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LITERATURE1.POETRY2.HISTORY3.BIOGRAPHY4.LETTERS5.PHILOSOPHY6.ORA
TORY7.APOCALYPSE1. POETRYGreek poetry - writing that created emotional responses
through meaning and metric patterns, with various regular rhythms of short and long
sounds.Epic poetry started the written Greek literary tradition by the transcriptions of
Homer'sand Hesiod's poems during the Archaic Age (7th and 6th centuries BC).Homer 8th
century BCHesiod7th century BCLyric poetry, originally meant to be sung, occurred in varied
rhythms and often expressed personal emotions and experience.Sappho7th century BCPoetic
drama -- tragedy and comedy in rhythmic meters -- developed from sung chorusesin the
Classical Age (5th - 4th centuries) in Athens.Aeschylus5th century BCSophocles5th century
BCEuripides5th century BCAristophanes5th - 4th centuries BCMenander 4th century
BCPoetry of the Hellenistic Age (3rd - 1st centuries BC) often reflected on earlier poetry
byimitation or allusion.
letters attributed to famous people (for instance, Socrates, and heroes of earlyChristianity,
such as James, John, and Peter).Christian authors followed the lead of pagan philosophers,
who shaped into letter formtheir ideas about ultimate reality and principles of
human behavior.(Isocrates)5th - 4th centuries BC(Plato)5th - 4th centuries
BC(Demosthenes)4th century BC(Epicurus)4th -3rd centuries BC(Dionysius
of Halicarnassus)1st century BCPaul (Christian)1st century ADJames (Christian)1st century
ADPeter (Christian)1st century AD(John) (Christian)1st century AD(Epictetus)1st - 2nd
centuries AD(Plutarch)1st - 2nd centuries AD(Arrian)1st - 2nd centuries AD 5.
PHILOSOPHYGreek philosophy involved a search for a general understanding of values and
reality.Philosophical writings in the Greek tradition are preserved in various forms:
dialogues
letters
treatises
speeches
Greek philosophy from the 3rd century BC (through the 2nd century AD and beyond)was
particularly concerned with ethics -- moral thinking about human life. Such concernsare
shared among pagan and Christian writings, such as the letters of Paul and James.Plato5th -
4th centuries BC(Xenophon)5th - 4th centuries BCAristotle4th century BCEpicurus4th - 3rd
centuries BCPhilo of Alexandria(Jewish)1st century BC - 1stcentury AD(Paul) (Christian)1st
century AD(James) (Christian)1st century ADDio Chrysostom1st - 2nd centuries
ADEpictetus1st - 2nd centuries AD(Plutarch)1st - 2nd centuries AD(Arrian)1st - 2nd centuries
ADLucian2nd century ADMarcus Aurelius2nd century AD6. ORATORYSpoken communication
was vastly important in ancient Greek culture and flourished for long centuries after writing
became common. Speeches were recorded by lawyers and politicians from the 5th century
BC onward. Also, teachers of the public speaking(rhetoric) provided written models as they
trained ambitious young men.Speech as a medium of teaching was preserved as:
lectures
exhortations
Poetry
A poem is acompositionwritten inverse(although verse has been equally used for epicand
dramatic fiction). Poems rely heavily on imagery, precise word choice, andmetaphor ; they
may take the form of measures consisting of patterns of stresses (metricfeet) or of patterns
of different-length syllables (as in classical prosody); and they may or may not utilizerhyme.
One cannot readily characterize poetryprecisely. Typicallythough, poetry as a form
of literature makes some significant use of the
formal
propertiesof the words it uses the properties of the writtenor spokenform of the
words,independent of their meaning. Meter depends onsyllablesand onrhythmsof
speech;rhyme andalliterationdepend on the sounds of words.Poetry perhaps pre-dates
other forms of literature: early known examples include theSumerian
Epic of Gilgamesh
(dated from around2700 B.C.), parts of theBible, thesurviving works of Homer (the
Iliad
and the
Odyssey
Ramayana
and
Mahabharata
. In cultures based primarily on oral traditions the formal characteristicsof poetry often have
amnemonicfunction, and important texts: legal,genealogicalor moral, for example, may
appear first in verse form.Some poetry uses specific forms: thehaiku, thelimerick ,or
thesonnet,for example. Atraditional haiku written in Japanese must have something to do
with nature, containseventeen onji (syllables), distributed over three lines in groups of five,
seven, and five,and should also have a kigo, a specific word indicating a season. A limerick
has fivelines, with arhyme schemeof AABBA, and line lengths of 3,3,2,2,3 stressed syllables.
Ittraditionally has a less reverent attitude towards nature. Poetry not adhering to a
formal poetic structure is called "free verse"Language and tradition dictate some poetic
norms: Persian poetry always rhymes, Greek poetry rarely rhymes, Italian or French poetry
often does, English and German poetry cango either way. Perhaps the
most paradigmaticstyle of English poetry, blank verse, asexemplified in works
byShakespeareandMilton, consists of unrhymed iambic pentameters. Some languages prefer
longer lines; some shorter ones. Some of these
conventions result from the ease of fitting a specific language's vocabulary and grammar into
certain structures, rather than into others; for example, some languages contain
morerhyming words than others, or typically have longer words. Other structural
conventionscome about as the result of historical accidents, where many speakers of a
languageassociate good poetry with a verse form preferred by a particular skilled or popular
poet.Works for theatre (see below) traditionally took verse form. This has now become
rareoutsideopera andmusicals, although many would argue that the language of
dramaremains intrinsically poetic.In recent years,digital poetryhas arisen that takes
advantage of the artistic, publishing,and synthetic qualities of digital media.
Prose
Prose
consists of writing that does not adhere to any particular formal structures (other than
simplegrammar
); "non-poetic" writing, perhaps. The term sometimes appears pejoratively, but prosaic
writing simply says something without necessarily trying to sayit in a beautifulway, or using
beautiful words. Prose writing can of course take beautifulform; but less by virtue of the
formal features of words (rhymes, alliteration, metre) butrather by style, placement, or
inclusion of graphics. But one need not mark the distinction precisely, and perhaps cannot
do so. One area of overlap is " prose poetry", whichattempts to convey using only prose, the
aesthetic richness typical of poetry.
Essays
thememoir , telling the story of an author's life from the author's personal point of view
Fiction
Narrativefiction(narrative prose
) generally favours prose for the writing of novels, shortstories, graphic novels, and the
like. Singular examples of these exist throughout history, but they did not develop into
systematic and discrete literary forms until relatively recent
centuries. Length often serves to categorize works of prose fiction. Although limitsremain
somewhat arbitrary, modern publishingconventions dictate the following:
Ashort storyis prose of between 1000 and 20,000 words (but typically more than5000
words), which may or may not have a narrative arc.
A story containing between 20,000 and 50,000 words falls into thenovellacategory.
A work of fiction containing more than 50,000 words falls squarely into the realmof
thenovel.Anovel consists simply of a long story written in prose, yet the form
developedcomparatively recently.Icelandic prosesagas dating from about the 11th century
bridgethe gap between traditional nationalverse epicsand the modern psychological novel.
Inmainland Europe, theSpaniard Cervanteswrote perhaps the first influential novel:
DonQuixote
, the first part of which was published in 1605 and the second in 1615. Earlier collections
of tales, such as the
, Giovanni Bocaccio's
Decameron
, have comparable forms and wouldclassify as novels if written today. Other works written in
classical AsianandArabicliterature resemble even more strongly the novel as we now think of
itfor example,works such as the Japanese
Tale of Genji
byLady Murasaki, the Arabic
Hayy ibnYaqdhan
Theologus Autodidactus
byLuo Guanzhong.Early novels in Europe did not, at the time, count as significant literature,
perhaps because "mere" prose writing seemed easy and unimportant. It has become
clear,however, that prose writing can provide aesthetic pleasure without adhering to
poeticforms. Additionally, the freedom authors gain in not having to concern themselves
withverse structure translates often into a more complex plotor into one richer in
precisedetail than one typically finds even in narrative poetry. This freedom also allows
anauthor to experiment with many different literary and presentation styles
including poetryin the scope of a single novel.
remain too technical to sit well in most programmes of literary study. Outside of "historyof
science" programmes students rarely read such works. Many books "popularizing"science
might still deserve the title "literature"; history will tell.Philosophy, too, has become an
increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this situation than occurs
with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical work appears inacademic
journals.Major philosophers through history
Plato,Aristotle,Augustine,Descartes, Nietzsche have become as canonical as anywriters.
Some recent philosophy works are argued to merit the title "literature", such assome of the
works bySimon Blackburn; but much of it does not, and some areas, such aslogic, have
become extremely technical to a degree similar to that of mathematics.A great deal of
historical writing can still rank as literature, particularly the genre knownascreative
nonfiction.So can a great deal of journalism, such asliterary journalism. However these areas
have become extremely large, and often have a primarily utilitarian purpose: to record data
or convey immediate information. As a result the writing in thesefields often lacks a literary
quality, although it often and in its better moments has thatquality. Major "literary"
historians includeHerodotus,Thucydidesand Procopius, all of whom count as
canonical literary figures.Lawoffers a less clear case. Some writings of PlatoandAristotle,or
even the early partsof theBible, might count as legal literature. The law tables
of Hammurabi of Babylon might count.Roman civil lawas codified in theCorpus Juris
Civilisduring the reign of Justinian Iof theByzantine Empire has a reputation as significant
literature. Thefounding documents of many countries, including theUnited States
Constitution, cancount as literature; however legal writing now rarely exhibits literary
merit.Game designscripts are never seen by the player of a game and only by the
developersand/or publishers to help them understand, visualize and maintain consistency
whilecollaborating in creating a game, the audience for these pieces is usually very small.
Still,many game scripts contain immersive stories and detailed worlds making them a
hiddenliterary genre.Most of these fields, then, through specialization or proliferation, no
longer generallyconstitute "literature" in the sense under discussion. They may sometimes
count as"literary literature"; more often they produce what one might call "technical
literature" or "professional literature".
Drama
A play or drama offers another classical literary form that has continued to evolve over the
years. It generally comprises chieflydialogue betweencharacters, and usually aims
atdramatic / theatrical performance(seetheatre) rather than at reading. During
theeighteenth and nineteenth centuries, opera developed as a combination of poetry,
drama,and music. Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently.
Shakespeare
Oral literature
The termoral literaturerefers not to written, but to oral traditions, which includesdifferent
types of epic, poetry anddrama,folktales, ballads,legends, jokes, and other genres
of folklore.It exists in every society, whether literate or not. It is generally
studied byfolklorists, or by scholars committed to cultural studiesandethnopoetics,
includinglinguists,anthropologists, and evensociologists.
Films, videos and broadcastsoap operas have carved out a niche which often parallels the
functionality of prose fiction.
Genres of literature
A literary genre refers to the traditional divisions of literature of various kinds accordingto a
particular criterion of writing. Seethe list of literary genres.List of literary genres
Biography
Electronic literature
Erotic literature
Slave narrative
Thoughts, Proverbs
Fiction
Adventure novel
Children's literature
Comic novel
Crime fiction
Detective fiction
Historical fiction
Horror
Medical novel
Mystery fiction
Philosophical novel
Political fiction
Romance novel
Historical romance
Satire
Thriller
Conspiracy fiction
Legal thriller
Psychological thriller
Tragedy
Literary techniques
literary technique
or
literary device
can be used by works of literature in order to produce a specific effect on the reader.
Literary technique is distinguished fromliterarygenreasmilitary tactics are frommilitary
strategy.Thus, though
David Copperfield
employs satire at certain moments, it belongs to the genre of comic novel, not that of satire.
By contrast,
Bleak House
employs satire so consistently as to belong to the genreof satirical novel. In this way, use of a
technique can lead to the development of a newgenre, as was the case with one of the first
modern novels,
Pamela
Literary criticism implies a critique and evaluation of a piece of literature and in somecases is
used to improve a work in progress or classical piece. There are many types of literary
criticism and each can be used to critique a piece in a different way or critique adifferent
aspect of a piece.Drama The Dying DetectiveA Christmas CarolPoetry Annabel LeeThe
HighwaymanThe PastureFogShort Story Rip Van WinkleAfter Twenty Years A
Secret for TwoNovel Literature Circle (Student-directed book discussion groups.)Myths
Demeter and PersephoneLegend Popocatepeti and IxtiaccihuatiFolk Tale The People
Could Fly
When most people speak of literature they may be talking about short stories,
novels, poems, verse, odes, plays, tragedies, even limericks. This wide variety
of termsdescribing types of literature, at first, appears overwhelming. However figuring all
of this out is simplified when you take into account that the menagerie of types
begins withthree major paradigms: prose, poetry, and drama.
Prose
Prose
prosa
, that means "straightforward" (other scholars argue that the root for "prose" is
proversa oratio,
identity by negation,
prose is frequently defined as"that which is not poetry." Prose demonstrates purposeful
grammatic design in that it isconstructed strategically by the author to create specific
meaning. Prose also contains
plot
and the attendant narrative structures of plot.In most cultures, prose narrative tends to
appear after a culture has developed
verse
.Prose
genres
are many and varied, ranging from science fiction to romance. The major generic divisions
of prose are:
novel
novella
- A fictional prose narrative ranging from 50 to 100 pages, most commonin science fiction
and detective fiction.
short story
anecdote
Poetry
Poetry
poetes
verse
didactic
purpose, meaning that it aims to instruct the reader.2.Unique insight that is not available
in other genres.3.To provide pleasure to the reader.4.To uplift the reader to some
higher insight or meaning.
Drama
Drama
dran
comedy
Tragedy
(which comes from the Greek word for "goat song") can be traced back to
sacrificialrituals.The term
play
has come to mean drama written exclusively for performance, while the"loftier" term
drama
(February 4, 1913 October 24, 2005) was an African American civil rights activistwhom
theU.S. Congress later called the "Mother of the Modern-DayCivilRights Movement."On
December 1, 1955 inMontgomery, Alabama, Parks, age 42, refused to obey bus
driver JamesBlake's order that she give up her seat to make room for a white passenger.
Her action was not thefirst of its kind:Irene Morgan, in 1946, andSarah Louise Keys,in
1955, had won rulings beforetheU.S. Supreme Court and theInterstate Commerce
Commission respectively in the area of interstate bus travel. Nine months before Parks
refused to give up her seat, 15-year-oldClaudetteColvinrefused to move from her seat on
the same bus system. But unlike these previousindividual actions of civil disobedience,
Parks' action sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott.Parks' act of defiance became an
important symbol of the modern Civil Rights Movement andParks became an international
icon of resistance toracial segregation. She organized andcollaborated with civil rights
leaders, including boycott leader Martin Luther King, Jr., helping tolaunch him to national
prominence in the civil rights movement.At the time of her action, Parks was secretary of
the Montgomery chapter of the NationalAssociation for the Advancement of Colored
People (NAACP) and had recently attended theHighlander Folk School, aTennesseecenter
for workers' rights and racial equality. Nonetheless,she took her action as a private citizen
"tired of giving in". Although widely honored in later years for her action, she also suffered
for it, losing her job as a seamstress in a local departmentstore. Eventually, she moved
to Detroit, Michigan,where she found similar work. From 1965 to1988 she served as
secretary and receptionist to African-American U.S. Representative JohnConyers. After
retirement from this position, she wrote an autobiography and lived a largely private life
in Detroit. In her final years she suffered fromdementiaand became embroiled in alawsuit
filed on her behalf against American hip-hopduo OutKast.Parks eventually received many
honors ranging from the 1979Spingarn Medalto theCongressional Gold Medal, a
posthumous statue in the United States Capitol's National StatuaryHall. Her death in 2005
was a major story in the United States' leading newspapers. She wasgranted the
posthumous honor of lying in honor at theCapitol Rotunda.
Rosa Parks in 1955, with Martin Luther King, Jr.in the background Born February
4,1913Tuskegee, Alabama, U.S.Died October 24, 2005 (aged 92)Detroit,
Michigan,U.S.Occupation Civil Rights Activist
Elements of Literature
We generally refer to the things that make up a work of literature, its componentparts, as
elements. This list contains such things as
Plot
A plot is a causal sequence of events, the "why" for the things thathappen in the story. The
plot draws the reader into the character's livesand helps the reader understand the choices
that the characters make.
Character
-Memorable characters come alive for us while we read. Theylive on the page and in our
hearts and minds. We cannot forget them. Yet,they are fictional; they don't really exist. Be
alert to characters in the sameway you are when you meet someone. Observe their actions.
Listenclosely to what they say and how they say it. Notice how they relate toother
characters and how other characters respond to them. Look for clues as to their purpose and
significance in the story.
Setting
Theme-
work of art is meant to correct and to teach in certain aspect of life, therefore the story
surrounding the work of art will have in it theme(s)that will touch individual that reads it. for
instance the theme of betrayal,love, hatred, and jealousy can be found in a particular work
of art to teachmorals and uprightness. For any work of art to worth publishing and to
getreaders attention, there must be something fascinating about it, the reader must be able
to analyse the work and found it worth reading, this can onlybe achive if the work of art
touches certain aspect of life.
Point of view -
is the way the author allows you to "see" and "hear" what'sgoing on. Skillful authors can fix
their readers' attention on exactly the
detail, opinion, or emotion the author wants to emphasize by manipulatingthe point of view
of the story
Literary Genre
Fiction:
It differs fromfantasyin that, within the context of thestory, its imaginaryelements are largely
possible withinscientifically-established or scientifically-postulatedlaws of nature(though
some
Non fiction:
also known as literary or narrative nonfiction is agenreof writing that uses literary styles and
techniques to create factually accurate narratives.Nonfiction contrasts is also rooted in
accurate fact, but is not primarily written inservice to its craft. As a genre, nonfiction is still
relatively young, and is onlybeginning to be scrutinized with the same critical analysis given
tofictionandpoetry.
Poetry:
sonnet
is one of thepoetic formsthat can be found inlyric poetryfromEurope. The term "
sonnet
sonet
and theItalianword
sonetto
, both meaning "little song". By the thirteenth century, ithad come to signify apoemof
fourteen lines that follows a strictrhymeschemeand specific structure. The conventions
associated with thesonnet have evolved over its history. The writers of sonnets
aresometimes referred to as "sonneteers," although the term can be usedderisively. One of
the best-known sonnet writers isWilliam Shakespeare,who wrote154 of them (not including
those that appear in his plays). A
Shakespearean, or English, sonnet consists of 14 lines, each linecontaining ten syllables and
written iniambic pentameter , in which apattern of an unemphasized syllable followed by an
emphasized syllable isrepeated five times. The rhyme scheme in a Shakespearean sonnet
isababcdcdefef gg; the last two lines are a rhyming couplet.
Drama:
drama
, meaning a deed or action of the stage. The Greek word evolved from the Greek term
dran