadership was still hesitant

to compete with the Soviets. It was not until the announcement of Project Mercury, a United

States program that aimed to put a manned satellite into space, just a few months after the

creation of NASA in 1958 that the United States legitimately entered the space race. Project

Mercury received immense media and national attention, shifting the antagonistic outlook on

United States space travel to a more hopeful position as the program aimed to put the first

American manned satellite into space and unite the nation.12

NASA quickly began a screening process of the nations best pilots and engineers from

the branches of the military to research and fly the manned space capsules that were going to be

tested in the Project Mercury flights. Seven individuals were eventually selected for the space

program in April 1959, most notably Alan Shepard, Scott Carpenter, Virgil Gus Grissom, and

John Glenn. They were labeled as astronauts, or star sailors. The Mercury Seven13 became

American icons as they embarked on their revolutionary space training, competing with the

Soviet cosmonauts.14 Research on air pressure, vital organ signs in zero gravity, radiation tests,

12
Swenson Jr., Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, 110-115; Shelton, Soviet Space Exploration, 74-80;
John Catchpole, Project Mercury, NASAs First Manned Space Programme (Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing,
2001), 51-54.
13
Mercury Seven is the term used to refer to the seven astronauts a part of Project Mercury.
14
A Soviet astronaut. Cosmonaut means universe sailor.

7
accompanied by many more extensive examinations were completed to prepare the pilots for

space travel. However, early Project Mercury launch attempts in Redstone rockets15 failed, either

exploding or not elevating off the ground. The Soviet Union already had rockets capable of

reaching suborbital altitude16, while the United States struggled to develop engine boosters

powerful enough to get a satellite off the ground. NASA had to learn and adapt quickly from

deficiencies to ensure the success of Project Mercury. To guarantee the safety of the Mercury

astronauts, NASA trained and launched a rhesus monkey, Sam, and two chimpanzees, Ham and

Enos17, into orbit to test atmospheric conditions and responsiveness of living organisms while

operating in space. All three animals made it home safe allowing Project Mercury to pursue

putting a man aboard a Redstone capsule.18

15
Redstone rockets were developed by Wernher von Braun, a direct successor of the German V-2 rockets, and used
in the early flights of Project Mercury. The United States and the Soviet Union competed in booster technology that
was required to fuel these rockets. Redstone rockets were responsible for carrying the first rhesus monkeys and
chimpanzees into space. They were suborbital rockets that helped gather information regarding conditions in space.
16
Suborbital refers to the instance when a spacecraft breaches Earths atmosphere, but without the power and
velocity to complete a full orbital rotation around the planet. So when a rocket is launched into Earths atmosphere
without orbiting the Earth and falls back down to the surface, it has completed a suborbital flight. These flights
usually do not last very long.
17
Sam flew in the mission called Little Joe 2 in 1959, testing rocket capability and living organism vital signs in
high altitudes. Ham was launched in January 1961 on a suborbital flight to, again, test vital signs under the
launching conditions. The chimp was trained to hit buttons and pull levers when needed. Enos was launched in
November 1961 before John Glenns orbital flight in early 1962. The chimp was exposed to weightlessness, unlike
his pilot predecessors.
18
Swenson Jr., Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, 159-161, 400-402; Tom Wolfe, The Right Stuff (New
York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1979), 220-225, 303.

8
 American media became heavily invested in documenting the lives and accomplishments

of the astronauts, NASA, and rocket launches. Life magazine committed to recording the stories

and personal lives of the astronauts in order to promote the men as Americas best to help build

the national prestige, placing all seven men on the cover of an issue in September 1959. With

NASAs announcement of the astronauts who would make the first three Project Mercury flights

(Shepard, Grissom, and Glenn), Life magazine published their picture on the cover of an early

1961 issue (see Figure 1), along with a large featured story on each man, portraying them as

symbols of national prestige and heroism.

Figure 1: Life Magazine Cover of Astronauts, March 3, 1961 19

19
Astronaut First Team: Exclusive on Men Picked for Space, Life, March 3, 1961, accessed November 17, 2016,
https://books.google.com/books?id=wUUEAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0
#v=onepage&q&f=false.

9
Life magazine was fascinated with the astronauts, even trying to convince NASA to label

Shepard, Grissom, and Glenn the Golden Three in order to bolster their public identity while,

also, competing with Soviet praise of their own cosmonauts and scientists, but NASA declined.

Features and promotions like this were efforts to inject optimism into the skeptic mindset still

surrounding United States space travel. The March 1961 issue of Life mapped out a time table

juxtaposing the Soviet and American space programs to examine who was going to reach orbit

first. It included a guide to all potential future missions and tried to justify the United States

involvement in the space race. Lifes encouraging and promising tone played a large factor in

romanticizing the role of the astronauts to the public, amplifying their importance to the United

States global reputation.20

Though unsure of NASA, the public found space endeavors interesting. Putting a man in

space seemed so unfathomable that it captured the imaginations of many people during the space

race, allowing for the media to extensively cover the events of Project Mercury. Being able to

feel connected by reading, listening, and watching the heroes through the media while

contending with the Soviet cosmonauts gave the United States space program a unique identity.

After the Mercury Sevens introductory press conference late in 1959, as noted by Tom Wolfe in

his book, The Right Stuff, James Reston of the New York Times reported how moved he was by

the progress the United States space program made: What made them so exciting, was not that

they said anything new but that they said all the old things with such fierce convictions They

spoke duty and faith and country like Walt Whitmans pioneers. The media continued to

sentimentalize the American space program and its astronauts in order to match the Soviets, who

20
Chosen Three for First Space Ride, Life, March 3, 1961, 24-33, accessed November 15, 2016,
https://books.google.com/books?id=wUUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA24&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=
false.

10
had Sputnik as a propaganda advantage. By the early 1960s, NASA and the United States had

made improvements in rocket technology and were considered to be closing the gap with the

Soviets. However, the New York Times, again, reported that Russia obviously has keyed her

space program to the achievement, not only of scientific and military results, but of spectacular

and prestige-building firsts. There was still a lingering sense of pessimism in the media

regarding American efforts in the space race placing most of the pressure on the countrys

leadership to fix their lagging global prestige.21

Even though the United States appeared to be making strides in becoming the first nation

to put a human into Earths orbit, the Soviet Union claimed another victory in the space race. On

April 12, 1961, twenty-seven-year-old Soviet cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin was launched into

Earths orbit aboard the Vostok 1. His flight lasted 108 minutes and he completed an orbit around

the planet. Upon his return, Gagarin instantly became a global celebrity and Soviet hero.

Newspapers and television broadcasts flooded with details about his flight, personal life, and the

prestige this brought the Soviet space program and government. Science News Letter issued the

headline, Russian First Man in Space: Russia has put the first man in orbit around the earth and

returned him safely. The USSR is expected to beat the U.S. to the moon by about five years,

Lillian Levy reports on April 22, 1961. The media began to exaggerate the weakness in

American rocket booster capacity projecting Soviet space technology far superior than what

NASA had produced. This was another gash to the United States national prestige and NASA

21
Swenson Jr., Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, 297-300; Catchpole, Project Mercury, 91-110; Wolfe,
This New Ocean, 120- 228; Hansom W. Baldwin, Neglected Factor in the Space Race: We are lagging only
slightly, if at all, in the scientific and military aspects of the space race, says an expert; in its propaganda phase,
however, Russia is far ahead, New York Times, January, 1960, accessed November 15, 2016,
http://search.proquest.com/news/docview/115223479/8AD53022845C44D9PQ/1?accountid=11667.

11
was feeling pressure from outside sources, like the government and press, to accelerate Project

Mercury.22

Alan Shepard was selected to be the first American astronaut to go into a suborbital flight

in 1960.23 Shepard was very audacious and openly competitive, often disclaiming that he wished

to be the first American in space, but also the first human in space, frequently jesting the Soviets

in interviews. His original flight was scheduled a few weeks before Yuri Gagarin made his

historical orbital launch; however, NASA engineers took safety precautions and delayed the

flight, which ultimately cost the United States the triumph of putting the first man in space.

About a month after Gagarins flight, on May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard finally made his historic

launch out of Cape Canaveral, Florida24 in the Mercury Redstone-3 rocket, the Freedom 7 .

Shepards flight lasted only fifteen minutes, much shorter than the Vostok 1.25

Shepards launch, however, proved to be more impressive than Gagarins, for he

physically piloted and directed the capsule safely, instead of having the grounded mission staff

completely dominate the navigation. On May 6, 1961, just a day after the Freedom 7 launch, the

New York Times ran a story about Alan Shepards triumphant flight. It discussed his courage,

bravery, and daring service to the country, labelling him the ultimate American hero. Shepards

launch help NASA prove that a man could physically pilot a space module, giving them a slight

22
Shelton, Soviet Space Exploration, 81-105; Swenson Jr., Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, 332-335;
Russian First Man in Space: Russia has put the first man in orbit around the earth and returned him safely. The
USSR is expected to beat the U.S. to the moon by about five years, Lillian Levy reports, Science News Letter, April
22, 1961, accessed November 15, 2016, JSTOR.
23
Alan Shepard was selected to be the first American in space over John Glenn and Virgil Gus Grissom. His
selection was announced by NASA administrator, Robert R. Gilruth, just shortly before the Freedom 7 launch.
Shepard had beaten out fellow Mercury Seven astronauts in training launches and simulations leading up to the
Freedom 7 takeoff.
24
Cape Canaveral, located on the east coast of Florida, was the host to numerous NACA and NASA rocket launches
as well as army Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBMs) tests starting in the mid-twentieth century. Today it is
home to the Kennedy Space Center and Cape Canaveral Air Force station.
25
Swenson Jr., Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, 341-376.

12
technological advantage over the Soviet Union. Life magazine had Shepard on the cover for two

straight issues in May, 1961 following the success of his launch. The Washington Post, also,

published an article much later in 1998 titled, U.S. Space Hopes, Public Morale Rose with Alan

Shepards Rocket, analyzing the impact of Shepards flight even in the decades following the

original launch. It evaluated the effect that the successful launch created in the public, claiming

that the flight brought back a sense of self-confidence. Furthermore, the early research and

accomplishments achieved by Project Mercury gave NASA, the United States government, and

the American public hope in achieving further breakthroughs in the space program and move

ahead of the Soviet Union in the space race.26

Freedom 7 opened a gateway for further manned space travel in the United States. After

losing to the Soviet Union twice on space exploration firsts, NASAs next step was a piloted

orbit around Earth. Going into 1962, Congress and President John F. Kennedy approved to

increase NASAs budget, giving the administration more resources to further expand Project

Mercury. Plans to put a man on the moon began to muster in NASA headquarters with President

Kennedy endorsing the idea. On July 21, 1961, Mercury Seven astronaut, Virgil Gus Grissom,

made the United States second manned suborbital flight in the Liberty Bell 7 and gathered more

essential information about the conditions that the human body undergoes in space. Anxious to

contend with the Soviet space program, NASA selected Colonel, and fellow Mercury Seven

26
M. Scott Carpenter, L. Gordon Cooper Jr., John H. Glenn Jr., Virgil I. Grissom, Walter M. Schirra Jr., Alan B.
Shepard Jr., Donald K. Slayton, We Seven, By the Astronauts themselves (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962),
173-203; John Catchpole, Project Mercury, 278; Wolfe, The Right Stuff, 238-272; First U.S. Space Man Alan
Bartlett Shepard Jr., New York Times, May 6, 1961, accessed November 15, 2016,
http://search.proquest.com/news/docview/115317072/8968EED026BA43D6PQ/17?accountid=11667; AOK! The
U.S. is in Space, Life, May 12, 1961, accessed November 15, 2016,
https://books.google.com/books?id=p08EAAAAMBAJ&source=gbs_all_issues_r&cad=1; Astronauts Story of the
Thrust into Space, Life, May 19, 1961, accessed November 15, 2016,
https://books.google.com/books?id=rE8EAAAAMBAJ&source=gbs_all_issues_r&cad=1; Curt Suplee, U.S. Space
Hopes, Public Morale Rose with Alan Shepards Rocket, Washington Post, July 23, 1998, accessed November 15,
2016, http://search.proquest.com/news/docview/1620843615/2BC90E33DFE64030PQ/1?accountid=11667.

13
astronaut, John Glenn, to attempt piloting the historic American orbit and the third manned

United States space flight. This flight would push NASA to match the successes of the earlier

Soviet space achievements and drive the United States toward a lead (and ultimately the hope of

victory) in the space race.27

However, on August 7, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut, Gherman S. Titov completed seventeen

and a half orbits in a little over twenty-five hours in the Vostok II. Many Americans were

impressed, yet worried, that the Soviets had been able to achieve its second manned satellite

launch before the United States had even orbited a human. Vostok II caused psychological

uneasiness in the United States, partially in part to Titov traveling over the North American

continent three times within his flight. 28 Some believed that the Mercury satellite program was

doomed after the Titov flight, but the scheduling of John Glenns historic orbital flight signified

the United States resilience and NASAs commitment to conquering space. However, the Soviet

successes caused more questioning regarding what the Soviets were technologically and

militarily capable of which was a primary concern for the United States government. The media

then reported on the idea of the space gap, the concept of the void between space technology,

again pegging the United State far behind the Soviets. Glenns orbital flights importance was

greatly intensified with added pressure placed on NASA to get a man into orbit around Earth

after continued Soviet feats.29

The Mercury Seven astronauts were a prestigious group of men, all collectively assisting

in the advancement of NASAs rocketry. John Glenn from New Concord, Ohio, graduated from

the Naval Aviation Cadet Program and enrolled in the Marine Corps in 1943. During World War

27
Swenson Jr., Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, 377-380.
28
Titovs path varied as he traveled in Earths orbit. Three passes occurred directly over the United States.
29
Wolfe, The Right Stuff, 298; Swenson Jr., Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, 377-379.

14
II, Glenn flew fighter planes in the Marshall Islands, Guam, and China on the Pacific front. He

also piloted aerial missions in the Korean War, and was later elevated to a position in the Navy

Bureau of Aeronautics in the mid-1950s. Glenn became the first American pilot to complete a

transcontinental voyage while averaging supersonic speed, a feat that helped him earn the

selection into the Mercury Seven. John Glenn was exceedingly qualified to become one of the

United States first astronauts. He established himself as a leader along with being considered

one of the best pilots among the Mercury Seven. Additionally, he served as Alan Shepards

reserve pilot for the Freedom 7 launch. The media tended to gravitate toward John Glenn

because he was a frontrunner for manned space flights within the Mercury Seven in addition to

his mild demeanor and reputation for being one of the most skilled pilots. When the media was

describing the Soviets lead in the space race, Glenn simply responded, Well, they (the Soviets)

beat the pants off us, thats all, and theres no use of kidding ourselves about that. But now that

the space age has begun, theres going to be plenty of work for everybody. Glenn understood

what the space race meant to the nations image and served as a voice of reason coming from

within NASA. The public liked hearing opinions from the astronauts. It united the country

knowing that the astronauts were combating the loss of the United States prestige from the early

events in the space race. With an amplified public persona, John Glenn was poised to become the

symbol of Americas first manned orbit around Earth.30

On numerous occasions, Glenns scheduled flight (originally set for before Christmas

1961) was postponed. This was often due to visibility issues caused by the unpredictable weather

in Cape Canaveral and off the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. NASA also faced several

30
Wolfe, The Right Stuff, 237, 298-310; Swenson Jr., Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, 381-385; Glenn
and Taylor, John Glenn, 151-191.

15
technological glitches and failures. Glenn would be flying in an Atlas orbital rocket31 instead of

the suborbital Redstone rocket that Shepard and Grissom used. The Atlas rockets did not test

well in practice launches, again forcing NASA engineers to adapt and develop their technology

quickly. The New York Times reported on January 23, 1962 that one of Glenns scheduled

launches was postponed due to oxygen trouble. The system created to supply the oxygen from

Glenns space suit and to the cabin was malfunctioning. It was not providing a sufficient amount

to sustain the duration of the flight, proving unsafe to proceed with the launch. Similar news

reports on Glenns ten rescheduled orbital launches reflected a feeling of general angst and

anticipation around the United States space program. Many people questioned if the United

States was capable of putting a man into orbit, or if the space gap was already too large.32

Prior to John Glenns launch, media outlets swarmed his family and personal life trying

to document for the public what his daily routine was like. Astronauts became intertwined with

popular culture in American society. Life magazine reporters, along with broadcasters from

ABC-TV, CBS-TV, and NBC-TV News, would have camera crews at Glenns doorstep trying to

get interviews and pictures for their special coverage features of the astronauts and Project

Mercury. The magazine ran another feature about Glenn on February 2, 1962, anxiously awaiting

the launch. Press coverage tried to keep people hopeful even while NASA was experiencing

many delays. The heightened media attention was, also, a result of the antagonistic Cold War

attitudes which continued shaped the competitive nature of the space race. Placing Glenn on the

national pedestal helped to bolster the confidence of the American public, in NASA, and the

31
Atlas rockets contained more booster power to breach Earths atmosphere with enough momentum to but the
satellite into orbit.
32
Wolfe, The Right Stuff, 306-320; Swenson Jr., Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, 384-386; Richard
Witkin, Glenn Orbit Shot is Delayed Again: Oxygen Trouble Puts It Off at Least Until Saturday, New York Times,
January 23, 1962, accessed November 15, 2016,
http://search.proquest.com/news/docview/115966623/287DE959353D4949PQ/1?accountid=11667.

16
government. President John F. Kennedy, a space race advocate and successor of Eisenhower,

was also urging the success of a manned orbital flight in order to continue rejuvenating his term

after he flopped during the Bay of Pigs Invasion33 in April 1961 further damaging United States

prestige. 34

Finally, on February 20, 1962, John Glenn aboard the Mercury-Atlas 6 rocket in the

Friendship 7 capsule was launched from Cape Canaveral into Earths orbit. That morning, the

New York Times released an article expressing the media and NASAs relief that the flight was

no longer going to be delayed or questioned. People gathered along the beaches of Cape

Canaveral to send-off Americas next space hero. In New York, Grand Central held a viewing

for commuters so they too could watch CBS-TVs broadcast the Friendship 7 launch as they

traveled (see Figures 2 and 3). One commuter noted to Life that its a fine feeling to walk into

this place and be emotional about something other than a late train, demonstrating the massive

amounts of attention the space race received from various people all over the country. The entire

nation tuned in to watch the United States space program finally make their orbital launch,

demonstrating their emotional attachment to NASAs progress. Glenns flight lasted for four

hours and fifty-six minutes, completing three full orbits before landing just south of Bermuda

near Grand Turk Island in the Atlantic Ocean. Already a national hero, Glenn cemented himself

among global icons and helped shift the publics view on space travel from hopeful skepticism to

ensured confidence. Americans could breathe a sigh of relief. The space program had proved that

33
Failed military attempt in Cuba by the C.I.A. in attempts to combat the communist regime of Fidel Castro.
34
Wolfe, The Right Stuff, 310-313; A Man Marked to Do Great Things: From the Personal Album of John Glenn,
Life, February 2, 1962, 22-29, accessed November 15, 2016,
https://books.google.com/books?id=k00EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA22&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=fa
lse.

17
it could match the Soviet space achievements and redeem the loss of national prestige during the

early stages of the space race.35

Figure 2: Hopeful crowd watching John Glenns launch from Cocoa Beach in Cape Canaveral Florida, February 20,
196236

35
Swenson Jr., Grimwood, and Alexander, This New Ocean, 411-440; Wolfe, The Right Stuff, 343-345; Carpenter,
Cooper Jr., Glenn Jr., Grissom, Schirra Jr., Shepard Jr., Slayton, We Seven, 281-315; Richard Witkin, Glenn Orbit
Shot Today: Launching Set for 7:30 A.M., New York Times, February 20, 1962, accessed November 15, 2016,
http://search.proquest.com/news/docview/115689850/DF90D3EBF8F44AC4PQ/1?accountid=11667; 8,000 Eyes
in Orbit, Life, March 2, 1962, 2, accessed November 15, 2016,
https://books.google.com/books?id=kE0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se.
36
The Launch, Ohio State University Libraries, accessed November 17, 2016,
https://library.osu.edu/projects/friendship-7/launch.html.

18
 Figure 3: Crowd gathered at Grand Central Station in New York to watch CBS News broadcast John Glenns
launch37

Television broadcasts were an important media outlet for conveying news and updates on

the space race, especially launch coverage. ABC-TV, NBC-TV, and CBS-TV (along with a few

foreign broadcasts in places like Great Britain) were the major networks that televised launches,

interviews, and government actions taken as a part of the United States Cold War agenda. ABC

News televised the Friendship 7 launch live while receiving updates from the Cape Canaveral

mission control as Glenns flight was in progress. The CBS News channel ran a day long feature

on February 20 titled, Man in Orbit: The Flight of John Glenn with extended features as

information was being received regarding the status of Glenn and Friendship 7. News stations

were able to track Glenn from a station in Bermuda that mapped out the potential path

Friendship 7s orbits. ABC-TV, also, broadcasted radio conversations between Glenn and the

mission control center, including Scott Carpenter muffling Godspeed, John Glenn, which

Commuters in Grand Central Station Watch the Launch of Friendship 7, Ohio State Libraries, accessed
37

November 17, 2016, https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/handle/1811/50487.

19
created more transparency and visibility into the American space program. Walter Cronkite,38

broadcaster for CBS News, famously yelled Go, baby! as footage of Glenn launching from

Cape Canaveral aired and exclaimed how the public was witnessing a historic moment. Cronkite

himself was a historical figure throughout the space race and Cold War as lead anchor reporting

for CBS-TV. His enthusiasm and passion for space exploration was contagious to viewers and

helped NASA gain support when the space program was being questioned.39

Figure 4: John Glenn aboard the Friendship 7, February 20, 196240

All major television networks optimistically covered Glenns flight, viewing the launch

as a catalyst that helped revive the nations cultural ideology and a justification of pursuing space

38
Walter Cronkite was a famous broadcaster and pioneer for CBS News and is known for documenting the events of
the space race and Cold War. He was known as the Most Trusted Man in America during a period (Cold War)
where the United States public was on edge both with domestic issues, like the Civil Rights Movement, as well as
foreign engagement in events like the Vietnam War, both reported on by the prestigious news anchor. Cronkite was
fascinated with space travel and played an important role in portraying NASAs space travel accomplishments
through his television persona.
39
Jeff Cunningham, Walter Leland Cronkite, Jr., American Philosophical Society 160, no. 1 (March 2016): 75-81,
accessed November 15, 2016, JSTOR; Hogan, Televising the Space Age, accessed November 15, 2016, JSTOR;
CBS News, John Glenns Launch, Walter Cronkite, Go, Baby! aired February 20, 1962, accessed November 17,
2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVB5dg7XX_g.
40
The Flight, Ohio State University Libraries, accessed November 17, 2016,
https://library.osu.edu/projects/friendship-7/photos/03%20The%20Flight/G066-19-5.jpg.

20
travel. The space race was not just a political and scientific endeavor, but an expedition that

would define the American psyche moving forward in the Cold War. Americans across the

nation looked at Glenn, and the other astronauts, as historical icons largely impart to extensive

video broadcasts that allowed the public into their lives.

Time magazine captured the importance of Glenns orbits and their impact on the

American citizens, but also the global public, as well, saying: Some 135 million American

stared transfixed at their television sets for hours as Glenn made his orbits, and everyone from

Queen Elizabeth to the Bedouins in the Middle Eastern fields anxiously followed Glenns

progress. Though an intricate part to the United States Cold War policy, launches in the space

race, also, rendered international implications, enticing people from all over the world to track

the progress of rocket technology and men in space. The Friendship 7 launch, in particular, came

at a time when, again, people were unsure if the United States could contend with the adherently

more dominant Soviet Union. The space race was a determining factor in global politics.

Broadcasters, as well, had been preparing for the launch since Glenn was originally scheduled to

orbit in late December, 1961 and had to remain positive whenever there were setbacks. On

February 20, the question was no longer if the flight would happen, but if Glenn would be

successful. Immediately following news and footage of Glenns landing recovery in the Atlantic

Ocean after four hours of tracking Friendship 7, broadcasters, like ABC News Bill Shadel,

quickly began examining the future of the United States space program and articulated the

direction NASA was planning to take with further missions. Glenns flight gave the media, the

21
government, and the public the confidence that the NASA could scientifically compete with

Soviet Union.41

The United States regained national pride following John Glenns achievement. Space

travel, once thought to be unconquerable, now was attainable. The supposed space gap shrank

into a tight race for aeronautic supremacy. Media outlets began to see the United States feats

more impressive than the Soviet launches, pushing Sputnik and Gagarins flights into the

backseat of the space race. American propaganda also increased following Glenns orbital flight,

similarly to how Nikita Khrushchev42 and the Soviet Union used Yuri Gagarin and Gherman

Titov as publicity tools in order to boost national prestige. Publications like the New York Times,

along with Life magazine, the Washington Post, and Time magazine were large informants and

propaganda sources for United States space achievements, as seen through headlines, images,

and articles. John Glenns launch evened the playing field between the two countries and space

was either countrys frontier with both countries continuing to scramble for the upper hand.

Propaganda played a huge role in impacting the United States publics impression of either

nation, usually vilifying the Soviet Union while elevating NASA and the Americans. The New

York Times released an extensive propaganda article titled, Glenn Feat Spurs Space Program,

41
James Lee Kauffman, Selling Outer Space: Kennedy, the Media, and Funding for Project Apollo, 1961-1963
(Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1994): 81-103; The New Ocean, Time, March 2, 1962, 2, accessed
November 16, 2016, http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=10&sid=c61d454b-4ce5-4357-b9ca-
a6dc985c5c1e%40sessionmgr105&hid=122&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=542074
44&db=a9h.
42
Nikita Khrushchev was the leader of the Soviet Union from 1953 until 1964. He backed the Soviet space program
a source of national pride, but advocated for peaceful existence with the western hemisphere.

22
on February 25, 1962. The article claimed that the nation gets a psychological lift, while

posting political jabs toward the Soviet Union, like the political cartoon pictured in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Political cartoon from the New York Times directed at the Soviet Union43

The cartoon portrays Khrushchev crying while receiving the news of Glenns successful orbits

and writing a congratulations letter to Kennedy. This demonstrated the underlying tension that

both global superpowers felt towards one another, with neither country physically attacking the

other, but rather indirectly and emotionally competing in a symbolic and diplomatic war.

Reporters and the press knew that Khrushchev was going to commend the United States for its

43
Richard Witkin, Glenn Feat Spurs Space Program: Nation Gets a Psychological Lift in Race to Land a Man on
Moon, New York Times, February 25, 1962, accessed November 15, 2016,
http://search.proquest.com/news/docview/116000850/BF03B729A68A4E7BPQ/1?accountid=11667.

23
achievement, like Eisenhower and Kennedy did after Soviet space accomplishments, but the

sincerity was in question. The United States skepticism of the Soviet Union consumed media

coverage and resulted in cartoons like this, exaggerating Soviet reactions to augment the

significance of Glenns orbit to regaining national prestige.44

Just a few months later, the New York Times, again, published an article debasing the

Soviet Union in May 1962 after a news conference at the White House between President

Kennedy, John Glenn, and Gherman Titov. This event was an effort to bring the two space

programs together, reduce hostility, and to potentially discuss the idea of possible disarmament.45

Both space programs had achieved significant accomplishments and the news conference was an

attempt to celebrate and compare how Glenn and Titov felt during their launch, but it was still

obvious that the Cold War tension was prevalent. When describing their launch experiences to

the press, Titov declined to give details about the Soviet capsule claiming that these matters

involved military rocketry. Glenn quickly interjected saying that, the United States shared its

space information openly. Such a small comment about Soviet transparency represented a larger

view of the Cold War attitudes, and attested to why the United States had such an antagonistic

outlook on Soviet policies and methods. Though Kennedy had invited Titov to come to the

United States as a gesture of admiration, Cold War agendas overshadowed and lingered behind

the mask of respectful diplomacy. 46

Friendship 7 was certainly a huge victory for NASA and the United States, but it was just

a step in a much larger global conflict. John Glenn received momentous support upon being

44
Witkin, Glenn Feat Spurs Space Program, New York Times, February 25, 1962.
45
The notion to reduce the military and space technology build-up occurring during the Cold War.
46
Glenn and Titov Describe Orbits and Visit Kennedy, New York Times, May 4, 1962, accessed November 15,
2016, http://search.proquest.com/news/docview/116078103/3A6775D56413411FPQ/1?accountid=11667.

24
recovered out of the Atlantic Ocean. He was even greeted by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson

at Grand Turk Island to be escorted back to Cape Canaveral where a parade presented by

President Kennedy would be held to honor his achievement for a crowd of around 100,000. Just

two days after the launch on February 22, President Kennedy opened up his press conference

praising NASA and Glenns effort to push American space travel forward.

Glenn was quoted saying in an interview with Life magazine: I am certainly glad to see

that pride in our country and its accomplishments are not a thing of the past. A few days later,

Glenn was, also awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor by the United States government for

his space expedition. The Washington Post reported that even though the Congressional Medal

of Honor is reserved for courageous actions in combat, and Glenn was technically given the

medal during a project conducted in a time of peace, the reception of the medal was justified.

Senator Olin D. Johnston argued its vindication because while Glenn was on a peacetime

mission he actually was in the front line for our country and the Free World in our combat with

the Communist world to conquer outer space. This emphasizes that the space race and its

successes were international efforts within the scope of the Cold War used to build national

ideologies against conflicting mindsets. John Glenn was not only an icon produced by the space

25
race, but a Cold War combatant in the pseudo-war for national prestige, who was adored for

bringing global esteem back to the United States.47

Within the few weeks following the Friendship 7 launch, Glenn was shuffled around the

United States, talking with the media, attending press conferences and government events, and

being rushed into the publics view. On March 1, 1962, a little over a week after the launch, John

Glenn received a ticker-tape parade48 in New York City for his valiant service to the country

where millions of people came out in support (see Figure 6). Parades like these are reserved for

events and people of the utmost importance and respect in the country to shower them with

confetti and admiration, showing how valuable Glenns launch was to the Cold War effort.

Glenn was then brought to a podium to speak to the large crowd in New York that came out to

support him and he thanked the crowd and humbly said that his flight was just a small step in

the new era of the space race. He continued to use his own flight, as well as Shepards and

Grissoms, as the base for future space travel, discussing that the space struggle was not over and

more work was to be accomplished. Glenn brought the project full circle saying that we (the

Mercury Seven/NASA) represent all of you on this project, it is a national, and really

47
Liftoff and Uplift for the U.S.; a Worlds Hope, Life, March 2, 1962, 4, accessed November 17, 2016,
https://books.google.com/books?id=kE0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA4&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se; The New Ocean, Time, March 2, 1962, 2; Heros Words to Cherish, Life, March 9, 1962, 4, accessed
November 17, 2016,
https://books.google.com/books?id=RlUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA4&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=fal
se; Kennedy Starts Press Session Praising Glenn: Glenn Comes Here Monday, Washington Post, February 22,
1962, A11, accessed November 17, 2016,
http://search.proquest.com/hnpwashingtonpost/docview/141613982/582CAF5E1C82452CPQ/13?accountid=11667;
Kennedy to Lead Heros Welcome For Glenn at Canaveral Today: President Leads Glenn Fete Today, Washington
Post, February 23, 1962, A1, accessed November 17, 2016,
http://search.proquest.com/news/docview/141752800/F1FDCF67322544D1PQ/30?accountid=11667.
48
A ticker-tape parade is an event that usually takes place in cities to celebrate important events by throwing
streamers and shredded paper like confetti on the streets as the parade progresses.

26
international project demonstrating his understanding that space flight was not purely a

technological achievement, but a reflection of the United States as a whole.49

Figure 6: John Glenn, his wife, and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson at Friendship 7s ticker-tape parade in New
York on the cover of Life magazine, March 1, 196250

49
John Glenn at Ticker-Tape Parade, History Channel, aired March 1, 1962, accessed November 18, 2016,
http://www.history.com/topics/space-race/videos/john-glenn-at-tickertape-parade; John Glenns Honorary New
York Ticker Tape Parade, aired March 1, 1962, accessed November 18, 2016,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1XoWyBNq_E.
50
My Own Story of the Orbit by John Glenn, Life, March 9, 1962, accessed November 18, 2016,
http://www.art.com/products/p14800775-sa-i3157287/ralph-morse-john-glenn-with-wife-and-vp-johnson-during-
ticker-tape-parade-march-9-1962.htm?sOrig=CAT&sOrigID=28001&dimVals=5081389-
28001&ui=5BD92D5A8FBC47FCAD76C5091464AA26&pe=true.

27
 NASA and President Kennedy now focused on how to build off of the recent success.

Glenns three orbit flight around Earth set the precedent for future space travel. Space was

considered a new ocean and Kennedy asserted that the United States would not stop pursuing

further technological advancements. More orbital launches were planned as a part of Project

Mercury to gather more data and to reach higher altitudes, but NASAs mission had shifted. The

race to the moon became the new prize of the space race. Glenns successful launch made this

precarious ambition feasible. On September 12, 1962, President Kennedy spoke to Rice

University, while being broadcast on television, regarding the status of the space race. He argued

that the acceleration of technological advancements was a testament to humankinds (more

specifically the United States) determination. Kennedy recognized space explorations

importance in the Cold War saying, no nation who expects to be the leader of other nations can

expect to stay behind in the race for space. This further rationalizes the Presidents plan to

continue pursuing future space flights by indirectly saying they are vital to compete with the

Soviet Union as a part of Cold War politics. Refusing to acknowledge the importance of space is

the refusal to take part in international affairs. The President recognized that the Untied States

needed to become the worlds leader in space science.51

Ultimately, Kennedys message was to convey the nationalistic advantages for a voyage

to the moon, stating, we choose to go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not

because they are easy, but because they are hard, because that goal will serve to organize and

measure the best of our energies and skills. Going to the moon would prove the United States

dominance in the technological field, but also conquer a frontier that had not been absorbed in

51
JFK We choose to go to the Moon, September 12, 1962, accessed November 18, 2016,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ouRbkBAOGEw.

28
conflict, unlike the countries housed on Earths surface. Kennedy acknowledges that the

challenge of going to the moon is one that we (the United States) are willing to accept, on we

are unwilling to postpone, and one we intend to win, and the others, too. The confidence exuded

by President Kennedy is a result of John Glenns triumphant orbital mission and its restoration of

national prestige. Without his achievement, the space race would have spiraled out of the Untied

States control and drastically changed the landscape of the Cold War in favor of the Soviet

Union. The challenge to the moon brought on by the success of Project Mercury led the United

States into Project Gemini, a dual-pilot program, and then into Project Apollo, which would

eventually place men on the moon in July 1969.52

It is debated on whether the Soviets had a technological advantage in the early years of

the space race. Because the Soviet Union was the first in many aspects of space travel, United

States media sources erupted with panic and skepticism for the nations future. Without a doubt

the United States were faced with a blow to their international reputation, which was under siege

by the Soviet Union and Cold War antagonism, which led to the acceleration of the space race

and creation of NASA and Project Mercury. American media coverage allowed public panic to

impact the governments actions as they pushed for advancements in rocket technology.

Continued Soviet aeronautic accomplishments compared to the static progress made by the

United States gave the media an excuse to coin the phrase space gap to depict NASA well

behind in the space race. There was positivity surrounding Alan Shepards flight, but it was not

until John Glenns orbital flight that Untied States prestige was restored. Extensive media

coverage of the space race generated an emotional connection between the public and the success

of space travel and has allowed for a sometimes dramatized interpretation of the space race. The

52
JFK We choose to go to the Moon, September 12, 1962.

29
media vilified the Soviet Union, using the Mercury Seven astronauts as propaganda, and

criticized the secrecy of their operations. Glenn was made a national symbol of victory over the

Soviet Union, and his legacy continued to be a defining factor in NASAs establishment. The

Friendship 7 ultimately turned the Untied States toward the moon, which was considered the

finish line in the space race. President Kennedy justified the space race as a national obligation

only after John Glenns successful launch. Though considered a time of peace, Glenn was treated

like a war hero.

The events of the space race were amplified to project the attitudes and competition

initiated throughout the Cold War. NASA and space travel programs were not just efforts to

advance technology, but were a part of the global pseudo-war for national prestige. Whoever

controlled space controlled the Cold War. Media outlets intensified this global interaction by

becoming intertwined with political policy. In terms of Glenns launch, he set the precedent for

all future space travel, allowing NASA to have the confidence to push toward the moon and

successfully beating the Soviets in what has been considered one of the greatest feats in

mankind. The entire world was brought into the space race as the media depicted the fluctuating

competition between the Untied States and Soviet Union, but space was just one aspect of the

prolonged Cold War. One that weighed heavy implications for the United States Cold War

policy and positively impacted the nations morale after an unstable start.

30
 Bibliography
Primary Sources:
A Man Marked to Do Great Things: From the Personal Album of John Glenn. Life, February
2, 1962. Accessed November 15, 2016.
https://books.google.com/books?id=k00EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA22&source=gbs_toc_r&c
ad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false.
Extensive coverage by Life during the build up to Glenns launch in 1962 portraying
Glenn as a national hero by examining his personal life. This was needed to keep public
morale high.

AOK! The U.S. is in Space. Life, May 12, 1961. Accessed November 15, 2016.
https://books.google.com/books?id=p08EAAAAMBAJ&source=gbs_all_issues_r&cad=
1.
Discusses the process and significance of Alan Shepards flight and argues how it made
him an American hero after the long struggle for the United States to reach space.

Astronaut First Team: Exclusive on Men Picked for Space. Life, March 3, 1961. Accessed
November 17, 2016.
https://books.google.com/books?id=wUUEAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=
gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false.
Provided an image of the cover of Life with Glenn, Grissom, and Shepard on the cover as
a part of the magazines efforts to promote the space program.

Astronauts Story of the Thrust into Space. Life, May 19, 1961. Accessed November 15, 2016.
https://books.google.com/books?id=rE8EAAAAMBAJ&source=gbs_all_issues_r&cad=1
.
The second of two consecutive Life issues that featured Shepard on the cover. Contained
coverage of what Freedom 7 was like according to Shepards point of view and where the
space program was headed.

Carpenter, Scott, and Kris Stoever. For Spacious Skies: The Uncommon Journey of a Mercury
Astronaut. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2003.
Memoir of Mercury Astronaut, Scott Carpenter, as he prepared for his orbital launch. He
examines the early days of NASA and the significance of the Mercury astronauts
missions to Cold War politics.

Carpenter, M. Scott, L. Gordon Cooper Jr., John H. Glenn Jr., Virgil I. Grissom, Walter M.
Schirra Jr., Alan B. Shepard Jr., and Donald K. Slayton. We Seven, By the Astronauts
themselves. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1962.
Firsthand accounts of each of the Mercury Seven through their launches and research.
Illustrates their heroism and the impact the space race had on a new era in the United
States.

CBS News. John Glenns Launch, Walter Cronkite, Go Baby! Aired February 20, 1962.
Accessed November 17, 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVB5dg7XX_g.

31
 A portion of Cronkites and CBSs coverage on the day of Glenns launch, exhibiting
excitement and national pride. Demonstrates how the entire nation wanted to know the
outcome of Glenns launch.

Chosen Three for First Space Ride. Life, March 3, 1961. Accessed November 15, 2016.
https://books.google.com/books?id=wUUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA24&source=gbs_toc_r
&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false.
Examines the selection of the first Mercury astronauts that would make the first three
manned space flights for the United States. Depicted their bravery and elevated them as
national heroes.

Commuters in Grand Central Station Watch the Launch of Friendship 7. Ohio State Libraries.
Accessed November 17, 2016. https://kb.osu.edu/dspace/handle/1811/50487.
Provided a picture of the massive crowd watching the CBS broadcast of Glenns launch
in New York demonstrating the large audience the space race attracted.

Glenn, John, and Nick Taylor. John Glenn: A Memoir. New York: Bantam Books, 1999.
Autobiography of Glenns life, examining his career and the early days of NASA and the
space race.

Gurney, Gene. Americans into Orbit: The Story of Project Mercury. Clear Spring, MD: Dorley
House Books Inc., 1962.
Basic overview of the events of Project Mercury along with pictures. Examines the
United States reasoning for going to space as a way to emphasize Cold War agendas.

Heros Words to Cherish. Life, March 9, 1962. Accessed November 17, 2016.
https://books.google.com/books?id=RlUEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA4&source=gbs_toc_r&c
ad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false
Contained exclusive interviews with Glenn after his launch receiving his point of view on
the space race. Glenn understood that the space race was far from over after his launch.

History Channel. John Glenn at Ticket-Tape Parade. Aired March 1, 1962. Accessed
November 18, 2016. http://www.history.com/topics/space-race/videos/john-glenn-at-
tickertape-parade.
Audio recording of Glenns speech at his ticker-tape parade in New York. Argued that
the space program was a representation of the country as a whole.

JFK We choose to go to the Moon. September 12, 1962. Accessed November 18, 2016.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ouRbkBAOGEw.
Video footage of President Kennedys speech to Rice University months after Glenns
flight. Justified the continuation of the space program and to pursue the ultimate goal of
reaching the moon.

John Glenns Honorary New York Ticker Tape Parade. Aired March 1, 1962. Accessed
November 18, 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w1XoWyBNq_E.

32
 Television broadcast of footage from Glenns ticker-tape parade showing the vast crowd
that came out to support the success of his flight.

Kranz, Gene. Failure is Not an Option: Mission Control from Mercury to Apollo 13 and Beyond.
New York: Simon & Schuster Inc., 2001.
Memoir of NASAs flight director who illustrates his experiences from Project Mercury
through Project Apollo. He idolizes and illuminates NASA and the space program in its
efforts to further space travel.

Liftoff and Uplift for the U.S.; a Worlds Hope. Life, March 2, 1962. Accessed November 17,
2016.
https://books.google.com/books?id=kE0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA4&source=gbs_toc_r&c
ad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false
Article that depicted the significance of Glenns flight on American morale arguing that
national prestige had been restored.

My Own Story of the Orbit by John Glenn. Life, March 9, 1962. Accessed November 18,
2016. http://www.art.com/products/p14800775-sa-i3157287/ralph-morse-john-glenn-
with-wife-and-vp-johnson-during-ticker-tape-parade-march-9-
1962.htm?sOrig=CAT&sOrigID=28001&dimVals=5081389-
28001&ui=5BD92D5A8FBC47FCAD76C5091464AA26&pe=true.
Picture of the cover of Glenns ticker-tape parade on the cover of Life magazine. Shows
the large crowd of national support.

New York Times, 1958-1962.

Contained extensive coverage of Project Mercury and the space race. Illustrated the
fluctuating opinions on the status of the United States in the space race.

Science Newsletter, 1961.

Provided extensive coverage on the space race and reported on both the Soviet and
American space programs.

Shelton, William. Soviet Space Exploration: The First Decade. New York: Washington Square
Press, 1968.
Surveys the early Soviet space program arguing that the United States underestimated
and misunderstood their technological developments.

Shepard, Alan, Deke Slayton, Jay Barbree, and Howard Benedict. Moon Shot: The Inside Story
of Americas Race to the Moon. Nashville, TN: Turner Publishing, 1994.
Narration from two former astronauts who describe the events from Project Mercury to
Apollo. They argue that landing a man on the moon was the greatest feat man as achieved
to date.

The Flight. Ohio State University Libraries. Accessed November 17, 2016.
https://library.osu.edu/projects/friendship-7/photos/03%20The%20Flight/G066-19-5.jpg.
Provided a picture of John Glenn aboard the Friendship 7 mid-flight.

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The Launch. Ohio State University Libraries. Accessed November 17, 2016.
https://library.osu.edu/projects/friendship-7/launch.html.
Picture of a crowd gathered on Cocoa Beach to watch Glenns launch from Cape
Canaveral. Shows the anxiety that surrounded the success of NASA.

The New Ocean. Time, March 2, 1962. Accessed November 16, 2016.
http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=10&sid=c61d454b-4ce5-4357-b9ca-
a6dc985c5c1e%40sessionmgr105&hid=122&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY2
9wZT1zaXRl#AN=54207444&db=a9h.
Contained extensive coverage on the significance of Glenns launch on future space
travel and the position of the United States in the space race. Elevated the United States
over the Soviet Union.

Washington Post, 1962, 1998.

Provided extensive coverage of the space race both right after the events and then again
revisited decades later. Reported on Glenns importance to the nations prestige.

8,000 Eyes in Orbit. Life, March 2, 1962. Accessed November 15, 2016.
https://books.google.com/books?id=kE0EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA2&source=gbs_toc_r&c
ad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false.
Coverage of post-Friendship 7 and its impact on the American public. Shows how people
were tuned in nationwide to Glenns launch as it controlled the future of NASA and the
countrys status in the Cold War.

Secondary Sources:
Cadbury, Deborah. Space Race: The Epic Battle between America and the Soviet Union for
Domain of Space. New York: Harper Collins, 2006.
Examines the paranoia in the United States during the space race and their amplified
rivalry with the Soviet Union. Cadbury argues that even though the Soviets beat the
Americans to space, they were never going to win the technological race to the moon.

Catchpole, John. Project Mercury, NASAs First Manned Space Programme. Chichester, UK:
Praxis Publishing, 2001.
Analyzes the scientific advancements in rocket technology made by both the Soviets and
the Americans, detailing each launch. Catchpole is biased toward the western civilized
Americans and their aeronautic achievements.

Clark, Phillip. The Soviet Manned Space Program: An Illustrated History of the Men, the
Missions, and the Spacecraft. London: Salamander Books, 1997.
Chronologic view of Soviet space program launches and feats, utilizing images and
photographs. Offers an equal analysis of the Soviet program and depicts their
achievements as revolutionary.

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Craig, Campbell, and Fredrik Logevall. Americas Cold War: The Politics of Insecurity.
Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2009.
Assesses the successes and failures of the Cold War in America. Looks at the United
States Cold War policy as both an issue to contain communism, but, also, as a result
from the publics interests, which ultimately shaped the culture of U.S. politics today.

Cunningham, Jeff. Walter Leland Cronkite, Jr. American Philosophical Society 160, no 1
(March 2016): 75-81. Accessed November 15, 2016. JSTOR.
Examination of Cronkites impact on journalism and broadcasting. With nothing but
praise, the article elevates Cronkite as one of Americas greatest icons.

Divine, Robert A. The Sputnik Challenge: Eisenhowers Response to the Soviet Satellite. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Observes Eisenhowers collectedness following the Soviet satellite successes while the
nation was awoken in panic. Divine concludes that Eisenhowers failed to recognize
Sputniks importance to the nations reputation.

Doran, Jamie, and Piers Bizony. Starman: The Truth Behind the Legend of Yuri Gagarin. New
York: Walker Books, 1998.
Examines Gagarins rise to stardom after becoming the first man in space, but ultimately
demonstrates the secrecy of the Soviet space program and the controversy surrounding its
operations.

Gaddis, John Lewis. The Cold War: A New History. New York: The Penguin Press, 2005.
Looks at how the relationship between the U.S. and the Soviets went sour after World
War II and provides a detailed summation of the Cold Wars entirety. Offers an analysis
to the question, what does this all mean? by looking at the political landscape today.

Hogan, Alfred Robert. Televising the Space Age: A Descriptive Chronology of CBS News
Special Coverage of Space Exploration from 1957 and 2003. Quest: History and
Spaceflight 16, no. 1 (2009): 1-91. Accessed November 15, 2016. JSTOR.
Examines all of the television coverage done by CBS News from Sputnik to Columbias
tragedy. Argues that the extensive broadcasting of the space race expanded televisions
reach and cemented it as the primary new source for Americans.

Kauffman, James Lee. Selling Outer Space: Kennedy, the Media, and Funding for Project
Apollo, 1961-1963. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1994.
Examines how Kennedy was able to paint the space race as an expansion of the countrys
frontier, which made space travel more expectable. Kauffman argues that Kennedys
selling of the space program defined the nations individualistic nature.

Logsdon, John M. John F. Kennedy and the Race to the Moon. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2010.
Utilizes interviews and other sources to examine how the Kennedy presidency affected
the United States space program, arguing that his push to the moon revitalized Americas
attitude in the Cold War.

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Mieczkowski, Yanek. Eisenhowers Sputnik Moment: The Race for Space and World Prestige.
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013.
Argues that Eisenhower helped shape the U.S. space program and did not deserve the
criticism that the press gave him, even while noting that Eisenhower did not understand
the full significance of the space race on the U.S.s prestige.

Shreve, Bradley G. The US, the USSR, and Space Exploration, 1957-1963. International
Journal on World Peace 20, no. 2 (June 2003). Accessed November 15, 2016. JSTOR.
Examines the relations between the Soviet Union and the United States through the
events of the space race. Argues that entering space helped mankind reach its potential
due to the pressures of the extensive global conflict.

Swenson, Loyd S. Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander. This New Ocean: A
History of Project Mercury. Washington D.C.: NASA, 1998.
Project Mercurys extensive chronology according to NASA. Argues that Project
Mercury fathered Project Gemini and set the precedent for future space endeavors. Puts
Project Mercury in context with the Soviet space program.

Vladimirov, Leonid. The Russian Space Bluff. Translated by David Floyd. New York: The Dial
Press, 1973.
A history from a defected Russian writer. Describes how Soviet technological superiority
was exaggerated and a myth. Argues that Sputnik and other rocket launches were just
propaganda motives to stay ahead of the U.S. Very negative toward Soviet practices.

Wang, Zuoyue. In Sputniks Shadow: The Presidents Science Advisory Committee and Cold
War America. Washington D.C.: Library of Congress, 2008.
Assesses the climax and decline of space policy in the federal government. Argues that
science and politics became deeply intertwined in order to advance space technology, but
also caused tension which led to a regression of government commitment to space.

Werth, Karsten. A Surrogate for War The U.S. Space Program in the 1960s. American
Studies 49, no. 4 (2004): 563-587. Accessed November 15, 2016. JSTOR.
Examines the panic in the U.S. caused by Soviet successes and the impact of mass media,
politicians, and the public on the U.S.s perceptions of the Cold War struggle. Explores
the idea that the space race distorted the lines between military and civilian. Activities.

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