CHAPTER 1

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The world of work and organizations has become increasingly demanding and

tumultuous. Managing human capital is one of the major challenges presently facing

organizations. Therefore, as organizations continue to face innumerable challenges,

their survival will depend upon how efficiently they manage their human assets and

implement their HRM practices. Barney and Wright (1998) said that globally

competitive organizations depend on the uniqueness of their human resources and the

systems for managing human resources effectively to gain a competitive advantage.

Human resources are not only the principal value creators of the knowledge industry,

but they are also the intellectual capital or the infrastructure investment. Around the

world, more and more organizations are realizing that competitive advantage can be

successfully derived from how their people handle themselves at workplace. Excellent

human resource is a major drive to maintain corporate competitiveness. Successful

organizations depend on getting the right mix of individuals in the right positions at

the right time possessing right attitudes. Subsequently, it becomes all the more

important to identify the factors influencing workforce satisfaction, job attitudes

which ultimately influence behaviour and performance in a unique and budding

industry The Aviation Industry.

1.2 INDIAN AVIATION INDUSTRY - AN OVERVIEW

The world over, Aviation is an industry that is one of the drivers of economic

growth. It is an extremely competitive, safety sensitive, high technology service

industry which brings enormous benefits to communities and economies around the

globe. However, in India the open sky policy was introduced in 1992, when India

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consciously embraced the policy of liberalisation and privatisation. Since then the

Indian Aviation Industry has seen a stupendous growth despite very high cost of

capital involved in the sector. With growth rate of 18 % per annum, the Indian

Aviation industry is one of the fastest growing industries in the world (Confederation

of Indian Industry, 2013). According to the Indian Aerospace Industry Analysis report

(2011), in terms of passenger traffic, India is currently the ninth largest aviation

market in the world. Aviation plays a key role in economic and community

development and in the delivery of social services such as air ambulances and

scheduled transportation, protection from natural disasters such as forest fires as well

as non-renewable resource exploration. The government's open sky policy has lead to

many overseas players entering the market and the industry has been growing both in

terms of players and number of aircrafts. With the liberalisation of the Indian aviation

sector, the aviation industry in India has undergone a rapid transformation. From

being primarily a government-owned industry, the Indian aviation industry is now

dominated by privately owned full-service airlines and low-cost carriers. The

Aviation sector has reaped massive benefit from the entry of private carriers,

especially from those of the low fare ones. The growth of the airlines sector has

caused a sharp upturn in demand for a wide range of services related to air transport

such as passenger and cargo airlines, unscheduled service operators - private jets and

helicopters, airport management, and support services like Maintenance, Repairs and

Overhaul (MRO), ground handling, in-flight catering, and training. Aviation sector in

India has been transformed from an over regulated and under managed sector to a

more open, liberal and investment friendly sector since 2004. Entry of low cost

carriers, higher household incomes, strong economic growth, increased FDI inflows,

surging tourist inflow, increased cargo movement, sustained business growth and

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supporting government policies are the major drivers for the growth of aviation sector

in India. With regards to air cargo tonnage, India leads the South Asian region -

consisting of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan

and Sri Lanka. Over the past ten years the Indian civil aviation sector grew by 14.2%

in terms of domestic passengers and 7.8% in terms of air cargo (in CAGR - compound

annual growth rate).Currently, India has 128 airports -including 15 international

airports. In 2010- 11 six major Indian carriers with around 400 aircraft catered to 143

million passengers, including 38 million passengers that originated abroad. Indian

Aviation market is currently handling 121 million domestic and 41 million

international passengers (Nathan Economic Consulting India Pvt. Ltd, 2012). Today,

more than 85 international airlines operate to India and 5 Indian carriers connect over

40 countries. By the year 2020, India is likely to become the third largest aviation

market handling 336 million domestic and 85 million international passengers with

projected investment to the tune of US$ 120 billion (Press Information Bureau, Govt.

of India).

1.3 ROLE OF AVIATION IN INDIAN ECONOMY

A countrys transportation sector plays an integral role in the growth and

development of an economy. Indian Aviation Industry has been instrumental in the

overall economic development of the country. Air transport to, from and within India

creates three distinct types of economic benefits such as contribution to GDP, jobs

and tax revenues generated by the sector and its supply chain. But the economic value

created by the industry is more than that. The principal benefits are created for the

customer, the passenger or shipper using the air transport service. In addition, the

connections created between cities and markets represent an important infrastructure

asset that generates benefits through enabling foreign direct investment, business

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clusters, specialization and other spill-over impacts on an economys productive

capacity (Oxford Economics, 2011).

1.3.1 Contribution to Indian GDP

The aviation sector contributes INR 330 billion (0.5%) to Indian GDP (see

Table 1.1). This total comprises:

INR 147 billion directly contributed through the output of the aviation sector

(airlines, airports and ground services, aerospace);

INR 107 billion indirectly contributed through the aviation sectors supply

chain; and

INR 77 billion contributed through the spending by the employees of the

aviation sector and its supply chain.

In addition there is INR 582 billion in catalytic benefits through tourism,

which raises the overall contribution to INR 912 billion or 1.5% of GDP.

(Source: Oxford Economics, 2011)

1.3.2 Contribution to public finances

The aviation sector pays over INR 87.5 billion in tax including income tax

receipts from employees, social security contributions and corporation tax levied on

profits. It is estimated that an additional INR 9.8 billion of government revenue is

raised via the aviation sectors supply chain and another INR 7.1 billion through

taxation of the activities supported by the spending of employees of both the aviation

sector and its supply chain (Oxford Economics, 2011).

1.3.3 Consumer benefits for passengers and shippers

The aviation sector comprising the airlines together with the airports, air

navigation and other essential grounds services that make up the air transport

infrastructure carries over 70 million passengers and 1.4 million tonnes of air freight

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to, from and within India. More than 130,000 scheduled international flights depart

India annually, destined for 70 airports in 50 countries. Domestically, more than

664,000 flights make 89 million seats available to passengers annually, destined to 73

airports. Among the many reasons that people and businesses use air transport, people

rely on it for holidays and visiting friends and family; while businesses use air

transport for meeting clients and for the speedy and reliable delivery of mail and

goods often over great distances. For this reason, the air transport network has been

called the Real World Wide Web (Oxford Economics, 2011).

1.3.4 Enhancing economic performance

Improvements in connectivity through aviation contribute to the economic

performance of the wider economy through enhancing its overall level of

productivity. This improvement in productivity in firms outside the aviation sector

comes through two main channels: through the effects on domestic firms of increased

access to foreign markets, and increased foreign competition in the home market, and

through the freer movement of investment capital and workers between countries.

Improved connectivity gives Indian-based businesses greater access to foreign

markets, encouraging exports, and at the same time increases competition and choice

in the home market from foreign-based producers. In this way, improved connectivity

encourages firms to specialise in areas where they possess a comparative advantage.

Where firms enjoy a comparative advantage, international trade provides the

opportunity to better exploit economies of scale, driving down their costs and prices

and thereby benefiting domestic consumers in the process. Opening domestic markets

to foreign competitors can also be an important driver behind reducing unit

production costs, either by forcing domestic firms to adopt best international practices

in production and management methods or by encouraging innovation. Competition

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can also benefit domestic customers by reducing the mark-up over cost that firms

charge their customers, especially where domestic firms have hitherto enjoyed some

shelter from competition. Improved connectivity can also enhance an economys

performance by making it easier for firms to invest outside their home country, which

is known as foreign direct investment (FDI). Most obviously, the link between

connectivity and FDI may come about because foreign investment necessarily entails

some movement of staff: whether to transfer technical know-how or management

oversight. But increased connectivity also allows firms to exploit the speed and

reliability of air transport to ship components between plants in distant locations,

without the need to hold expensive stocks of inventory as a buffer. Less tangibly, but

possibly just as important, improved connectivity may favour inward investment as

increased passenger traffic and trade that accompanies improved connectivity can lead

to a more favourable environment for foreign firms to operate in (Oxford Economics,

2011).

1.3.5 Enabling long-term economic growth

In 2010 there were 357 routes connecting major Indian airports to urban

agglomerations around the world. On average there were 4 flights per day along these

routes. A total of 66 of these routes were connecting India to cities of more than 10

million inhabitants, with an average of 7 flights per day available to passengers.

Frequencies are higher to the most economically important destinations. Indias

integration into the global air transport network transforms the possibilities for the

Indian economy by:

Opening up foreign markets to Indian exports;

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 Lowering transport costs, particularly over long distances, helping to increase

competition because suppliers can service a wider area and potentially reduce

average costs, through increased economies of scale;

Increasing the flexibility of labour supply, which should enhance allocative

efficiency and bring down the natural rate of unemployment;

Encouraging Indian businesses to invest and specialise in areas that play to the

economys strengths;

Speeding the adoption of new business practices, such as just-in-time-

inventory management that relies on quick and reliable delivery of essential

supplies;

Raising productivity and hence the economys long-run supply capacity. It is

estimated that a 10% improvement in connectivity relative to GDP would see

an INR 39.3 billion per annum increase in long-run GDP for the Indian

economy.

(Source: Oxford Economics, 2011)

1.3.6 Tax contribution

Aviation makes a substantial contribution to the public finances. The aviation

sector contribute over INR 87.5 billion in taxes through corporation tax and the

income and social security contributions (both employee and employer contributions).

These estimates reflect the direct tax payments of the aviation sector. It is estimated

that a further INR 16.9 billion of government revenue is raised via taxation through

the indirect (INR 9.8 billion) and induced (INR 7.1 billion) channels. Further,

domestic aviation fuel taxes are estimated to be in the range of INR 15-20 billion

(IATA, Indian Tax Office, Oxford Economics, 2011).

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1.3.7 Investment and productivity

Apart from these transformative effects on the wider economy, air transport

services the airlines, airports and ancillary services, such as air traffic control form

a capital intensive sector that invests heavily in aircraft systems and other advanced

technology (Oxford Economics, 2011).

1.3.8 Benefits to trade and tourism

Air transport lies at the heart of global business and tourism. Through its

speed, convenience and affordability, air transport has expanded the possibilities of

world travel for tourists and business travellers alike, allowing an ever greater number

of people to experience diversity of geography, climate, culture and markets.

Tourism, both for business and leisure purposes, makes a large contribution to the

Indian economy, with foreign visitors spending just over INR 548 billion in the Indian

economy each year. Around 89% of these visitors arrive by air so that foreign visitors

who travel by air spend approximately INR 488 billion.

Compared to other modes of transport, air freight is fast and reliable over great

distances. However, these benefits come with a cost attached. Consequently, it is

mostly used to deliver goods that are light, compact, perishable and that have a high

unit value. While air accounts for just 0.5% of the tonnage of global trade, air freight

makes up 34.6% of the value of global trade (Oxford Economics, 2011).

1.4 EMPLOYMENT IN AVIATION

Aviation sector comprises of three distinct types of activity namely:

Airlines transporting people and freight.

Ground-based infrastructure that includes the airport facilities, the services

provided for passengers on-site at airports, such as baggage handling,

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 ticketing and retail and catering services, together with essential services

provided off-site, such as air navigation and air regulation.

Aerospace manufacturing that builds and maintains aircraft systems, airframes

and engines.

The aviation sector supports GDP and the employment in India through four distinct

channels namely:

Direct the output and employment of the firms in the aviation sector.

Indirect the output and employment supported through the aviation sectors

Indian based supply chain.

Induced employment and output supported by the spending of those directly

or indirectly employed in the aviation sector.

Catalytic spill over benefits associated with the aviation sector. Some of

these include the activity supported by the spending of foreign visitors

travelling to India via air, and the level of trade directly enabled by the

transportation of merchandise.

The aviation sector supports 1.7 million jobs in India. (See Table 1.1) This total

comprises:

276,000 jobs directly supported by the aviation sector;

841,000 jobs indirectly supported through the aviation sectors supply chain;

and

605,000 jobs supported through the spending by the employees of the aviation

sector and its supply chain.

In addition there are a further 7.1 million people employed through the

catalytic (tourism) effects of aviation.

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 The average air transport services employee generates nearly INR 1.3 million

in GVA (Gross value added) annually, which is around 10 times more productive than

the average in India.

Table 1.1: Aviations Contribution of Output and Jobs to India

Direct Indirect Induced Total % of

whole
economy

Contribution to GDP (INR billion)

Aviation (inc Airlines, 147 107 77 330 0.5%

Airports and Ground
Services, Aerospace)

Total 147 107 77 330 0.5%

Catalytic (tourism) 181 278 122 582 0.9%

Total including catalytic 328 385 199 912 1.5%

Contribution to employment (000s)

Aviation (inc Airlines, 276 841 605 1,723 0.4%

Airports and Ground
Services, Aerospace)

Total 276 841 605 1,723 0.4%

Catalytic (tourism) 3,791 2,297 989 7,077 1.5%

Total including catalytic 4,067 3,139 1,593 8,800 1.8%

Source: IATA, ACI, Individual company accounts, Oxford Economics

Table 1.1 reports the economic contribution of the airlines, airports and aerospace for

each of the four channels. Contributions are reported both in terms of GDP and

employment.

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 Fig. 1.1: Indian Aviation Sector The Economic Footprint

Source: Economic Benefits from Air Transport in India, Oxford Economics, 2011

1.5 HR TRENDS AND FORECAST IN AVIATION

The booming aviation industry, along with its tertiary services, has wreaked a

major talent crunch, boosting opportunities for training service providers. The ever-

expanding Indian economy and increased demand for trade has pushed the need for

air cargo services to a new high. The real challenge is to manage the phenomenal

growth of air traffic with safety and skill augmentation in its entire dimension. With

emerging sectors like MRO in near run and aerospace in longer run, which are

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expected to grow in size, the need for technical personnel will surge even further. The

implementation of stringent standards to cope up with the growing air traffic is

crucially dependent upon the skills and competency of the work force. A skilled and

competent workforce is essential to create a safe and efficient aviation industry.

Without this India cannot join the ranks of the leading aviation nations. Indian

aviation not only needs to recruit and train people in unprecedented numbers, but it

faces increased competition on multiple fronts. India is not the only country

experiencing rapid growth. Countries in the Middle East, China and the rest of Asia

are in fact looking to recruit aviation personnel in this region to cater to the

requirements of growth in their markets. According to the Report of Working Group

on Civil Aviation for formulation of 12th Five Year Plan (2012-17) the total

manpower requirement of Indian carriers is estimated to rise from 62,000 in FY-2011

to 117,000 by FY-2017. This includes the number of pilots, cabin crew, aircrafts

engineers and technicians (MRO), ground handling staff, cargo handling staff,

administrative and sales staff. The manpower requirement (including ANS) for the

airports is estimated to increase from current 20,000 to 26,000-30,000 by FY 2017.

The categories of core personnel required include Pilots, Air-traffic Controllers, Cabin

Crew, Airport Staff, Ground handling Staff, Aviation Meteorological Service

Personnel, besides expertise with respect to Aviation Medicine, Aviation Law,

Aeronautical Engineering, Airport Architecture, Aviation Regulatory Affairs

including Airworthiness, Accident Investigation, Aviation Maintenance Science,

Aeronautical Science, Aerospace Engineering Applied Meteorology, Air Traffic

Management, Aviation Business Administration, Aviation Environmental Science,

Professional Aeronautics, Safety Science, Technical Management - Logistics &

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Supply Chain, Technical Management - Occupational Safety & Health (Ministry of

Civil Aviation, Govt. of India,2012).

Fig. 1.2: Manpower requirements estimates for Indian aviation sector

Source: Report of Working Group on Civil Aviation for formulation of 12th Five Year Plan (2012-17)

As the industry is in its nascent stage so is the market research especially in

the area of human resource development that has been conducted in this sphere.

Secondly being a service industry the role of human capital to make or mar the

business prospects is of crucial importance. Air carrier operations cover a wide range

of occupations. Pilots, flight attendants, aircraft maintenance engineers and

dispatchers are some of the members of the air carriers service team. Millwrights,

fire-fighters, security guards, reservation agents, freight agents and facility managers

are just some of the occupations that support airport operations. Flight service

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specialists, air traffic controllers and CARS (Community Aerodrome Radio Station)

observer/communicators provide air navigation services. These broad varieties of jobs

within the aviation industry require varying degrees of education, skills and

experience. In addition to specific work related skills such as literacy, computers,

math and science, jobs in this sector also require good general workplace skills such

as flexibility and adaptability to change, independence, and the ability to

communicate well.

1.6 ROLE OF HR IN SERVICE INDUSTRY

Customer Service Excellence is key to success in a service industry.

Nowadays, Service firms are inclined towards customer oriented strategies. As service

quality and customer satisfaction are closely linked to employee satisfaction,

organizations that desire to improve their customer satisfaction must be concerned

about internal issues related to employees satisfaction and view their employees as

customer too (Harter et al., 2002; Wangenheim et al., 2007). In service industry such

as aviation, employees have significant effect on organizational performance. Service

companies try to offer high quality services, maximize customer loyalty, gain higher

market share, higher profitability, and their ultimate goal of customer satisfaction.

These companies may reach these long-term and short-term goals with satisfied

employees. Zeithaml and Bitner (2000) identified four core HR strategies namely

hiring the right people, develop the people to deliver service quality, provide needed

support systems and retain the best people. Key HRM practices such as recruitment

and selection, training and development, performance management and reward

systems have been identified as significant to customer service excellence and service

quality (Browning, 1998; Tsaur and Lin, 2004). Schneider and Bowen (1993) also

reported that for service organizations, superior HRM practices can be a key to

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competitive advantage. Heskett et al. (2008) posited that highly satisfied customers

drive growth and profitability in a service business and that all aspects of the

operation that affect customer satisfaction should be managed under what they called

the service profit chain. The way this chain operates is that employee satisfaction

increases, when internal service quality is enhanced, which in turn strengthens

employee loyalty, raising employee productivity. Higher productivity results into

greater external service value for customers improving customer satisfaction and

loyalty which in turn ensures increased profits. As service firms are recognizing the

dire need to obtain customer oriented behaviour from their employees, the HRM

practices in service industry need to be the finest that would stimulate the needed

behaviour on the part of employees and enhance organizational performance by

delivering excellent customer service.

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF JOB ATTITUDES

Unlike many other industries, Airlines Industry operates with altogether

different work environment. The workforce operates away from base much of the

time. The administrative staff typically works at base locations while the pilots and

cabin crew work on flight schedules which often involve rotating shift work and

offsite overnight stopovers. Shift work is common and staffs are scheduled to operate

in small teams for each shift while for the next shift they may work with a different

group of people. The work of cabin crew is highly time dependent, as tasks must fit

into narrow windows of time. The heightened expectation for productivity, speed and

efficiency puts increasing pressure on those whose job demands that they operate at

peak performance levels. Moreover in certain jobs such as airline pilots, air traffic

controller, air hostess and so forth, the responsibility of aircraft employees especially

towards the safety of passengers is immense. Aircraft employees are in fact the

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backbone of the airline industry. Aviation jobs demand a great deal of responsibility,

personal commitment and self sacrifice. Hence, for the effective functioning of this

industry, aviation employees and more specifically the aircraft employees are

expected to play their role satisfactorily, manage occupational stress; be committed to

their jobs and organizations, hence bringing the best out of them to satisfy the

customers. The performance of aviation employees especially aircrew can be

construed as a product of skill, attitude, and personality factors. The key to

recruitment and selection for frontline positions is to hire for attitude, not skills (Ellis,

2001). If we hire people who dont have the right attitude, disposition and

behavioural characteristics to fit into our culture, we will start to change that culture.

The recruiters primary role is to make sure its a good cultural fit (Ellis, 2001). A

very good example in this regard is of Southwest Airlines. Southwest hires for

attitudes and trains people for specific skills because of the belief that skills can be

taught but attitudes cannot be changed. Part of the interview process involves testing

for a sense of humour, ability to work with others, and friendliness (Czaplewski et

al., 2001). Hence we can rightly comprehend the importance of work place attitudes

in organizations.

1.8 ROLE OF PERSONALITY

Personality happens to be one of the major psychological factors affecting

human behaviour at work and one of the key determinants of success at workplace.

Personality encompasses a persons relatively stable feelings, thoughts, and

behavioural patterns. Each of us have a unique personality that differentiates us from

other people, and understanding someones personality gives us clues about how that

person is likely to act and feel in a variety of situations. Personality is a potentially

important predictor of work behaviour. To manage effectively, it is helpful to

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understand the personalities of different employees. Having this knowledge is also

useful for placing people into jobs and organization. Personality is reflection of

behaviour, whatever human beings do in a persistent fashion that is known as

personality. It is a behaviour which differentiates one person from another (Beer &

Brooks, 2011).The traits, relevant to personality are considered to be stable and steady

throughout the work life in a personality behaviour model (Myers, 1998;Denissen et

al., 2011; Gerber et al., 2011). The human personality dimension also might provide a

means to determine why an employee appears more or less involved in work. With

such information, managers could identify the kinds of personalities that best fit with

specific job characteristics and avoid choosing inappropriate staff to maximize

productivity, efficiency and effectiveness. Studies on personality and organizational

outcomes have received enormous attention by researchers in the organizational

behaviour research stream. Latest studies illustrate that personality effects the

environments in which individuals are living (Chen, 2004) and plays a significant role

to select the situation in which individuals decide to stay in. According to Barrick and

Mount (2005), the preference for organizational environments, the cycle of

individuals one choose to interact with and the kind of activities one enjoys strongly

relies on one's personality.

Personality has been shown to influence career choices, job satisfaction, stress,

leadership and some aspects of job performance. Many theorists agree that personality

is a predictive factor in vocational choices (Holland, 1996; Osipow, 1968). Holland

(1985) believed that career choice is an expression or an extension of ones

personality into the world of work. Literature also suggests those ones personality

traits lead to ones social attitudes. Over the past few years, personality has

recuperated its credibility in organizational settings. Working environments nowadays

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require people to be more flexible in order to keep up with the continuous changes

and developments inside and outside the organization. This is reflected in personnel

selection practices, where more and more emphasis is put on the so-called soft

factors and generic competencies such as communication skills and personality

features (Spencer & Spencer, 1993). As people differ in possession of personality

traits in terms of intensity, the success of an individual in a particular profession

depends upon appropriate combination of different personality traits and other

qualities like proficiency and involvement. Sen (1976) observes that success in a

particular profession may be identified by the presence of similar set of personality

traits. There seems to be escalating need for the study of personality at the work place

as it fortifies various aspects of performance & success. All the modern organizations

look for positive job attitudes namely high job satisfaction and job involvement in

their employees because it leads to high productivity of the organizations (Al-Meer,

1995; Kumar & Singh, 2008). As any organization doesn't want to compromise with

its productivity, it is evident that the organizations need to take care of their

employee's well-being and try to understand personality in relation to job attitudes.

Hence, Personality assessment seem to be an important approach to identifying

candidates who are likely to perform and adapt optimally in this sector by matching

their personality traits with the job requirements and unique work environment.

1.9 PERSON JOB FIT THEORY

Job fit refers to the degree to which a persons abilities, interests and

personality dynamics match with job requirement. Job fit is where the passion and

talents of the individual match with those required by the job and where the values of

the individual are in tune with the values of the organization. Edwards (1991) outlined

two basic conceptualizations of person-job fit. The first is the demands-abilities fit, in

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which employees' knowledge, skills, and abilities commensurate with what the job

requires. It comprise of two components - job demands such as knowledge, skills,

abilities that are required in order to carry out the tasks of the job and the abilities that

the individual has such as education, experience, aptitudes and KSA that can be used

to meet the job requirements. The second form of P-J fit occurs when employees'

needs, desires, or preferences are met by the jobs that they perform. This type of fit,

referred to as needssupplies fit has been the emphasis of various theories of

adjustment, well-being, and satisfaction. The components of needs-supply perspective

include the desires of the individual such as goals, interests and vales and the

characteristics of the job such as pay and other job attributes that may satisfy those

desires. Hence, individuals would be satisfied with his/her job once the organization

policies or structure could fulfil individuals preferences (Kristof, 1996). Accurate and

rational job information enables applicants to assess the degree of congruence

between their KSA and the requirements of the job which is further associated with

positive outcomes such as low attrition from recruitment process, high job

satisfaction, low turnover. Research indicates that P-J fit is positively related to

individual performance and adjustment at work and significantly predicts attitudes

toward the organization (Caldwell & OReilly, 1990). Further high levels of P-J fit

have been found to be positively associated with organizational commitment and job-

focused satisfaction, and negatively associated with intention to quit (Kristof et al.,

2005).

1.10 PERSONALITY CONCEPT

Though the term personality is frequently used by people, there is little

consensus about its meanings. The term personality has been derived from Latin word

persona which means to speak through. The Latin term denotes the masks which the

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actors used to wear in ancient Greece and Rome. Thus personality is used in terms of

influencing others through external appearance. However mere external appearance,

though important for personality characteristics, does not make the whole personality.

According to Ruch (1953), personality should include external appearance and

behaviour or social stimulus value, inner awareness of self as permanent organising

force and the particular pattern or organization of measurable traits, both inner and

outer. Various definitions of personality float around in the literature (Pervin, 1990).

They differ as to their underlying theoretical assumptions as well as in terms of their

usefulness in empirical work. Personality is the pattern of characteristics, thoughts,

feelings and behaviours that differentiates one person from another and that persists

over time and situations (Phares, 1991). According to Mann (1959), personality is the

most characteristic integration of an individuals structures and activities. It is a

characteristic in dual sense because it is unique, thus differentiating an individual

from all others, and it is fairly consistent representing the customary integration of a

particular individuals structure and activities. Personality is the dynamic organization

within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique

adjustments to his environment (Allport, 1937). The individuals differ to a great

extent in their enduring emotional, interpersonal, experiential, attitudinal &

motivational styles and that put forth the foundation of personality dimensions.

Jung was another of the early psychoanalysts who was concerned with

investigating human personality. Central to his theory of personality was the idea that

it is not something that everyone has. Rather, he viewed it as something to strive for,

only achieved after years of development. Personality is the individual's adaptation to

the demands of life combined with the greatest possible freedom for self-

determination (Storr, 1998). He said "Personality is a seed that can only develop by

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slow stages throughout life. There is no personality without definiteness, wholeness

and ripeness" (Jung in Storr, 1998). Jung's definition of personality is therefore a little

idiosyncratic and could perhaps be better served nowadays by the concept of self-

actualisation. He defined the self as the "centre of gravity" of the personality, a point

that is in balance between the conscious and the unconscious. Another writer who

emphasised self-actualisation was Carl Rogers, the founder of person-centred

counselling. Rogers' (1951) theory of personality was phenomenological (i.e. based

on the interpretation of experience) and described a self-structure which consisted of a

collection of beliefs the individual holds about himself or herself. He saw personality

as existing in order to achieve goals and the basic striving of humans as to actualise,

maintain and enhance the self (both physical and psychological). Similarly, Kelly

(1955) described personality as an organization of constructs about the world and

individual which guide cognition and behaviour; and the self' as a collection of

constructs created of relationships with other people.

There are researchers who see personality as a description of the consistencies

of human nature. They look for general response patterns that are independent of the

specific situation. For authors such as Pervin and John (2001), personality is the

concept which brings together the characteristics that lie behind a person's typical

patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving. Despite these differences in emphasis,

authors do agree that any attempt at explaining human behaviour must be able to

account for consistency and inconsistency, stability and change. In addition, their

definitions highlight the importance of behaviour in the study of personality. In a

causal scientific model of personality, behaviour is the variable that researchers

usually wish to predict. Modern authors tend to see personality as the over-arching

construct which can be invoked to explain behaviour. Westen's (1996) definition of

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personality provides a good summary of the current position, which is less

philosophical than many of the earlier authors and a lot more concerned with

measurable phenomena. He defines personality as the "tendency to respond

cognitively, affectively, or behaviourally in particular ways under particular

circumstances". This brings together the various mental processes that make up

personality: cognitions, emotions, volition and behaviour; as well as giving

consideration to the environmental influences and context that surround the person.

Allport has identified fifty different definitions of the term categorized into

five areas as Omnibus (viewing personality as the sum total, aggregate of qualities),

Integrative and Configurational (which lay stress on organization of personal

attributes), Hierarchical (specifying the levels of integration or organization of

personality), Adjustment (emphasizing on the adjustment of the person to the

environment) and Distinctiveness (laying stress on uniqueness of each personality).

Drawing from these approaches, Allport (1943) defined personality as the dynamic

organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his

unique adjustments to the environment. Allport added that traits are a lasting and

stable response of the individual to different stimuli in the environment.

Similarly, Guilford (1959) defined personality as lasting and unique traits for

the individual to be different from others. Costa & McCrae (1989) defined it as

individual behaviour which reflects his/her unique characteristics such as timid,

offensive, obedient and lazy. Personality displays modest continuity from childhood

to adulthood, with the consistency in personality increasing with age as noted by

Caspi and Roberts (2001). Personality is defined as a rather stable trait, or set of traits,

of people that direct their behaviour in different situations (Semeij et al., 2005). It is

the particular combination of emotional, attitudinal, and behavioural response patterns

22
of an individual. It further refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of

thinking, feeling and behaving.

Steven and Mary (2000) defined personality as relatively stable pattern of

behaviour and consistent internal state and explain a persons behavioral tendencies.

Personality can further be noted as the sum total of internal and external traits of an

individual, which are relatively stable and which make the individual different from

others. External traits are the observable behaviour that one can notice in an

individuals personality. The internal states represent the thoughts, values and genetic

characteristics that we infer from the observable behaviour. Although definitions and

explanations vary, Personality constitutes characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings

and behaviors that make a person unique.

The early work in the structure of personality spins around attempt to classify

& label enduring characteristics that describe an individuals behaviour. Those

characteristics, when they are exhibited in a large number of situations are called

personality traits (Buss, 1989).They are psychological in nature, stable over time, and

provide the reasons for behaviour. They reflect who we are in aggregate. Recent

studies report that specific personality traits predict specific work related behaviour,

positive attitudes & life happiness. These traits could further facilitate employee

selection, matching people to jobs and in guiding career development decisions.

Researches further indicate that effective leaders have identifiable personality traits.

There were a number of early efforts to identify the primary traits that govern

behaviour (Allport & Odbert, 1936). The identification of the personality traits

relevant to the study of organization behaviour has been a tedious and cumbersome

task for researchers over a long period of time. These efforts resulted in long list of

traits that were difficult to generalize from & provided little practical guidance to

23
organization decision makers. One of the largest debates within the literature on

personality psychology is how many independent factors of personality exist

(Goldberg, 1995). However, the Personality experts further tried to condense the

many personality traits that had been described over the years giving way to five

abstract personality dimensions commonly known as Big Five Personality framework.

The manifestation of Big Five Model has created a lot of interest in the role of

personality in work, organizational behaviour and also relates it to various work place

variables. In addition to the Big five Model, there are several other personality

assessment instruments like Myers Briggs Type Indicator which is a personality

inventory designed to identify individuals basic preferences for perceiving and

processing information. The MBTI classifies individuals into extroverts or introverts,

sensing or intuitive, thinking or feeling, and judging or perceiving. These

classifications are further combined into 16 personality types. Cattels 16 source

traits commonly known as 16PF put forth by Raymond B. Cattel in 1949 is another

widely used personality assessment instrument that has shown reliability in test-retest

situations, as well as having internal consistency. The 16PF is a personality

assessment that measures a persons complete personality on the basis of 16 different

factors. The factors measure everything from how people think about things, to how

they view rules and laws to how people behave in social situations and how open they

are to disclosing information about themselves, to how emotional they are to others

and to how they make decisions. There are 16 primary factors and five global factors.

The primary factors are warmth (A), reasoning (B), emotional stability (C),

dominance (E), liveliness (F), rule-consciousness (G), social boldness (H), sensitivity

(I), vigilance (L), abstractedness (M), Privateness (N), apprehension (O), openness to

change (Q1), self-reliance (Q2), perfectionism (Q3), and tension (Q4). Each of the

24
primary factors is given two levels to each factor: low or high. The global factors are

derived from the original 16 primary factors and represent a more broad definition of

personality than the primary factors. The global factors are extraversion (EX), anxiety

(AX), tough-mindedness (TM), independence (IN), and self-control (SC). (Russell

and Karols (2002) manual on Cattells 16 Personality Factors). However, the Big

Five model has become the dominant framework for identifying & classifying traits.

Its five factorsExtraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional stability,

and Openness to experiencehave been found to consistently describe personality. In

recent years a remarkable body of research supports that five basic dimensions

underlies all others & include most of the noteworthy divergence in human

personality. In addition to providing a unifying personality framework, research on

the Big Five also has found relationships between these personality dimensions & job

performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991). These dimensions affect work related

behaviour & job performance in varying degrees. Based on factor analysis, the Five-

Factor Model of personality distinguishes five factors that together describe a

persons personality. The premise of the model is that the factors remain stable and

consistent across time and situations and that each factor predisposes a person to

behave in a certain way (Robertson & Callinan, 1998). The five-factor structure has

been captured through analyses of trait adjectives, factor analytic studies of existing

personality inventories, and expert judges categorizations of existing personality

measures (McCrae & John, 1992).

1.10.1 Personality: Theories

Various theories have been propounded to explain the concept and

constituents of personality. These are Type theory, Psychoanalytical theory, Socio-

Psychological theory, Social Learning theory, Trait theory and Self theory. Type

25
theory groups people into identifiable categories. Kretschmer and Sheldon are

credited with classifying personality on the basis of structure of body. Carl Jung

divided all personalities into introverts and extroverts. However Jung pointed out that

the introvert and extrovert typology turns out to be more in the nature of continuum

than discretely separate types. Though type theories are simple as they are based on

physical attributes or psychological factors, they fail to reveal all complexities of a

personality

Among various theories, trait theory is considered as one of the most accepted

and a leading personality theory which captures the salient aspects that have high

propensity to lead to certain behaviours. Traits determine a persons variances in the

trend to develop a steady pattern of feelings, thoughts and actions (Myers, 1998). A

personality trait is understood as being an enduring attribute of a person that appears

consistently in a variety of situations. Theories discussing the personality traits argued

that a persons behaviour can be explained on the basis of some specific personality

traits. Two most important trait theories come from the work of Allport and Cattell.

Allport based his theory on the distinction between common traits and personal

dispositions. Cattell on the other hand identified two categories of traits namely

surface traits and source traits. Trait theorists assume that a personality can be

described by its position on a number of continuos dimensions or scales, each of

which represents a trait. The trait theory is a multiple model of the type theory. Rather

than classifying a person by just one feature, the trait theory classifies personality by a

set of features. Trait theories give recognition to the continuity of personalities and

have contributed to personality ratings and factor analysis techniques in behavioural

sciences.

26
 Psychoanalytical theory owes its origin to Sigmund Freud. Carl Jung, Alfred

Adler, Karen Horney and Eric Fromm made additional contributions. As noted by

Freud (1963), personality is composed of three elements Id, Ego, and super Ego.

This Tripartite division of personality is known as the structural model of mental life.

Id refers exclusively to the innate component of personality. It is the mental agency

containing everything inherited, present at birth, and fixed in the individuals

constitution, especially instincts. It is raw, animalistic, unorganised, knows no laws,

obeys no rules, and remains basic to the individual throughout life. The ego develops

out of the Id because of the necessity of dealing with the real world. The super ego

represents the internalised representation of the values and morals of the society as

taught to the child by parents and others. Hence, psychoanalytical theory is based on

the in-depth study of individual personalities. This theory gives an important insight

into personality structure and the idea of conscious motivation.

The social learning theory of personality regards a situation as an important

determinant of behaviour. It focuses on behaviour patterns and cognitive activities in

relation to the specific conditions that evoke, maintain or modify them. The emphasis

is on what an individual does in a given situation which is determined by personal

variables such as competencies, cognitive strategies, outcome expectations, subjective

value outcome and self regulatory systems and plans. The theory further assumes that

behaviour is influenced by mentalistic concept namely the unconscious. Although

social learning theory has been criticized for over- emphasizing the importance of

situational factors in behaviour to the neglect of individual differences, it has made a

major contribution towards clinical psychology and personality theory.

The humanistic approach to the study of personality includes a number of

theories which share a common emphasis on mans potential for self direction and

27
freedom of choice. They are concerned with self and the individuals subjective

experiences. Carl Rogers, one of the propounders of humanistic theory of personality

believed that behaviour is utterly dependent upon how one perceives the world. This

approach emphasizes self and its characteristics. This theory is also referred to as self

theory because the best way for understanding behaviour is from the internal frame of

reference of the individual himself. Abraham Maslow who is regarded as the spiritual

father of humanism in American psychology postulates man as a self actualizer. His

theory strongly advocates that an individual is an organised whole, that man has

creative potential and his psychological health is most important.

Socio-psychological theory recognises the interdependence of the individual

and society. Personality of the individual is dependent on his interaction with the

society. According to propounders of this theory, social variables are the important

determinants in shaping personality as compared to biological instincts which form

the basis of psychoanalytical theories. Fromm emphasized the importance of social

context, while Sullivan and Horney stressed interpersonal behaviour. Horneys model

suggests that human behaviour result from three predominant interpersonal

orientations - complaint, aggressive and detached. The theory seems to be useful to

managers in the organizations as they can take clue from this theory in shaping the

behaviour of their employees.

Despite differences in terminology and emphasis, broad agreement can still be

found among psychologists about what constitutes the personality. Personality can be

defined as the pattern of conscious and unconscious mental functions, processes and

characteristics that give rise to the ways people respond to their environment (Sutton,

2007).

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1.10.2 Maddis Model of Personality

Maddi (1989) comprehensively defined Personality as a set of characteristics

and tendencies that determine those commonalities and differences in the behavior

(thoughts, feelings and actions) of people that have continuity in time and that may

not be easily understood as the sole result of the social and biological pressures of

the moment. Maddi grouped all the personality theories under three categories namely

conflict model, the self fulfilment model and the consistency model which explain the

behaviour of individuals as seeking to reduce tensions, attaining intrapsychic rewards,

or achieving cognitive consonance respectively. The conflict model of personality

depicts individuals to be constantly in the grip of two powerful opposing forces and

try to resolve the tensions there from. In contrast to this model, the self fulfilment

model depicts one great , beautiful, positive force within the individual which drives

him or her either to self actualize or aim at reaching perfection. The consistency

model interlocks the person and the environment in the sense that all individuals have

their own perception of who they are, what their abilities and strengths, and their

weaknesses and drawbacks are. They seek feedback from the environment in order to

check whether others perceive them in the same way they perceive themselves. This

model explains behaviour as driven by the need to seek consistency and equilibrium.

1.10.3 The Shaping of Personality

Human personality development is a continuous process. How personality

develops from infant to grown up stage has been described differently by different

personality theorists. Although the stages of personality development may be found in

the writings of ancient Greek, it was Freud who first formulated a meaningful stage

theory of personality. He was the first psychologist to believe that childhood events

might have a bearing on adult behavior and consciousness. Freuds Stages of

29
Psychosexual Development are, like other stage theories, completed in a

predetermined sequence and can result in either successful completion or a healthy

personality or can result in failure, leading to an unhealthy personality. This theory is

probably the best known as well as the most controversial, as Freud believed that we

develop through stages based upon a particular erogenous zone. During each stage, an

unsuccessful completion means that a child becomes fixated on that particular

erogenous zone and either over or under-indulges once he or she becomes an adult.

The first stage of development is Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months). During the oral

stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking), too much or too little

gratification can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is evidenced by a

preoccupation with oral activities. Personality wise, these individuals may become

overly dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual followers. On the other hand,

they may also fight these urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward others.

The second stage known as Anal Stage (18 months to three years), the childs focus of

pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and retaining feces. In terms of personality,

after effects of an anal fixation during this stage can result in an obsession with

cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive). On the opposite end of the

spectrum, they may become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive). In Phallic Stage

(ages three to six), the pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Children can be

observed obtaining gratification by examining and fondling their genitalia and

expressing interest in matters of birth and sex. Latency Stage (age six to puberty)

denotes repressed sexual urges and children interact and play mostly with same sex

peers. This stage is very important for acquiring the knowledge and skills needed to

get along in the workday world. The final stage of psychosexual development is the

Genital stage (puberty to adulthood)when sexual urges are once again awakened.

30
Through the lessons learned during the previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual

urges onto opposite sex peers, with the primary focus of pleasure is the genitals.

Among the neo Freudians, Erik Erikson gave a new dimension to the

development of personality which he claimed was nothing more than a systematic

extension of Freuds psychosexual development. He maintained that children develop

in a predetermined order. Instead of focusing on cognitive development, however, he

was interested in how children socialize and how this affects their sense of self.

Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development has eight distinct stages, each with

two possible outcomes. According to the theory, successful completion of each stage

results in a healthy personality and successful interactions with others. The eight

stages as given by Erikson are Trust vs Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt,

Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs.

Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, Ego Integrity vs. Despair.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist is credited with cognitive or conscious

stages of personality development. He maintains that children go through specific

stages as their intellect and ability to see relationships matures. These stages are

completed in a fixed order with all children. He identified four stages of personality

development. The first stage is Sensorimotor stage in which infants begins to

understand the information entering their senses and their ability to interact with the

world. During the preoperational stage, children learn how to interact with their

environment in a more complex manner through the use of words and images. This

stage is marked by egocentrism, or the childs belief that everyone sees the world the

same way that he/she does. The concrete operations stage is characterized by gradual

decrease in centrist thought and the increased ability to focus on more than one aspect

of a stimulus, intellectual understanding of the concept of conservation of mass,

31
irrespective of its shape. In the final stage, formal operations stage, children begin to

develop a more abstract view of the world. They are able to apply reversibility and

conservation to both real and imagined situations. They also develop an increased

understanding of the world and the idea of cause and effect.

Professor Chris Argyris of Harvard has identified specific dimensions of the

personality as it develops. He believed that the human personality rather than going

through distinct stages, progresses along a continuum from infancy to maturity as an

adult. At any stage people can have their degree of development plotted on

immaturity to maturity continuum according to the seven dimensions namely

Passivity vs Activity, Dependence vs Independence,Limited Behaviour vs Diverse

Behaviour, Shallow vs Deep interests, Short time vs Long time perspective,

Subordinate vs Superordinate position, Lack of self awareness vs Self awareness and

control. Argyris argues that healthy individuals tend to move from immaturity to

maturity.

1.10.4 Determinants of Personality

As personality represents a process of change and it relates to psychological

growth and development of individuals, it is important to know the factors affecting

the development of a personality. McClelland has categorized these factors into four

fundamental theories- traits (acquired propensity to respond), schema (beliefs, frame

of reference, major orientations, ideas and values), motives (inner drives), and self

schema (observation of ones own behaviour). Scott and Mitchell have classified

various determinants into heredity groups, and cultural factors, both physiological and

psychological which play important role in human personality. These factors as such

can be broadly classified as biological factors, family factors, social factors, cultural

factors and situational factors. The study of biological contribution to personality can

32
be divided into three main categories namely Heredity, Brain and Physical features.

Heredity is the transmission of qualities from ancestor to descendent through a

mechanism lying primarily in the chromosomes of the germ cells. It predisposes to

certain physical, mental and emotional states. Physical structures, reflexes, innate

drives, intelligence and temperament is said to be inherited by all humans. Brain is

also supposed to play role in shaping personality. An individuals personality

develops depending upon the structure of brain. An individuals external appearance

which is biologically determined has considerable influence on his personality.

Mussen (1963) observed that a childs physical characteristics may be related to his

approach to the social environment, to the expectancies of others, and to their reaction

to him which in turn may have impact on personality development. Family and social

groups have most significant impact on personality development through socialisation

and identification processes. Socialisation is a process through which an infant

acquires, from the enormously wide range of behaviour potentionalities, those

behaviour patterns which are customary and acceptable according to the standards of

his family and social groups. Identification process occurs when a person tries to

identify himself with some person whom he feels ideal in the family. Culture

determines attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition and cooperation.

The culture group defines the range of experiences and situations an individual is

likely to encounter and the values and personality characteristics that will be

reinforced and hence learned. Migram suggest that situation plays a powerful role in

human personality as situation exerts an important press on the individual. In certain

circumstances, it is not so much the kind of person a man is, as the kind of situation in

which he is placed, that determines his actions.

33
1.10.5 The Big Five: Concept

The Five Factor Model (FFM) describes five main factors of personality and

has been proposed as a universal, cross-cultural structure of individual differences

(McCrae and Costa, 1997).Tupes and Christal (1961) and Norman (1963) are

commonly credited with discovering the Big Five. Only in the past two decades,

however, has research on the Big Five traits become a serious area of investigation.

Specifically, a robust set of five factors have been recovered from almost every major

personality inventory and from analyses of more than 15,000 trait adjectives in

English and those in many other languages (Goldberg, 1990). Furthermore, the

structure has generalized across cultures, sources of ratings, and measures (John &

Srivastava, 1999). Although acceptance of the classification is far from universal

(Block, 1995; Eysenck, 1992), the Big Five has provided the most widely accepted

structure of personality. The five factor model of personality is a hierarchical

organization of personality traits in terms of five basic dimensions: Openness to

experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism. These

five relatively independent constructs altogether provide a meaningful classification

for the study of individual differences in personality. The Big Five Model

demonstrates that the human personality comprises of five reasonably self-

determining dimensions which gives a significant and complete taxonomy for

reviewing the individuals dissimilarities (McCrae & Costa, 1987). The emergence of

the Five-Factor Model of personality (Norman, 1963) or the Big Five (Goldberg,

1990), provided a clear conceptual and measurement framework for research into

personality (Robertson & Callinan, 1998). Its five factorsextraversion,

agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience

have been found to consistently describe personality for various samples (Hofstee et

34
al., 1997; McCrae & Costa, 1997). Costa and McCrae have contributed substantially

to develop the elements of big five personality. An inventory have been developed to

evaluate the dimensions of five traits by using five strong elements of the ranking ,

side by side they also used the inventory and the model in a multiple studies which

lead to the belief that the Big Five traits are universal. McCrae and Costa (1985)

argued that the Big Five Model is not dependent on one personality theory rather it

incorporate the scales that uses different theoretical angles. It has also been identified

that Big Five traits are the essential and appropriate factors that explains the

personality configuration globally.

1.10.6 The Big Five Personality Traits: Explained

Extraversion refers to the extent to which a person is outgoing and talkative

and is associated with behaviours such as being sociable, gregarious, assertive, and

active (McCrae & Costa, 1985). It implies to seek simulation and enjoy the company

of other people. Highly extravert people are often perceived as being dominant and

therefore as leaders (Barry & Stewart, 1997). They tend to be effective as managers

and they demonstrate inspirational leadership behaviours. (Bauer et al., 2006)

Extraverts do well in social situations. They have an easier time than introverts when

adjusting to a new job. They actively seek information and feedback and build

effective relationships, which helps them adjust. (Wanberg & Kammeyer-Mueller,

2000) Interestingly, extraverts are also found to be happier at work, which may be

because of the relationships they build with the people around them and their easier

adjustment to a new job( Judge et al. 2002). However, they do not necessarily perform

well in all jobs especially in jobs depriving them of social interaction. They tend to be

effective in jobs involving sales( Barrick and Mount, 1991). However, they are not

necessarily model employees. They tend to have higher levels of absenteeism at work,

35
potentially because they may miss work to hang out with or attend to the needs of

their friends (Judge et al., 1997). They are sensitive to monotony (Thiffault &

Bergeron, 2003) and they demonstrate significantly poorer performance on vigilant

tasks (Koelega, 1992). Highly extroverted employees likely use their stable,

coolheaded, optimistic and aggressive manner to react to customers requests, which

results in work completion and customer satisfaction. Barrick & Mount (1991)

described Extraverts as expressive, outgoing, companionable, gregarious, chatty,

confident and determined persons. Extraverts have a tendency to be spontaneous,

communicative, energetic, positive, and enthusiastic (Goldberg, 1990; Watson &

Clark, 1997). They are longing for admiration, social acknowledgement, control and

command (Costa & McCrae, 1992). If compared with other five traits, extraverts are

completely associated with emotional commitment (Erdheim et al., 2006). Extraverts

are capable of practicing affirmative emotions (Costa & McCrae, 1992) which in turn

lead to job gratification (Connolly & Viswesvaran, 2000). Extravert individuals are

emotionally firm and sure thats why they possess contented personality (DeNeve &

Cooper, 1998) and this blissful personality is the key feature of contented life and job

satisfaction (Judge et al., 2002). Extraverts are also effective analyst of job

performance for professions like administrations, social relations and sales (Barrick &

Mount, 1991). Such people often use their working environment to represent a key

facet of their lives that enables them to meet their aspirations and exhibit their talents

(Hurley, 1998).

Agreeableness refers to the extent to which a person is cooperative and

friendly. Highly agreeable persons display behaviours such as being courteous,

flexible, trusting, good-natured, forgiving, soft hearted, and tolerant (McCrae &

Costa, 1985). Digman (1990) defines the features of Agreeable people as self-

36
sacrifice, helpful, nurturance, gentle, and emotional support at one end of the

dimension, and enmity, indifference to others and self-interest on another end.

People with this personality type are generally easy to get along with (Hough, 1992).

According to Barrick and Mount (1991), Agreeableness consist of traits such as

being polite, flexible, naive, helpful, supportive, merciful, kind, and open-minded .

They are salient in situations that involve interaction or cooperation with others

(Barrick and Mount, 1991).They are less aggressive, emotionally stable, trustworthy

and compliant (Clarke & Robertson, 2005). Agreeable employees are cooperative and

forgiving, tend to follow rules and act courteously to get ahead. They are also less

likely to retaliate when other people treat them unfairly (Skarlicki et al.,1999) This

may reflect their ability to show empathy and to give people the benefit of the doubt.

Agreeable people may be a valuable addition to their teams and may be effective

leaders because they create a fair environment when they are in leadership positions

(Mayer et al., 2007). At the other end of the spectrum, people low in agreeableness

are less likely to show these positive behaviours. Moreover, people who are

disagreeable are shown to quit their jobs unexpectedly, perhaps in response to a

conflict with a boss or a peer (Zimmerman, 2008).

Conscientiousness refers to the extent to which a person is self-disciplined

and organized. Associated behaviours are being careful, thorough, responsible,

organized, planful, hardworking, achievement oriented, and persevering (McCrae &

Costa, 1985). It is the degree to which a person is organized, systematic, punctual,

achievement-oriented, and dependable. Conscientiousness is the one personality trait

that uniformly predicts how high a persons performance will be across a variety of

occupations and jobs (Barrick & Mount, 1991). In fact, conscientiousness is the trait

most desired by recruiters, and highly conscientious applicants tend to succeed in

37
interviews (Dunn et al.,1995). Once they are hired, conscientious people not only tend

to perform well, but they also have higher levels of motivation to perform, lower

levels of turnover, lower levels of absenteeism and higher levels of safety

performance at work (Judge & Ilies, 2002). Finally, it seems that conscientiousness is

a valuable trait for entrepreneurs. Highly conscientious people are more likely to start

their own business compared with those who are not conscientious, and their firms

have longer survival rates (Certo & Certo, 2005). Highly conscientious individuals

can be detail-oriented rather than seeing the big picture. Conscientiousness is the

tendency to show self-discipline, to be dutiful and to strive for achievement and

competence. Its components also include self-discipline, consultative, competent,

orderly, dutifulness and thoroughness. People who are high in this factor are always

thorough in decision-making style (Clarke & Robertson, 2005), follow rules and

regulations (Arthur & Doverspike, 2001), are interested in goal targeting and

systematic approach, are always interested in providing adequate cost-benefit

analysis and contingency planning (West et al., 1993) and are less vulnerable to

cognitive failures. Low conscientiousness, on the other hand, suggests that the

employee tries to meet only immediate demands, does not care about prospective

results, lacks a sense of goals, mistakenly observes rules (Arthur & Doverspike,

2001) or standards and performs tasks poorly (Wallace & Vodanovich, 2003).

Conscientiousness contains traits like diligent, attentive, vigilant, comprehensive,

responsible, systematized and determined (Barrick & Mount, 1991). High

conscientiousness personalities are logical, reliable, and risk averter (Goldberg, 1990).

These persons are responsible, reliable, determined, cautious, and thorough, who

focus on success which is also very significant characteristic for performing work

tasks (Barrick & Mount, 1991, 1993).

38
 Neuroticism refers to the degree to which a person is anxious, irritable,

temperamental, and moody. Neuroticism is the opposite of emotional stability and is

associated with behaviours such as being depressed, angry, embarrassed, emotional,

worried and insecure (McCrae & Costa, 1985). It is a tendency to experience

unpleasant emotions relatively easily. Its components are anxiety, hostility,

depression, self-consciousness and impulsiveness. It is perhaps the only Big Five

dimension where scoring high is undesirable. People high on Neuroticism have a

tendency to have emotional adjustment problems and habitually experience stress and

depression. People very high in Neuroticism experience a number of problems at

work. For example, they have trouble forming and maintaining relationships and are

less likely to be someone people go to for advice and friendship (Klein et al., 2004).

They tend to be habitually unhappy in their jobs and report high intentions to leave,

but they do not necessarily actually leave their jobs (Judge et al., 2002). People who

are high in this factor are faced with effect of decreasing cognitive and performance

capacities (Mathews et al., 1991), they have increasing probability of errors, they are

more distracted from the task at hand (Hansen, 1989), they have the tendency to

experience greater stress symptoms, they tend to be pre-occupied with their anxieties

and worries and there is also evidence that they do not seek active control of the

environment (Judge, 1993). Being high in Neuroticism seems to be harmful to ones

career, as these employees have lower levels of career success. Finally, if they achieve

managerial jobs, they tend to create an unfair climate at work (Mayer et al., 2007).

"Neuroticism signifies variances of individual tendency to experience suffering and is

defined as emotionally insecure and uneven" (McCrae & John, 1992). People high on

Neuroticism possess traits such as being annoyed, stressed, sulky, unsociable,

nervous, embarrassed, uncertain, doubtful, unconfident, fearful, and dejected (Barrick

39
& Mount, 1991, 1993). They have no belief and faith on others (Goldberg, 1990), and

have no social expertise to handle the situations that claim to take control (Judge,

Locke & Durham, 1997). Again, they also lack confidence and self-image (McCrae &

Costa, 1991). Negative affectivity is linked with Neuroticism (Watson, Clark &

Tellegen, 1988). In contrast, people who are low on Neuroticismthose who have a

positive affective dispositiontend to experience positive moods more often than

negative moods. They tend to be more satisfied with their jobs and more committed to

their companies (Connolly and Viswesvaran, 2000). Thus, it seems that low

Neuroticism is a strong advantage in the workplace.

Openness to experience describes the extent to which a person is curious,

original, imaginative, intellectual, creative, open to new ideas, unconventional and

broadminded. Highly open people can be described as being cultured, original,

intelligent, and artistically sensitive (McCrae& Costa, 1985). They have positive

disposition towards learning (Salgado, 2002). Openness to experience also suggests

an attraction to new ideas, concepts, actions, or feelings (Niehoff, 2006). They also

have an advantage when they enter into a new organization. Their open-mindedness

leads them to seek a lot of information and feedback about how they are doing and to

build relationships, which leads to quicker adjustment to the new job (Wanberg &

Kammeyer-Mueller, 2000).When given support, they tend to be creative (Baer &

Oldham, 2006). Open people are highly adaptable to change, and teams that

experience unforeseen changes in their tasks do well if they are populated with people

high in openness (LePine, 2003). Persons with higher levels of openness are likely to

achieve greater efficiency at work, because they pursue opportunities to learn new

perspectives and deal with ambiguous situations. Furthermore, an employee with an

open personality should tend to be task based, constantly searching for new methods

40
to complete his or her work (Stewart & Nandkeolyar, 2006), which again should

strengthen working efficiency. "Openness to Experience is correlated to technical and

innovativeness, deviating approach, and political moderation" (Judge et al., 2002;

Feist 1998). Persons who are extraordinary in openness to experience have the

propensity to better suite other dimensions (Costa & McCrae, 1988) Openness to

Experience is also referred to as double-edged sword because it prompts

personalities to have intense good feelings as well as intense bad feelings (DeNeve

and Cooper, 1998). It represents the influence of openness directed towards affective

responses such as subjective well-being (Judge et al., 2002). Compared with people

low in openness, they are also more likely to start their own business (Zhao & Seibert,

2006). The potential downside is that they may also be prone to becoming more easily

bored or impatient with routine.

The Big Five traits as described by Goldberg (1990) are shown below:

Fig. 1.3: Big-Five Personality Traits

Source: Goldberg, L. R. (1990). An alternative description of personality: The big-five factor

structure. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 59, 12161229.

41
1.11 JOB ATTITUDES

How we behave at work often depends on how we feel about being there.

Therefore, making sense of how people behave depends on understanding their work

attitudes. An attitude refers to our opinions, beliefs, and feelings about aspects of our

environment. We have attitudes towards the food we eat, people we meet, courses we

take, and things we do. Allport (1935) defined an attitude as a mental or neural state

of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence

on the individuals response to all objects and situations to which it is related. Work

attitudes refer to the positive or negative evaluations that employees hold about

various facets of their work environment. At work, three job attitudes have the

greatest potential to influence how we behave. These are job satisfaction, job

involvement and organizational commitment.

1.11.1 Job Satisfaction

Organizations strongly desire job satisfaction from their employees (Oshagbemi,

2003). A satisfied workforce is essential for the success of organizations and their

businesses. Dissatisfied employees make organizations dysfunctional in businesses,

damaging their financial performance. Due to important role of human resource on

organizational performance, organizations try to keep employees satisfied. Satisfied

employees would produce superior performance in optimal time which leads to

increase profits. When employees are satisfied with their work, they would be more

creative and innovative and offer advances that allow company to evolve positively

over time with changes in market conditions. On the other hand, a lack of job

satisfaction results in a low level of employee commitment that, in turn, affect

performance and the achievement of organizational goals. Farrell and Stamm (1988)

concluded that high employee satisfaction will reduce the happening of the

42
absenteeism, accident, and employee stress, improve employee satisfaction with life

and thus increase productivity and profits. Employees job satisfaction in

organizations and institutions has been given close attention by researchers since mid-

20th century after the emergence of Maslows theory of need hierarchy in 1943.

Job Satisfaction is the extent to which an employee is content or happy with

various aspects of her/his job. It is a subjective evaluation of work by the employees,

as reflected in their decision to accept a job and staying therein. It results in hard work

put in by the employees for performing their jobs (Clark, 1998). The study of job

satisfaction started with Mayos study of productivity at the Western Electric

Hawthorne plant at Chicago in 1933. Since then job satisfaction has been studied by

many researchers including Mobley et al. (1979); Price and Mueller (1981); Bluedorn

(1982) and Mowday et al. (1982) among others.

Locke (1969) defined job satisfaction and dissatisfaction as complex

emotional reactions to the job. It refers to a positive feeling about ones job resulting

from an evaluation of its characteristics. It is a pleasurable emotional state that results

from an individual appraisal of ones job. Porter et al. (1974) viewed job satisfaction

as the sum total of individuals met expectations. Job Satisfaction has also been

defined as the extent of the positive affective orientation towards a job (Blegen and

1987).According to Weiss and Cropanzano (1996), job satisfaction represents a

person's evaluation of the job and the work context. Spector (1997) defined Job

Satisfaction as the liking or disliking behavior of the employee towards the job. It is

an affective, cognitive or attitudinal response to work with significant organizational

outcomes . He considered job satisfaction as an attitudinal variable which reveals the

extent to which an individual likes his job and it is always positively related to job

performance. According to Spector, Job satisfaction basically depends on rewards,

43
other people, nature of work and organizational context. Oshagbemi (2000) defines

Job Satisfaction as an emotional response that occurs as a result of the interaction

between the workers values concerning his/her job and the profits he/she has gained

from his/her job. Job satisfaction has been also defined as the extent to which an

employee has favorable or positive feelings about work and work environment

(DeNobile, 2003). It refers to the feelings people have towards their job. Robbins

(2003) defines job satisfaction as the general attitude of an individual towards his/her

job. It is the pleasurable state that the worker attains from his job and job experience

(Tantiverdi, 2008). Studies have shown that employees at higher positions have

greater job satisfaction than those at lower positions and employees who receive

higher incentives show higher satisfaction (Schermerhorn et al., 2003)

Job satisfaction can be defined either as the overall or general job satisfaction

of an employee or as the satisfaction with certain facets of job such as the work itself,

co-workers, supervision, pay, working conditions, company policies, procedures and

opportunities for promotion (Smith et al.,1969). Accordingly it may be measured

either as the general or overall satisfaction of an employee with the job or it may be

measured as the satisfaction of an employee with the various work facets such as

work itself, pay, promotion, supervisor, peers. Dong (2006) links job satisfaction to

two factors- situational (extrinsic) and personal (intrinsic). Situational factors include

pay, opportunities for promotion, working conditions and job characteristics such as

task identity, task significance, skill variety, autonomy and feedback (Heller et al.,

2002). Personal factors include personal disposition, traits, self esteem, motivation

and emotion (Dorman and Zapf, 2001). Employees with high job satisfaction exhibit

high energy, pleasurable engagement, and enthusiasm while employees with

44
dissatisfaction show distress, unpleasant engagement, and nervousness (Heller et al.,

2002).

Luthans (2005) identified three dimensions to job satisfaction. According to

the first dimension, job satisfaction cannot be observed directly but only inferences

can be made about it from the behaviour of the employees. The second dimension

signifies that it is determined by the extent to which employees needs or expectations

are fulfilled by their jobs. Finally, job satisfaction represents several related attitudes.

For the organizations, job satisfaction of its workers means a workforce that is

motivated and committed to high quality performance. It is an area of concern for

both managers and researchers because it significantly affects major outcomes such as

performance, productivity, absenteeism and employee turnover.

1.11.2 Job Involvement

Job involvement measures the degree to which people identify psychologically

with their job & consider their perceived performance level important to self worth.

Individuals have been described as job involved if they view it as important to their

life interest (Dubin, 1956) and perceive performance as central to their self-esteem

(Gurin et al., 1960). As stated by Dubin (1956) (as cited in Saleh and James, 1976),

job involvement is the degree to which a job situation is central of life interest. It

reflects the significance individuals attach to having and performing work (Elloy and

Terpening, 1992). Therefore, work involvement constitutes an important motivational

variable that is of interest to organizations, especially in the new economy, which

imposes the need for full mobilization of the human resources (Gore, 2001). Vroom

(1962) describes a person as ego-involved in a job by the level of his self-esteem

which is affected by his perceived level of performance.

45
 Other conceptual way of describing job involvement is the degree to which a

person is identified psychologically with his work or the importance of work in his

total self image (Lodahl and Kejner, 1965). Such a psychological identification with

work may result partly from early socialization training during which the individual

may internalize the value of goodness of work. Lodahl and Kejner (1965) emphasized

that during the process of socialization, certain work values are injected into the

individual that remains even at the later stage in the form of attitude towards job. A

fully involved employee would be more willing to perform or perform better than an

employee that only engages in his job. In other words, job involvement may influence

the employee and organizational outcomes (Ishfaq and Talat, 2011).

Mckelvey and Sekaran(1977) defined job involvement as the merging of a

persons ego identity with his or her job. According to Mckelvey and Sekaran

(1977), individual often have a strong desire to satisfy the need for ego identity and

development in their job. Rabinowitz et al. (1977) stated that an individual who have

strong work ethic would probably be highly job involved. Rabinowitz et al. also

mentioned that job involvement is an individual difference variable. Either primarily

an attribute of the person or a response to the work environment. Some employees

might require a number of needs, values or traits that led them to become involved in

their jobs (Rabinowitz et al., 1977).

Kanungo (1982) defined Job Involvement as a simple and distinct

identification with a job or work. It is the extent to which an individual is generally

interested in, identifies with, and is pre-occupied with ones work in comparison to

other aspects of ones life. He viewed job involvement as a catalyst to satisfy the

individual presents needs. In one of his research, he referred job involvement as an

individuals psychological commitment or identification to his or her job. Kanungo

46
stated that positive state of involvement would imply a relatively complete state of

engagement in self aspect of the job where as a state of alienation implied a loss of

individuality and separation of the self from the work environment. It is a cognitive

state of psychological identification either in the context of a particular job or with

work in general. Kanungo further pointed out that job involvement depends on

employees perceptions of the jobs potential to satisfy their extrinsic and intrinsic

needs.

According to Freeman et al. (2000), in an organization, employees who are

truly involved in their jobs are likely to perceive the industrial relations more

positively and have greater trust towards the company. Job involvement can also be

defined as the enthusiasm of a person towards his or her job (Pollock, 1997). Pollock

believed that people who like and are interested with their jobs are more likely to

perform their works effectively and productively compared to those who dislike their

current jobs. If the employees could be engendered with the feeling of importance of

their contributions to their tasks on hand, a feeling of pride would arise and

involvement in producing the products and services would be increased (Nelson,

1993). Mudrack (2004) explained that highly involved people have the tendency of

not to give up easily, they might feel almost like a moral obligation to be involved

with their jobs, and might tend to be set in their way. In this sense, these highly

involved people would do whatever they could to overcome the difficulties they face

at their work because the moral obligation would drive these people committed to

involve in their jobs.

Elankumaran (2004) mentioned that an individual involved in his/her job

would care about the tasks to be undertaken; thus in order to improve the degree of

job involvement of an individual, he/she must have a realistic view of what work

47
values determined it from the individual stand point. Hung (2008) stated that job

involvement is ones cognitive needs fulfilment, which assists him or her to work

harder and boost up his or her performance. Job involvement is a key aspect in the

lives of the people on the job.

According to the latest job involvements research, Uygur and Kilic (as cited

in Khalid and Rashid Rehman, 2011) described job involvement as motivation to

carry out work and it is highly compatible between personal and organizational goals,

which stimulates motivation among the employees to generate positive work

outcomes. Undoubtedly, there are many factors contributing to the employees job

involvement, where the most general factors are employees motivation, employees

personality, training and job characteristics. As regards Rabinowitz et al. (1977), job

involvement is less likely to be influenced by organizational factors but more likely to

be influenced by personal characteristics.

1.11.3 Organizational commitment

Organizational Commitment can be defined as the degree to which employee

identifies with its organization & wishes to maintain membership with it. It is the

emotional attachment people have towards the company they work for. A highly

committed employee is one who accepts and believes in the companys values, is

willing to put out effort to meet the companys goals, and has a strong desire to

remain with the company. People who are committed to their company often refer to

their company as we as opposed to they as in in this company, we are very

happy. The way an employee refers to the company indicates the type of attachment

and identification he has with the company. There is a high degree of overlap between

job satisfaction and organizational commitment because things that make us happy

with our job often make us more committed to the company as well. Companies

48
believe that these attitudes are worth tracking because they often are associated with

outcomes that are important to the controlling role, such as performance, helping

others, absenteeism, and turnover. Organizational commitment is considered to be an

individuals affirmative alignment towards the organization. It explains an employees

identification with the organization and his/her desire to continue his association with

the organization to fulfil the organizational goals. In times of intense competition, it is

highly desirable to retain a competent workforce as they are responsible for

multiplying productivity, efficiency and effectiveness, and hence organizational

commitment is one factor which is very important and worth developing in

employees.

Reference to organizational commitment was first found in workplace

literature starting in the 1960s. During this time, commitment was studied primarily as

behaviour (Klein et al., 2009) and operationalized as loyalty, reaction to rewards and

commitment to future actions. In 1980s commitment research was expanded to

include proposed relationships with other constructs such as job satisfaction and

turnover. The construct was also expanded to include areas such as commitment to

multiple targets, cognitive aspects of commitment, and multiple bases of commitment

(Klein, et al., 2009).

Despite the plethora of studies on organizational commitment, there has been

lack of consensus on its definition (Reichers, 1985; Meyer and Allen, 1991; and Jaros

et al, 1993). There are differences among the scholars (Jaros et al., 1993; Dunham et

al., 1994; Hackett et al., 1994; Iverson & Roy, 1994; Cohen & Kirchmeyer, 1995)

regarding the definition of organizational commitment. The dimensionality of OC has

also added to the confusion surrounding the definitions and conceptualisation of OC

(Meyer and Allen, 1997). There are very few studies conducted to explore different

49
perspectives of organizational commitment (Dunham et al., 1994). The attitudinal

perspective is one of the highly explored variables in behavioural studies (Mathieu &

Zajac, 1990; Meyer & Allen, 1997).Some research studies have conceptualised OC as

either attitudinal or behavioural (Becker,1960; Mowday et al., 1982 and Wiener,

1982) while others have shown it to be multidimensional in nature (Reichers,1985;

and Allen and Meyer,1990). Staw (1980) also stated that while examining the

organizational commitment one should view the organizational commitment through

the perspective of organizational behaviour (attitudinal view) and through the

perspective of social psychology (behavioural view). While multiple definitions of

organizational commitment have been proposed, they all consider commitment as a

psychological state that describes an employees relationship with their organization

and a propensity to continue the relationship with the organization (Meyer and Allen,

1997). The differences between the constructs are primarily concerned with the

psychological base being described. Meyer and Allen (1991) proposed a three-

component model of organizational commitment to address these differences.

According to Porter (1968), Organizational commitment refers to the readiness

of an employee to apply elevated levels of hard work on behalf of the organization,

acceptance of its key goals, standards, principles, ethics and values and a sturdy

aspiration to stay with the organization. Raju and Srivastava (1984) and Mowday

(1998) described organizational commitment as a factor that promotes attachment of

an individual to the organization. Employees are regarded as committed to the

organization if they willingly continue their association with the organization and

undertake considerable efforts to reach organizational goals. OC is considered as

potential force or motivating force for directing membership, inspiring adequate role

performance and encouraging innovative and spontaneous behaviour. Kanter (1968)

50
proposed three different commitments such as continuance, cohesion, and control

commitment.

The three factor model as described by Meyer and Allen (1984) combined

sub-factors of commitment such as affective commitment, normative commitment and

continuance commitment. Affective commitment is the emotional attachment to an

organization. It refers to the positive feelings of identification with, attachment to, and

involvement in the work organization (Meyer and Allen, 1984). Continuous

commitment is defined as the extent to which employees feel committed to their

organizations by virtue of the costs that they feel are associated with leaving (Meyer

and Allen, 1984). Normative commitment refers to commitment based on a sense of

obligation to the organization (Allen and Meyer, 1996). A person could feel any

combination of these three commitment components in various degrees. The notion of

organizational commitment has been acknowledged considerably both from the

scientists of the behavioural studies and from the managers. Three basic forms of

commitment as defined by various researchers are discussed hereunder.

According to Hartmann and Bambacas (2000), affective commitment refers to

the sense of affection and feelings of attachment to the organization and has been

associated with work experiences, individual traits and organizational structures. It

refers to an employees emotional attachment to an organization. Employees who

possess a strong level of affective commitment continue to stay at an organization

because they want to. The concept of affective commitment has its roots in several

earlier conceptualizations of commitment. Kanter (1968) described commitment as

the attachment of an individuals fund of affectivity and emotion to the group, while

Buchanan (1974) referred to a partisan affective attachment to the goals and values

of the organization. Mowday et al. (1979) defined it as the relative strength of an

51
individuals identification with and involvement in a particular organization. Meyer

and Allen (1997) have reviewed the antecedents and found that job challenge, degree

of autonomy, variety of skills used, role ambiguity, role conflict, participation in

decision making, fairness of policies and treatment, personal fulfilment, employee

manager relationship and personal competence play an important role in the

development of affective commitment. Mowday et al. (1982) have identified four

categories of antecedents to Organizational Commitment: personal characteristics,

role related characteristics, structural characteristics and work experiences. Though

vast range of variables has been identified as antecedents of affective commitment,

they are typically organised into three broad categories as organizational

characteristics, individual characteristics, and work experiences. Organizational

characteristics such as decentralization have been shown to be associated with the

development of affective commitment. Researches indicate that individual

characteristics as antecedents of affective commitment are primarily divided into two

categories, demographic differences and dispositional differences (Meyer & Allen,

1997). Demographic differences such as age, gender, marital status, education level,

and organization tenure have all been investigated with no definitive result (Meyer &

Allen, 1997) as have certain dispositional differences such as perception of

competence.

Continuance commitment refers to consciousness of the costs related to

parting with the organization or job (Meyer et al., 1993). Employees with elevated

level of continuance commitment stay with the organization as they are aware of the

need, risks, sacrifices, and low options associated with leaving. Continuance

Commitment in the Meyer and Allen model posits that individuals are aware of the

costs of leaving an organization and they then stay at the organization because they

52
are not able to leave (Meyer & Allen, 1991).Development of continuance

commitment involves the evaluation of two types of information, investments and

alternatives (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Employees who possess this form of commitment

continue to work productively as a result of cultural familiarity and organizational

ethics that direct their behaviour; they remain with the organization not out of loyalty

or natural beliefs but because they have no job alternatives or are too interested in the

organization to leave. The concept of continuance commitment also has roots

conceptually in previously defined explanations of commitment. Becker (1960)

proposed a definition of commitment that was rooted in a type of cost analysis

between investments in and cost of leaving work. Kanter (1968) also proposed it to be

"profit associated with continued participation and cost of leaving." Investments are

those actions that an individual takes that link them to the organization because of

what might be forfeited if they are not committed. Examples of investments include

time, money, effort, and even organizational citizenship behaviours. The perception

that there is an investment that would be lost if an individual left the organization

leads to the development of continuance commitment. The second type of information

that is evaluated that leads to the development of continuance commitment is that of

alternatives, specifically in terms of alternate work opportunities. Perceptions of

alternatives can be based on external factors such as job market conditions or the

economy. They can also be based on internal factors such as perceived ability to get

another job and perceived competence in the field (Meyer & Allen ,1997).

Normative commitment refers to a sense of requirement to continue

employment. Employees with elevated level of normative commitment believe that

they have to remain in the organization or job as they feel it as right (Meyer et al.,

1993). It is the level to which a person is psychologically associated with the

53
organization through internalisations of its vision, goals, objectives, principles, values

and missions. According to Wiener (1982), normative commitment is the result of a

combination of internalized experiences resulting from cultural and early

organizational socialization experiences. It is a desire to stay with an organization

based on a sense of duty, loyalty or moral obligations. Normative commitment has

been described as "behaviours that are socially acceptable that exceed formal

authority" (Wiener & Gechman, 1977) or "the moral obligation to stay with the

company"(Marsh and Mannari, 1977). Normative Commitment describes individuals

who stay in an organization because it is "the right and moral thing to do" (Meyer &

Allen, 1991). The development of Normative Commitment is thought to evolve from

pressure that individuals feel from their interactions within an organization and their

internalization of those feelings. The internalization can be based on a belief about the

appropriate level of loyalty that is supported by the organizational culture (Meyer &

Allen, 1997).

Riketta (2002) while identifying the reason of high level of research interest in

attitudinal perspective pointed out that the organizational commitment has a great

impact on almost all the behaviours related to the organizations like; staying with the

organization, attendance and performance, etc. These findings of Riketta (2002) are in

line with the work of Matheiu & Zajac (1990); Meyer & Allen (1997);Mowday et al.

(1982) and Randall (1990).

1.12 WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT

Work Family Conflict shall be another variable under study. It is defined as a

form of inter-role conflict in which the role pressures from work and family domains

are mutually incompatible in some respect. That is, participation in the work (family)

role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the family (work) role

54
(Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985). Work-family conflict and family-work conflict are

defined as forms of friction in which role pressures from work and family domains

are mutually incompatible in some respects (Cinamon & Rich, 2002).

Researchers suggested that work-family conflict and family-work conflict are

distinct but related forms of role conflict (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Work-family

conflict is defined as conflict that arises due to work responsibilities interfering with

family responsibilities; family-work conflict is defined as conflict that arises due to

family responsibilities interfering with work responsibilities. Netemeyer et al. (1996)

described work-family conflict as a form of inter-role conflict in which the general

demands of, time devoted to, and strain created by the job interfere with performing

family-related responsibilities (Netemeyer et al., 1996). Similarly, family-work

conflict is described as a form of inter-role conflict in which general demands of,

time devoted to, and strain created by the family interfere with performing work-

related responsibilities (Netemeyer et al., 1996).Work-family conflict can arise as a

result of demands at work making it more difficult to accomplish tasks associated

with ones family. Tasks related to family can include childcare, the care of an aging

parent, household responsibilities, as well as additional responsibilities that may arise

as a result of ones role within the family. Work related tasks encompass hours of paid

work, and can additionally include overtime work, work related travel, and work

obligations that are fulfilled at home. Work-family conflict can also be thought of as a

form of conflict in which, role pressures associated with membership in one

organization are in conflict with pressures stemming from membership in other

groups (Kahn et al., 1964). From a work-family perspective, this type of conflict

reflects the degree to which work demands interfere with family responsibilities.

Similar to work-family conflict, family-work conflict occurs when responsibilities

55
associated with ones family roles interfere with work related demands. The demands

of a role can be thought of as the responsibilities, requirements, expectations, duties,

and commitments associated with the given role. In the case of family-work conflict,

demands associated with family, such as childcare or the care of an aging parent,

interfere with work demands. Conflict results in an incompatibility between role

demands in both work and family domains. In other words, participation in the

family (work) role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the work

(family) role (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985).

Work-family conflict is common and detrimental for workers and

organizations. It negatively affects the different members of the work organization as

well as members of the family. Consequences of work-family conflict as identified in

research studies are poor work performance and decrease in productivity due to

tardiness, absenteeism, excessive use of the telephone, absence in meetings, difficulty

in concentrating leading to higher turnover, lower commitment, and poorer work

morale. It is associated with dissatisfaction and stress at work and home (Frone,

Yardley, and Markel, 1997), negative health outcomes (Frone, Russell, and Cooper,

1997), absenteeism and employee turnover (Glass and Estes, 1997). The experience of

work family conflict and role strain have also been found to be related to poor

physical health ,increased depression, physical ailments, increased somatic

complaints, hypertension, lower energy levels, lower life satisfaction , lower quality

of family life. The research of Duxbury and Higgins (2001) has shown that work and

family conflicts are both an issue for the employer and the employee and that the

inability to have this resolved will lead to outcomes of marital problems, reduced

family and life satisfaction, and as such will affect the general health and wellbeing of

the employees due to stress, burnout, and depression. The meta-analyses by Allen et

56
al. (2000) and Kossek and Ozeki (1998) found a negative relationship between work-

family conflict and marital satisfaction, family satisfaction and life satisfaction. Hence

research evidence strongly suggests that work-family conflict is related to employee

health and well-being and also to a couple of negative outcomes at work place.

Individuals experiencing work-family conflict, however, do not wait passively

for work family conflict to decrease. Rather, they look for ways to satisfy the

demands of work and family while minimizing work-family conflict (Barnett and

Lundgren 1998; Kossek et al. 1999; Moen and Wethington 1992; Voydanoff 2002).

Eliminating work-family conflict is the responsibility of both the organization and its

employees. Keith H. Hammonds (1996) quoted Ellen Galinsky saying that

Companies are seeing they have all these programs (i.e. work-family policies), but

people are still really stressed out. Certainly, employees bear some responsibility for

determining their own family balance. But the companies can help the employees in

managing the conflict. Companies that recognize the need and adapt work to peoples

lives will win workers loyalty and with that a competitive edge.

1.13 OCCUPATIONAL STRESS

Further, stress is another serious health problem within many occupational

groups with possible implications for work performance and safety. Certain

characteristics of the work of aircrew are assumed to be particularly stressful. It

includes shift and night work, a high responsibility for safety, the fact that errors and

mistakes may have disastrous consequences and most importantly unwearyingly

managing in case of any emergencies. Several studies have examined stress and

various physiological stress reactions in this occupational group. However, so far

very few studies have examined stress within this occupational group with reliable

57
and valid measures of the construct. In the present context, it seems logical to include

this facet in our research.

Stress, an integral part of human existence, is said to have an immense

influence over the lives of individuals and effectiveness and efficiency of the

organization where they work. Stress can be defined as an imbalance between an

individuals perceived environmental demands and their perceived ability to deal with

these demands, and is generally thought to be subjective in nature, rather than

objective (McGrath, 1970; Lazarus & Folkman,1984).The term stress is derived from

the Latin word stringere, which means to draw tight, and was used in this way in the

17th century to describe a hardship or an affliction (Cartwright & Cooper, 1997).

Later in the 18th century the term stress referred primarily to an individuals force,

pressure, strain or strong effort. It was these early definitions used in physics and

engineering that began to influence the notion that stress may affect individuals,

where forces are seen to exert pressure on an individual, producing strain (Hinkle,

1977).

Selye (1976) defined stress as a non specific response of the body to any

demands made upon it. Stress is a psychological reaction to problems, threats,

opportunities and challenges faced by an individual when the outcome is both

important and uncertain. Stress is inevitable in human lives (Pestonjee, 1999). It is a

dynamic condition that arises when an individual is confronted with an opportunity,

constraint, or demand for which the outcome is perceived to be important and

uncertain (Robbins & Sanghi, 2006). The organizational and work related factors do

not lead to stress unless perceived as stressful by the individual employees. The

subjective perception of individual is dependent on various psychological and

biological factors which differ from individual to individual (Swanson & Power,

58
1998; Tankha,2006; Masood, 2011). Individual differences in personality,

demography and consequent work performance mediate between the objective

environment and its subjective experience leading to varied levels of stress for

different individuals. The individual employees would differ in the way they react to

stress and use various psychological, demographic, and other factors do play a crucial

role to adjust the level of stress among the employees.

Harrison (1976) argues that stress results from a lack of conformity between a

person and his/her environment i-e when a person is not able to cope with the

constraints or demands encountered. In his theory of person-environment fit, Harrison

emphasised that there are two kinds of fit between an individual and their

environment: the extent to which the skills and abilities of the individual match the

demands required of them and the extent to which the environment matches the

individuals needs. Harrison suggested that when a misfit of either of these two

measures of P-E fit arises, health strains will result. Thus, in this model stress is not

defined in terms of the environment or the individual, but rather in terms of the degree

of misfit between them. Further Stress process was viewed as being relational, as a

result of a transaction between the individual and the environment, where stress will

arise when the demands encountered by an individual are appraised or perceived as

exceeding the resources available to them, threatening their well-being (Lazarus,

1966, 1990; Lazarus & Launier, 1978). This transactional theory of stress emphasises

identifying processes that link the individual to the environment. In this approach, the

emphasis is on the transaction that is, realising that stress does not rely solely on

the individual or the environment but that it is an ongoing process that involves the

individual transacting with their environment (Cooper et al.,2001). The Transactional

59
model of stress as proposed by Lazarus (1966), suggest that stress results from the

transaction or the interaction between the individual and the environment.

The amount of stress present in a job is related to employee satisfaction and

commitment. Stressors range from environmental ones (noise, heat, inadequate

ventilation) to interpersonal ones (organizational politics, conflicts with co-workers)

to organizational ones (pressure to avoid making mistakes, worrying about the

security of the job). Some jobs, such as intensive care unit nurse and military fighter

pilot, are inherently very stressful. Another source of stress has to do with the roles

people are expected to fulfil on and off the job. Role ambiguity is uncertainty about

what our responsibilities are in the job. Role conflict involves contradictory demands

at work; it can also involve conflict between fulfilling ones role as an employee and

other roles in life, such as the role of parent, friend, or community volunteer.

Generally speaking, the higher the stress level, the lower job satisfaction tends to be.

But not all stress is bad, and some stressors actually make us happier!

Stress has been found to be a strong predictor of personal and work related

outcomes. It can be defined as a physiological and psychological reaction to relatively

excessive demands made on a person. It can be classified into two broad categories as

personal stress and occupational stress. Kahn et al. (1964) was the first to describe

organizational stress in general and role stress in particular. Cooper and Marshall

(1978) identified over 40 interacting factors which could be identified as sources of

work stress. They grouped these into categories and proposed six major causes of

stress at work. These six major categories are identified as factors intrinsic to the job,

role in the organization, relationships at work, career development, organizational

structure and climate, organizational interface with outside.

60
 Consensus emerges in much of the literature as to what the major

consequences (or outcomes/strains) of occupational stress are. Most researchers agree

that strains can be classified into three major types: psychological, physical, and

behavioural. The first major type of strain resulting from stressors is that of

psychological strain (also referred to as psychological health). Harrison (1978) posed

that strain refers to the deviation from normal responses and that psychological strain

included responses such as job dissatisfaction, depression, lowered self-esteem and

unsolved problems. The second major strain resulting from exposure to stressors is

that of physical strain which is hypothesised to manifest in symptoms such as high

blood pressure, changes in blood eosinophils, and elevated serum cholesterol

(Harrison, 1978). Finally, the third classification of strain is that of behavioural strain.

Quick et al. (1986) suggest that behavioural changes are among the earliest and most

easily recognised signs of increases in stress. Research has associated increased

cigarette smoking, increased alcohol and recreational drug abuse, violence, stuttering,

overeating, and frequent utilisation of health care services as symptoms of

behavioural strain (Harrison, 1978; Quick et al., 1986; Edwards et al., 1998).

Understanding, preventing and managing stress is extremely important for promoting

human well being and enhancing individual and organizational effectiveness.

1.14 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

1. Aviation Industry: Aviation is the practical aspect or art of aeronautics, being

the design, development, production, operation and use of aircraft, especially

heavier-than-air aircraft (Wikipedia, 2014). Aviation industry or business

comprise of the companies involved in air transport (Collinsdictionary.com,

2014).

61
 2. Professional : According to MacMillian Dictionary, a professional is someone

who has special skills or qualifications. He is the one who is engaged in a

given activity as a source of livelihood or as a career (The American Heritage

Dictionary, 2014). For the purpose of present study, professionals refers to the

employees who have acquired special skills and expertise to enable themselves

to work in Aviation Industry (e.g. Air Crew including Pilots, Navigators,

Flying Stewards, Air hostesses, In flight technicians and engineers; Ground

view services such as Air traffic controlling, cargo handling, security

management, customer relationship management, airport services, aircraft

maintenance and other support services; administrative services such as

finance, accounts, marketing, HR services, IT services and public relations).

3. Job Attitudes : According to Judge et al. (2012), Job attitudes refer to set of

evaluations of ones job that constitute ones feelings toward, beliefs about,

and attachment to ones job (Wikipedia, 2014). It refers to positive or negative

evaluations that employees hold about various facets of their work

environment. For the purpose of present study, three job attitudes that have the

greatest potential to influence the behaviour of employees have been identified

and used namely job satisfaction, job environment and organizational

commitment.

1.15 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The fundamental objective of this study is to determine the relationship

between personality and job attitudes in Aviation Industry. A better understanding of

the personality profiles and work place attitudes of professionals entering civil

aviation may help develop better selection, training, and safety programs for the civil

aviation industry. Use of personality measures in the selection of professionals in

62
aviation will definitely reap potential benefits. Even if personality criteria are not

formalized, self-selection together with formal selection will ultimately result in

increased homogeneity of people belonging to the same organization in terms of

personality. The present research makes a contribution by way of adding new

knowledge to the application of personality theory to aviation employees work

attitudes which in turn can pave the way for better management of human assets in

this budding industry. Application of the results would definitely throw light on this

relatively unexplored section of civil aviation industry which offers career

opportunities that suit many interests and backgrounds but at the same time search for

amalgam of certain personality traits along with a skill set that best suit the

challenging and unique work environment. It is further anticipated that the study

would provide worthy information not only to academic community, but also to

practitioners that would facilitate them to make knowledgeable managerial decisions.

Hence, the study exploring the relationship between specific personality traits and

work attitudes boast ample implication in the mounting industry. Although a great

deal of effort within the aviation community has been focused on ensuring technical

expertise, research on the role of positive job attitudes in this inimitable industry is

quite meagre. Looking into the significance of Human capital for this industry, the

present study explores this esoteric facet of Indian Aviation industry.

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