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2. Average Power
Power absorbed or supplied during one cycle
5. Power Factor
A measure of the angle between current and voltage phasors
VM I M
p( t ) = [cos( v i ) + cos(2 t + v + i )]
2
1060 1060
V I
P = M M cos( v i ) It does not matter I= = = 3.5315( A)
2 who leads 2 + j 2 2 245
VM = 10, I M = 3.53, v = 60, i = 15
If voltage and current are in phase
1
v = i P = VM I M Purely P = 35.3 cos( 45) = 12.5W
2 resistive
Since inductor does not absorb power
If voltage and current are in quadrature one can use voltages and currents across
the resistive part
v i = 90 P = 0 Purely
inductive or 2
VR = 1060 = 7.0615(V )
capacitive 2 + j2
1
P = 7.06 3.53W
2
LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the average power absorbed by each resistor,
the total average power absorbed and the average power
supplied by the source
Verification
I = I1 + I 2 = 345 + 5.3671.57
If voltage and current are in phase
1 1 2 2 I = 8.1562.10( A)
v = i P = VM I M = RI1M = 1 V M
2 2 VM I M
1245
2 R P= cos( v i )
I1 = = 345( A) 2
4 1
Psupplied = 12 8.15 cos(45 62.10)
1 2
P4 = 12 3 = 18W
2
1245 1245
I2 = = = 5.3671.57( A)
2 j1 5 26.37
1
P2 = 2 5.362 (W ) = 28.7W
2
LEARNING EXTENSION Find average power absorbed by each resistor
I j4 4 90
I2 = I= 2.6886.6
1260 4 j4 4 2 45
I=
Zi I 2 = 1.9041.6
1
I2 P4 = 4 1.902 (W )
2
Z i = 2 + (4 || j 4)
Loop Equations
I1 = 120
Alternative Procedure
430 = j 2 I 2 + 4( I 2 + 120)
Node Equations
430 480 3.46 + j 2 48
I2 = = V V 430
4 j2 4.47 26.57 120 + 4 + 4 =0
4 j2
44.58177.43 430 V4
I2 = = 9.97204( A) I2 =
4.47 26.57 2j
V4 = 4( I1 + I 2 ) = 4(12 + 9.97204)(V )
= 4(12 9.108 j 4.055)(V ) = 19.92 54.5(V )
1 VM2 1 19.922 Average Power For resistors
P4 = = = 49.6W 2
2 R 2 4 1 1 1 V
P = VM I M cos( v i ) P = RI M =
2 M
P 2 j = 0(W ) 2 2 2 R
LEARNING EXTENSION Determine average power absorbed/supplied by each
element
V 240 V 24 14.77 j1.85
I1 = = = 4.62 j 0.925
2 2
I1 = 4.71 11.32( A)
I1
120 V 12 14.77 + j1.85 j
I2 I2 = =
j2 j2 j
1.85 + j 2.77
I2 = = 0.925 + j1.385( A) = 1.67123.73( A)
2
1
Node Equation P2 = 2 4.712 = 22.18(W ) For resistors
2
V 240 V 120 V 1 14.882 1 2 1 VM2
+ + = 0 j4 P4 = = 27.67(W ) P = RI M =
2 j2 4 2 4 2 2 R
2 j (V 24) + 2(V 12) + jV = 0 1
P120 = 12 1.67 cos(0 123.73) = 5.565(W )
2
(2 + 3 j )V = 24 + j 48 1
24 + j 48 2 j 3 192 + j 24 P 24 0 = 24 4.71 cos(0 + 11.32) = 55.42(W )
V= = 2
2 + j3 2 j3 13 Average Power Check :
= 14.887.125(V ) 1 Pabsorbed = 22.18 + 27.67 + 5.565(W )
P = VM I M cos( v i )
= 14.77 + j1.85(V ) 2 Psupplied = 55.42(W )
MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER
ZTH = RTH + jX TH
1 | Z L || VOC |2 RL
PL =
2 | Z L + ZTH |2 RL2 + X L2
Z L + ZTH = ( RL + RTH ) + j ( X L + X TH )
| Z L + ZTH |2 = ( RL + RTH ) 2 + ( X L + X TH ) 2
Z L = RL + jX L
1 | VOC |2 RL
1 PL =
PL = VLM I LM cos(VL I L ) 2 ( RL + RTH ) 2 + ( X L + X TH ) 2
2
PL
1 = 0
= | VL || I L | cos(VL I L ) X L X L = X TH
2
PL
VL =
ZL
VOC | VL |= ZL = 0 RL = RTH
Z L + ZTH
| VOC | RL
Z L + ZTH
V L I L = V L Z L |V | Z Lopt = ZTH
*
IL = | I L |= L
Z L V I = Z L | ZL | 1 | VOC |2
L L PLmax =
2 4 RTH
Z L = RL + jX L tan(Z L ) = X L
RL
1 RL
cos = cos(VL I L ) =
1 + tan 2 RL2 + X L2
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load
1 | VOC |2
Z Lopt = *
ZTH PLmax =
2 4 RTH
Remove the load and determine the Thevenin equivalent of remaining circuit
2 320
I1 VOC = 4 40 = = 5.26 9.64
6 + j1 6.089.64
1 5.262
PLmax = = 2.45(W )
2 4 1.41
We are asked for the value of the
power. We need the Thevenin voltage
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load
1 | VOC |2
Z Lopt = *
ZTH PLmax =
2 4 RTH
40 = V x' + ( 2 + j 4) I1
KVL V X' = 2 I1
40 = (4 + j 4) I1 = ( 4 245) I1
40
I1 = = 0.707 45( A)
4 245
KVL
VOC = 2 I1 40 = 1 j1 4 = 3 j1 = 10 161.5
Next: the short circuit current ...
LEARNING EXAMPLE (continued)... 1 | VOC |2
Z Lopt = *
ZTH PLmax =
2 4 RTH
Original circuit LOOP EQUATIONS FOR SHORT
CIRCUIT CURRENT
V x" + j 4 I + 2( I I SC ) 4 = 0
40 + 2( I SC I ) j 2 I SC = 0
CONTROLLING VARIABLE
V x" = 2( I SC I )
Substitute and rearrange
(4 + j 4) I 4 I SC = 4
2 I + (2 j 2) I SC = 4 I = (1 j1) I SC + 2
4(1 + j )[(1 j ) I SC + 2] 4 I SC = 4
I SC = 1 j 2( A) = 5 116.57
VOC = 2 I1 40 = 1 j1 4 = 3 j1 = 10 161.57
ZTH = 2 45 = 1 j1 Z Lopt = 1 + j1
1 ( 10 ) 2
PLmax = = 1.25(W )
2 4
LEARNING EXTENSION Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load
1 | VOC |2
Z L = ZTH
opt *
PL =
max
2 4 RTH
4j
ZTH = j 2 + (2 || j 2) = j 2 +
2 + j2
4 8 j8
ZTH = = = 1 j ()
2 + j2 8
VOC = 120 + j 2 I
Z Lopt = 1 + j ()
+ = 12 + j 2 9(1 j )
= 6 + j18
VOC 1 360
VOC = 18.97471.57(V ) PLmax = = 45(W )
2 4
I
| VOC |2 = 62 + 182 = 360
360 = ( 2 + j 2) I
36( 2 j 2)
I= = 9(1 j ) = 12.73 45
8
LEARNING EXTENSION Find Z L for maximum average power transfer.
Compute the maximum average power supplied to the load
1 | VOC |2
Z L = ZTH
opt *
PL =
max
2 4 RTH
ZTH
j 2 ( 2 j 2)
V j2 ZTH = j 2 || ( 2 j 2) =
2 + j2 j2
KVL
+ ZTH = 2 + j 2()
VOC
Z Lopt = 2 j 2()
1 720
j2 PLmax = = 45(W )
V j2 = 240 = 2490 2 4 2
j2 j2 + 2
VOC = 120 + 2490 = 12 + j 24(V )
| VOC |2 = 12 2 + 24 2 = 720
EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUES
1 2
R I eff
2
= IM
2
For a sinusoidal signal
The effective value is the equivalent DC x (t ) = X M cos( t + )
value that supplies the same average power the effective value is
X
X eff = M
If current is periodic with period T 2
1
t 0 +T 1 t 0 +T 2
Pav =
T
p(t )dt = R T i (t )dt 1
For sinusoidal case Pav = VM I M cos( v i )
t0 t0 2
I eff : Pav = Pdc
If current is DC (i (t ) = I dc ) then Pav = Veff I eff cos( v i )
Pdc = RI dc
2
t 0 +T
T =3 1
= x
2
X rms (t )dt
T t0
0 0 2
3 1
16 3 32
= 3 t = 3
2
v ( t ) dt 2
0 0
1 32
Vrms = = 1.89(V )
3 3
LEARNING EXAMPLE Compute the rms value of the voltage waveform and use it to
determine the average power supplied to the resistor
T = 4( s ) i (t )
R = 2
R
t 0 +T
1
= x
2
i 2 (t ) = 16; 0 t < 4 X rms (t )dt
T t0
I rms = 4( A)
Pav = RI rms
2
= 32(W )
LEARNING EXTENSION Compute rms value of the voltage waveform
T =4 t 0 +T
1
= x
2
X rms (t )dt
T t0
v = 2t
2
12 1 8
Vrms = ( 2 t ) 2
dt = t 3 = (V )
40 3 0 3
LEARNING EXTENSION Compute the rms value for the current waveforms and use
them to determine average power supplied to the resistor
t 0 +T
i (t ) 1
= x
2
X rms (t )dt
T t0
R = 4 R Pav = I rms
2
R
T =6
1 2 4 6
8 + 32 + 8
2
I rms = 4dt + 16dt + 4dt = =8 P = 8 4 = 32(W )
6 0 2 4 6
T =8
1 2 6
2
I rms = 16dt + 16dt = 8 P = 32(W )
8 0 4
THE POWER FACTOR
+
I M i V
Z L V z
M v
I
v
i
V = ZI V = Z + I
v = z + i
1 Papparent = Vrms I rms
P = VM I M cos( v i ) = Vrms I rms cos( v i )
2
P
pf = = cos( v i ) = cos z P = Vrms I rms pf
Papparent 90 z < 0
current leads
pf z
(capacitiv e)
0 90 pure capacitive
0 < pf < 1 90 < z < 0 leading or capacitive
1 0 resistive 0 < z 90
V
0 < pf < 1 0 < z < 90 lagging or inductive current lags
0 90 pure inductive (inductive )
LEARNING EXAMPLE Find the power supplied by the power company.
Determine how it changes if the power factor is changed to 0.9
P = Vrms I rms pf
cos z = 0.707 z = 45
Current lags the voltage
| S |= Vrms I ms
S = Vrms v [I rms i ]* | S |= P pf
capacitive
S = Vrms I rms v i
S = Vrms I rms cos( v i ) + j Vrms I rms sin( v i ) Another useful form
Vrms = ZI rms S = ( ZI rms ) I rms
*
= Z | I rms |2
P Q
Active Power P = R | I rms |2
Reactive Power Z = R + jX
Q = X | I rms |2
ANALYSIS OF BASIC COMPONENTS
RESISTORS
Q=0
INDUCTORS
CAPACITORS
inductive
inductive
P = Re{S} =| S | cos( v i ) =| S | pf
capacitive
40kW
pf = 0.84 lagging
P = Re{S} =| S | cos( v i ) =| S | pf
P 40 capacitive
| S L |= = = 47.62kVA | QL |= | S L |2 P 2 = 25,839(VA)
pf .84
|S |
S = VI * | I L |= L = 216.45( A) rms
| VL | I L = 216.45 32.86( A) rms
pf = cos( v i ) v i = 32.86
Slosses = ( Z line I L ) I L* = Z line | I L |2
Slosses = (0.1 + j 0.25)(216.45) 2 = 4,685 + j11,713VA
Balance of power
Ssupplied = Slosses + Sload
= 4.685 + j11.713 + 40 + j 25.839 = 44.685 + j 37.552kVA
LEARNING EXTENSION Determine line voltage and power factor at the supply end
0.12 j 0.18
60kW
pf = 0.85 lagging
P = Re{S} =| S | cos( v i ) =| VL | | I L | pf
S L = VL I L* | I L |=
P
= 320.86( A) rms
| VL | pf
v i = cos 1 ( pf ) v i = 31.79
I L = 320.86 31.79( A) rms = 272.72 j169.03( A) rms
VS = Zline I L + VL = (0.12 + j 0.18)(272.72 j169.03) + 220
VS = 283.15 + j 28.81(V ) rms = 284.615.81(V ) rms VS
5.81
The phasor diagram helps in visualizing VL
the relationship between voltage and current IL 31.79
Operating Conditions
Correcting to pf=0.9
P = Re{S} =| S | cos( v i ) =| S | pf
P 50
| Sold |= = = 62.5kVA | Qold |= | Sold |2 P 2 = 37.5( kVA).
pf .80
1 pf new
2
Q
cos new = 0.95 tan new = = 0.329 = new Qnew = 0.329 P = 16.43kVA
pf new P
Qcapacitor = Qold Qnew = 37.5 16.43 = 21.07 kVA
1 pf new
2
Q
cos new = 0.94 tan new = = 0.363 = new Qnew = 0.363 P = 36.3kVA
pf new P
Qcapacitor = Qold Qnew = 100.02 36.3 = 63.72kVA
Basic circuit.
Neutral
current
is zero
P = Vrms I rms
I aA
31A
= 0.2 Arms
1A
Stereo on
KCL
Energy = p(t )dt = Paverage Time Outline of
I aA = I L + I R verification
E lights = 0.12kW 8 Hr + 0.12kW 7 Hr = 1.8kWh I bB = I S I R
E range = 7.2kW (2 + 1 + 1) Hr = 28.8kWh I nN = I S I L
E stereo = 0.024kW (5 + 3) Hr = 0.192kWh
Edaily = 30.792kWh Cost = $2.46 / day Esupplied = psupplied = Vrms I rms dt
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
If case is grounded then the supply is shorted and the fuse acts to open
the circuit
In normal operating mode the two currents induce canceling magnetic fluxes
x
Ground Vinyl lining (insulator)
fault
7200 V
10m
720V/m
One step applies 720 Volts to the
operator
LEARNING EXAMPLE A 7200V power line falls on the car and makes contact with it
7200V
Car body is good conductor
Tires are
insulators Wet Road
Option 1. Option 2:
Driver opens door and steps down Driver stays inside the car
Working with RMS values the problem is formally the same as a DC problem
LEARNING EXAMPLE Light dimming when AC starts
40 A
240
V AN = 120 = 119.5Vrms V AN 115Vrms
241
= 14.3812.1kVA = 14 + j 3kVA
S B = 1200 [41.67 36.9 ]
*
= 9.518.4kVA = 9 + j 3kVA
Rlines = 0.05
In = 0
IL = IH ( )
Plosses = 0.05 | I a |2 + | I b |2 = 0.625kW
Psaved = 0.522kW
Ib = Ia $ / year = 366(@ 0.08$ / kWh) Steady-state
Power Analysis
Option 2