G.

B R O E R S M A Pneumatic Transport of Fine

Granular Material
Frederic R. Harris, (Holland) N. V.,
Consulting Engineers,
The Hague, Netherlands

Investigations show that production efficiency of foundries is influenced strongly by the

nature and the use of means of transport. An important aspect of foundry transport is
that of moulding sand. Impressive gains in space, as well as a decrease in capital in-
vestment may be had by applying pneumatic transport of moulding sand. The paper
presents a basic approach to the nature of pneumatic transport of sand in a horizontal
and circular tube, and indicates an approach to the calculation of the pressure gradient
to be overcome. Although the analysis of the transport in a stationary laminar flow is
interesting, it appears that sand is carried through a narrow sector of the tube, sym-
metrical to the vertical plane, and below the horizontal plane [1 J.1 In the actual case of
sand transport in a turbulent air current through a tube with a rough inner wall, sand
is carried through the boundary layer at the complete circumference of the tube. It is
easily seen how to generalize the approach for santl transport in a turbulent air current
through a tube at an inclination to the horizontal, up to the vertical, and how to increase
sand transport by injecting air which increases the turbulence of the boundary layer
carrying the sand. After the various parameters for the stationary transport have been
deduced, it appears to be possible to analyze the introduction of the sand grains into the
air current as well as their acceleration to stationary motion [1 ].

Introduction containing sand grains, b y replacing a linear dimension related

N A horizontal tube, the sand grains may be carried
on horizontal trajectories in stationary motion. T h e sand grain
is sustained b y an upward lift f r o m the air, compensating for the
weight of the grain. T h e lift is connected with the air circulation
around the grain, and therefore with the velocity gradient, also
called rotation. In turbulent flow, the boundary layer shows
increasing rotation penetrating the b o u n d a r y layer f r o m the
center of the tube, and at the complete circumference of the tube,
a layer is available to carry sand grains.
This transport takes energy f r o m the air current, and the cal-
culation of the pressure gradient needed to effect this transport
can be approached in two different ways. First, one can try to
analyze the axial shear stresses in a turbulent boundary layer
1 Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper.
Contributed by the Materials Handling Division and presented
at the Materials Handling Conference, Boston, Mass., October 21-23,
1968, of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL
Manuscript received at A S M E Headquarters, July 26, 1968.
No. 68MH-26.
to the wall roughness, and occurring in the analysis of the shear
stresses in a turbulent b o u n d a r y layer without sand grains, b y
the thickness of the s u b - b o u n d a r y layer containing sand grains.
T h e rather impressive j u m p , under some conditions, in the air
flow resistance a c c o m p a n y i n g this analytical transition, is cor-
roborated b y experimental evidence. A second approach to cal-
culate the pressure gradient needed to effect the transport of the
sand grains, is to derive a statistical average of the air resistance
of the grains, and to multiply the average air resistance of a grain
b y the number of grains in the tube at the same time.
It will be assumed that the grains of sand carried b y the turbu-
lent air current through a horizontal and circular rough-walled
tube m a y be viewed as spheres of identical diameter S. This
diameter m a y be found as a representative diameter f r o m a
screen analysis of the sand grains. T h e velocity of the grain of
sand u is smaller than the local air velocity Vi, causing a relative
velocity between sand grain and air (vi u), which makes it
appear as if the sand grain is travelling upstream. This causes
ENGINEERS.
air resistance, and energy has to be drawn from the air current to
Paper
overcome it; i.e., the transport of sand requires additional energy

-Nomenclature-
inner radius of tube Wsi = rotation of the air current in a laminar boundary layer
H max largest amplitude f o u n d in a surface analysis of the t3i = rotation of the air current in a turbulent boundary
tube wall layer
1 = length of tube W3tm = average value of rotation in turbulent boundary layer
K = characteristic length in boundary layer; the so-called w3lci = rotation of air current at a distance of 1 / 2 5 f r o m the
mixing length wall, for laminar flow
radius vector W3wl = rotation of air current at a distance of 1 /s5 f r o m the
thickness of the sand-carrying boundary layer wall, for turbulent flow
thickness of sub-boundary layer, carrying most of the r = circulation
sand grains u =horizontal velocity of grain of sand, with respect to a
axial coordinate stationary observer
u, = average velocity of the sand grains
coordinate perpendicular to the wall of the tube,
i>i = local air v e l o c i t y
reckoned f r o m the wall
vm = average air velocitj'
5 = diameter of representative grain of sand
p = pressure of the air current
linear dimension (in Prandtl formula (29)) ti = axial shear stress in laminar flow
?3 = rotation of air current (Continued on next page)

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 to be added to the air current, in comparison to the air current
flowing through the tube without sand grains (at the same flow
capacity).
For stationary motion, and the trajectories being horizontal
lines (Fig. 1), the vertical lift acting from the air on the sphere is
described as:

L = pivi - u)TS (1)

In which:
L = vertical lift acting from air on the grain of sand;
p = density of the air;
Di = local air velocity; Fig. 1 Lift and weight vectors acting on sand grain (here, the case of
u = horizontal velocity of the grain of sand, with respect to a quasiiaminar flow, v n , V j i i = air velocity along streamlines I and II
at distance n5; Ei, E n = energy on streamlines I and II at distance nd.
stationary observer; Note that in quasiturbulent flow, the circulation T is connected to rotation
r = air circulation around the sphere; W 3 ( .

5 = diameter of representative grain of sand.

radius in the cross section is equal to the velocity gradient along
The air circulation around the grain of sand is related to the local
the radius. But then the rotation around any axis in a cross
rotation, or velocity gradient. Assuming rotatory symmetry in
section of the tube, and also around a horizontal one, is equal to
the air flow, one may define a velocity gradient 2>Ui/c)r, also called
(dt>i/dr). This means that the boundary layer along the com-
rotation:
plete circumference of the tube will be available to carry grains of
W3 = -(Dvi/Dr) (2) sand.
The circulation following from the rotation is defined b y :
In which, further:
r : : l/2ww3,S1 (3)
t3 = rotation of air current;
r = radius vector. In which, further:

The rotation vector is both perpendicular to the radius vector w3i = rotation in turbulent boundary layer, also being defined
and to the velocity vector. If one would connect a right hand by equation (2).
screw to the rotation vector, the direction of the right hand rota- Introducing this expression (3) in equation (1), one obtains:
tion of the w3 vector is that which causes the velocity vector to
turn through a square angle, in order to let it coincide with the L = '/iirpiv 1 u)wat83 (4)
radius vector, producing the same direction. The weight of a representative grain of sand is:
In a rough-walled tube, in which the air current may be turbu-
lent, the velocity profile appears to be rather flat for the major
Wlt = I y,8' (5)
part of the cross section. Only at the walls, a strong velocity b
gradient occurs. If the velocity gradient is negative, with in-
creasing radius, a lift toward the centerline of the tube may be In which, further:
produced. The component of this lift in the vertical direction
IFis = weight of a representative grain of sand, viewed as a
would then compensate for the weight of the grain of sand being
sphere;
transported on a horizontal trajectory in stationary motion.
y , = specific weight of material of grain of sand.
However, it is easily seen that one would obtain only a small
sector in the tube carrying grains of sand, viz., below the hori- For stationary motion of a sand grain, there should be equi-
zontal plane of symmetry, and symmetrical with respect to the librium between lift and weight. Or, applying equations (4)
vertical plane of symmetry. and (5):
In effect, in a turbulent boundary layer, the velocity gradient
3p(Vi - u)w3l = 7 , (6)
at the walls may be assumed to be representative for the rota-
tions occurring in the turbulent boundary layer. Actually, it For given values of p and y and where the rotation IV31 decreases,
will be assumed that the rotation around a perpendicular to the the relative speed of grain of sand and air increases. Or also,

-Nomenclature-
ro = axial shear stress in the turbulent boundary layer with- grain in turbulent flow
out sand grains, near the wall of the tube L = vertical lift acting from air on the sand grain
Tt = axial shear stress in the turbulent boundary layer IFis = weight of a representative sand grain, viewed as a
ys = specific weight of material of grain of sand sphere
p = density of the air e = turbulent mixing coefficient
Dsl = total air resistance of all sand grains occurring in the p. = dynamic viscosity of air
tube simultaneously, when flow around the sand 7 = kinematic viscosity of air
grains is quasiiaminar cd = coefficient of resistance
Ds, = total air resistance of all sand grains occurring in the h = integer
tube simultaneously; when the flow around the k integer
sand grains is quasiturbulent a = number of sand grains occurring in the tube simul-
Du = air resistance of a sand grain in laminar flow taneously
Dum = average value of the air resistance of a single sand K = coefficient in Prandtl's boundary layer theory
grain, when the flow around the sand grain is X = coefficient of resistance
quasiiaminar Xs = coefficient of resistance when the boundary layer is
D u = ah' resistance of a sand grain in turbulent flow carrying sand grains
Dim = average value of the air resistance of a single sand (ii = ratio of average velocities of sand grams and air

316 / M A Y 19 6 9 Transactions of the A S M E

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 where the rotation decreases, the sand grain velocity decreases.
A remark is here in place about the density of the air p.
As pressure decreases along the trajectory of the sand grain and
temperature also, density decreases. The previous remark es-
sentially applies to a given cross section, therefore. Assuming
that the motion of the representative grain of sand relative to the
air current is quasilaminar, its air resistance would be:
Du = 37TM(fi - u)8
In which, further:
Du = air resistance of a sand grain in laminar flow;
p = dynamic viscosity of air.
The flow around a spherical sand grain is laminar as long as:
[p(i - u)8/p] < 2320
However, before, the definition of quasilaminar was introduced
as in effect the grain of sand is moving through a turbulent
boundary layerand the application of (7) in this form is only
for the case of pure laminar flow.
Eliminating the relative velocity between air current and sand
grain, (t>i u ) from equations (6) and (7), one obtains:
Du = irpya8/pw3t
values of the rotation, iv3lm will be derived from the boundary
layer theory according to Prandtl, and the value of a constant is
entered according to measurements of Nikuradse.
This will be done after the next section, which essentially treats
the analysis of the axial shear stresses in a turbulent boundary
layer containing grains of sand. This leads to a further method
to calculate the added pressure gradient needed to transport sand
grains in the tube.
(7)
The thickness of the sand carrying boundary layer, ths is de-
fined as a multiple of the diameter of the representative sand
grain:
k, = h8 (14)
In which, further:
(8)
tls = thickness of the sand-carrying boundary layer;
h = integer.
T h e value of the integer h will be larger than 1, and may attain
values up to 10, say. However, a sub-boundary layer is carrying
most of the sand grains, and its thickness is defined by another
multiple of the diameter of the representative sand grain:
l b = k8 (15)
(9)

Assuming that the motion of the representative grain of sand k < h (16)
relative to the air has to be written in a more general form, as the In which, further:
case of laminar flow does not apply, one may make use of:
tbs, = thickness of sub-boundary layer, carrying most of the
Du = c/Mv, - uy(iw8>) (10) sand grains;
In which, further: k = integer.

Du = air resistance of a grain of sand in turbulent flow; The value of the integer k may be between 1 and 3, say.
cd = coefficient of resistance.

The coefficient of resistance is a function of the Reynolds num-

Analysis of Turbulent Boundary Layer
ber of the spherical grain of sand:
Due to the wall roughness, a boundary layer of appreciable
cd = f(p(vi - u)8/p) (11) thickness occurs, and Prandtl suggested an axial shear stress in
Eliminating the relative velocity between air current and sand the turbulent boundary layer following from:
grain, (vi u ) from equations (6) and (10), one obtains:
T, = p/ 2 (dy,/dy) 2 (17)
Du = (ir/72)(cdya'-8ypws,2) (12)
In which, further:
The number of sand grains occurring in the tube at the same time, r, = axial shear stress in the turbulent boundary layer;
amounts to: lv = characteristic length in boundary layer, the so-called
mixing length;
a = - (QJ/umyjt') (13) y = coordinate perpendicular to the wall of the tube,
7T
reckoned from the wall:
In which, further: y = a - r (18)
a =number of sand grains occurring in the tube at the same In which, further:
time;
Q, = total weight of sand grains transported through the tube a = inner radius of tube.
per second;
I = length of tube; The mixing length lv is related to the distance over which a dis-
um = average velocity of the sand grains. turbed air particle has been displaced.
Corresponding to Newton's formula for the shear stress in
B y multiplying the number of sand grains occurring in the tube laminar flow:
at the same time with the air resistance of one sand grain of
representative diameter, one would obtain the added resistance TI = pv(dvi/dy) (19)
to air flow through the tube due to the presence of the sand In which, further:
grains. When dividing this by the area of the cross section, and
by the length of the tube (or also, b y the volume of the tube) one v = kinematic viscosity of air;
would obtain the added pressure gradient needed to overcome T[ = axial shear stress in laminar flow;
the added flow resistance due to the presence of the sand grains.
one also writes:
It is not possible, however, to derive the total air resistance by
multiplying Du, and Du, as given by equations (9) and (12), r , = pe(cto,/ by) (20)
with a as given by equation (13), as equations (9) and (12) con-
tain the local value of the rotation w3l. For simplicity's sake, In which:
furthermore, average values are introduced for w31, say 103,,, to
e = /2(cWay) (21)
obtain the total air resistance of the sand grains occurring simul-
taneously in the tube, without lengthy integrations. The average In which, further:

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 e = turbulent mixing coefficient, the quantity corresponding lent b o u n d a r y layer, whereas in the laminar current only a
to the kinematic viscosity. A rough approximation for narrow sector below the horizontal plane of s y m m e t r y , and s y m -
the mixing length at the wall of the tube is: metrical with respect to the vertical plane of s y m m e t r y is avail-
able. Also, the turbulent boundary layer tends to attract sand
I. = x y (22) grains, and conversely causes increasing turbulence in the central
In which, further: air current of the tube, which makes possible stable transport of
sand grains in this part of the tube as well. As for the axial shear
x = coefficient, for which Nikuradse found 0.375; one m a y stress in the turbulent layer without sand grains, near the wall
also use 0.4, say. of the tube, one may write:

One m a y derive an expression relating the pressure gradient ro = \pv, 2 / 8 (28)

( b p / d x i ) and the axial shear stress r f r o m the equilibrium condi-
tion for the axial forces on the air current : In which, further:

r = -ir(dp/dx,) (23) To = axial shear stress in the turbulent boundary layer with
o u t sand grains, near the wall of the tube;
In which, further: v, = average air v e l o c i t y ;
X = coefficient of resistance:
p = pressure of the air current;
Xi = axial coordinate. \ = [8*7[(hi(a/cr) - l'A)2] (29)

Eliminating the shear stress r , from equations (17) and (23), in which, further:
one obtains:
<7 = linear dimension.
(&,/by) = (!//,.)(-r(dp/ax,)A)'/' (24)
Actually, cr is proportional to the roughness of the tube wall.
F r o m equation (18), b} r differentiation, it follows t h a t : One often writes instead of a, H m a x , which is the largest amplitude
found in a surface analysis. Then:
(dvt/dy) = ~(bv,/l>r) (25)
X = [87(n(///mx) - IV2) 2 ] (30)
Introducing equations (2) and (24) m t o equation (25), one m a y
obtain the rotation tf 3 , in the turbulent b o u n d a r y layer f r o m : In which, further:

wu = (1 /x(a - rm-r(bp/dxi)/2p)'/' (26) H,ax = largest amplitude found in a surface analysis of the
tube wall.
Eliminating the shear stress 7"/ between equations (19) and (23),
and then eliminating y f r o m the result b y using equation (25), Transporting sand grains, these will be mainly carried b y the
and after that eliminating (di'i/dr) b y using equation (2), one turbulent boundary layer, which m a y have a thickness as defined
obtains the rotation W31 in a laminar current f r o m : b y equation (14), where the integer h m a y attain values of the
order of up to 10, say. One may view the b o u n d a r y layer carry-
w3, = ~(r/2p)(dp/dxt) (27) ing sand grains as a sublayer, because this layer induces turbu-
lence in the central part of the tube. This means that between
In which, further:
the flow showing a rather flat velocity profile and wall, one meets
W31 = rotation of the air current in a laminar b o u n d a r y layer. first a boundary layer with some sand grains, and then the sub-
boundary layer carrying the major part of the sand grains.
A numerical comparison of the rotations for laminar and tur-
One m a y now define another coefficient of resistance b y intro-
bulent boundary layers will now be made, for the example:
ducing the thickness of the sand-carrying sub-boundary layer as
y = y2b- a = 5 c m ; (dp/dxi) = - 0 . 1 X 1 0 " 3 k g / c m 3 ; p = 1.25
wall roughness:
X 10~ 9 k g s e c 2 / c m 4 ; p. = 1.8 X 1 0 - ' k g s e c / c m 2 ; >c = 0.375.
I.e., at a distance of one half of the representative sand grain = [S7(l"(/A-5) - IVi)-} (31)
diameter from the wall:
In which, further:
u'3,,,1 = 1.4 X 103 s e c - '
Xs = coefficient of resistance, when the turbulent boundary
Wswt = 22.5 X 103 s e c - ' layer is carrying sand grains.

In which, further: From equation (23), one obtains:

W3( = rotation of air current at a distance of Y^h from the (dp/bxr) = - 2 (TO/A) (32)
wall, for laminar flow;
Substituting X, for Xo in equation (28), and eliminating To between
Wswt = rotation of air current at a distance of from the
this equation and equation (32), one obtains:
wall, for turbulent flow.

Apparently, for the sand grain of representative diameter at the (dp/dXl), = - (X,p vj/ia) (33)
wall, W3Wt is 16 times jo3,i.
In which, further:
For boundary layers having a thickness of five to ten times the
representative grain diameter of the sand, say, the rotation in a (dp/iixi)s = pressure gradient needed to maintain the trans-
turbulent layer is appreciably larger than in a laminar layer. port of sand grains in a turbulent boundary
Penetrating the b o u n d a r y layer from the center of the tube, layer.
the rotation in a turbulent layer is increasingly larger in c o m -
parison with the rotation in a laminar layer, at the same distance T h e following numerical example is given n o w :
from the wall.
p = 1.25 X 10"9 kgsec2/cm4; p = 1.8 X 1 0 " 7 k g s e c / c m 2 ;
Therefore, the turbulent boundary layer has a greater capacity
8 = 0.1 c m ; a = 5 c m ; v, = 1735 c m / s e c ; and k = 0.375.
to carry sand grains than the laminar boundary layer, ceteris
paribus. Choosing for k values of 1, 2 and 3, one finds for (dp/d.t'i), values
M o r e o v e r , as seen before, the complete circumference of the of - 0 . 0 4 X 10" 3 , - 0 . 0 7 X 10" 3 , and - 0 . 1 2 X 10~ 3 k g / c m 3 ,
tube is available for carrying sand grains, for the case of a turbu- respectively.

318 / M A Y 1969 Transactions of the A S M E

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 It is noted that the direction of the boundary layer does not
occur in the equations; i.e., in a vertical tube, sand grains are
carried essentially as in a horizontal tube. Or also, a pneumatic
system for carrying sand grains can have any direction.
Calculation of the Pressure Gradient From the Air Resistance
of the Sand Grains
For the cases of quasiiaminar flow, and of turbulent flow around
the sand grains transported in the turbulent boundary layer,
as defined by equations (14-16), (9) and (12), give the
(apparent) air resistance of a single grain. T o simplify the
calculations for the total air resistance of the sand grains
carried in the turbulent boundary layer, iv3,, the rotation will be
replaced by an average value to3lm.
First, the case of quasiiaminar flow around the sand grains
transported in the turbulent boundary layer will be investigated.
As Du, and therefore Z>n, are inversely proportional to the
rotation, it seems defensible to choose for iv3im, the value of iv3! at
half the depth of the sand-carrying boundary layer, as w3l is in-
versely proportional to (o r). In equation (26) one now in-
troduces (a ;) = l^hb, and also r: :a, as %h8 <Ka- Assuming
that the major part of the pressure gradient is needed to effect
the transport of the sand grains properly speaking, and only a
very minor part to overcome the friction of the tube wall, the
pressure gradient in the equation for w 3[m is introduced as:
(>p/cta,) = (bp/dx,),:: -DJ/vaH (34)
In which, further:
Dsi = total air resistance of all sand grains occurring in the
tube simultaneously, when the flow around the sand
grains is quasiiaminar.
This leads to:
w3!m:: (2Dsl/wpaiy^-/)d& (35)
In which, further:
w3i, = average rotation.
Returning to the equation for a , the number of sand grains
occurring simultaneously in the tube, for the average velocity of
sand grains it is assumed that:
um-.:V2Vm (36)
The total air resistance of all sand grains occurring simultaneously
in the tube, follows from:
Ds, = aDu, (37)
In which, further:
D,lm = average value of the air resistance of a single sand grain,
in laminar flow:
DUm = wpy,8/pw3im (3S)
Combining equations (13), and (35-38), one obtains:
D,,"! = 12 ( i^tt ) '/!;<-/i 2 / m ' / ? / v - Q , / p 'h8v, (39)
Introducing the running example, for which: p = 1.25 X 10~ 3
kgsec 2 /em J , p. = 1.8 X 10~7 kgsec/cm 2 , a = 5cm, I = 1000 cm,
Q, = 1 kg/sec, 8 = 0.1 cm, vm 1735 cm, n = 0.375, and taking
for h values of 2,5 and 10, respectively, one obtains for D values
of 9, 15 and 24 kg, respectively. Applying equation (34), one
obtains for (dp/d.r,), values of - 0 . 1 1 X 10~ 3 , - 0 . 1 9 X 10" 3 and
- 0 . 3 0 X 10~ 3 k g / c m 3 , respectively.
Qualitatively, a reasonable agreement with the results derived
from the shear stresses in the turbulent boundary layer at the
wall is obtained.
Secondly, the case of turbulent flow around the sand grains
transported in the turbulent boundary layer will be investigated.
As Z), ,, and therefore Du,,,, are inversely proportional to the
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square of the rotation, it now seems defensible to choose for via,,,
the value of w3i at the boundary of the sand-carrying boundary
layer, as v 3 t is inversely proportional to (a ?).
In equation (26), one now introduces (a r) = h8, and also
?: :a, as h8 a. Assuming again that the major part of the
pressure gradient is needed to effect the transport of the sand
grains properly speaking, and only a very minor part to overcome
the friction of the tube wall, the pressure gradient in the equation
for w3im is introduced as:
(dp/dx,) = (dp/dxi),:: D,,/waH (40)
In which, further:
Dat = total air resistance of all sand grains occurring in the
tube simultaneously, when the flow around the sand
grains is quasiturbulent.
This now leads to:
wllm:-.(DJ2irpaiy^/xh8 (41)
As for the average velocity of the sand grains, it is assumed that:
u m = <K, (42)
In which, further:
4> = coefficient.
The total air resistance of all sand grains, occurring simul-
taneously in the tube, now follows from:
Dsl = aDum (43)
In which, further:
D\tm average value of the air resistance of a single sand
grain, in turbulent flow:
>,,, = (ir/7'2)(c,,y 282/ piv3im-) (44)
Combining equations (13), and (41) . . . (44), one obtains:
DJ = Tva.K2h2cdy,8l2QJHvm (45)
One may apply the example as used above, with, additionally,
cd = 0.4, and ys = 2 X 10~ 3 k g / c m 3 . Kit = 2, 5 and 10, and one
would obtain a result as derived above for Dsl, then, (j> abt. 10~ 3 ,
2 X 10" 3 , and 3 X 10" 3 . This would mean that um:: 1.5, 3 and
5 cm/sec, and one would have the picture of a slow moving tube
of sand along the walls.
Discussion
In all three analyses of the pressure gradient needed to main-
tain the transport of the sand grains in the boundary layer, the
marked influence of the factor h is clear. The higher the ratio of
sand carrying boundary layer thickness and diameter of the
representative sand grain, the higher the pressure gradient needed
to carry the sand grain.
Conversely, the pressure gradient needed to maintain the
transport of the same quantity of sand grains, in weight units per
second, decreases strongly when the thickness of the sand-carry-
ing boundary layer decreases.
Firstly, when the thickness of the sand-carrying boundary
layer decreases, the rotation io3l and the circulation F increase.
From the lift formula, it follows that the relative velocity of air
current and sand grain decreases, when the circulation increases.
But then, the velocity of the sand grain with respect to a sta-
tionary observer increases.
Secondly, lateral interference effects decrease, when the thick-
ness of the sand-carrying boundary layer decreases; i.e., when the
mixing length decreases. This means that the flow of the sand
grains becomes more stratified.
A minimum thickness of the sand-carrying boundary layer may
be expected, when the wall is smooth, i.e., one should lubricate
MAY 1 9 69 / 319
 the wall, to prevent the possibility that sand grains become
attached to it. Lubrication is also possible by air, of course.
The smoother the wall surface, the smaller the lateral mixing
effects will be, and the thinner the sand-carrying boundary layer
will remain.
Introducing the lubricating air tangentially at the circum-
ference, at regular intervals one increases the turbulence, and the
sand carrying potential to a certain extent as well, of course.
Investigations of Layouts
Figs. 2 - 4 show parts, and a complete layout which were used
to investigate the introduction of sand into the air current, in-
cluding its acceleration to stationary motion, transport of sand
b y the air current, and the separation of sand from the air current.
The essential elements in Fig. 4 are an air ventilator, a sand
elevator, a horizontal tube, a cyclone, and a vessel standing on the
platform of a weighing machine to catch and weigh the sand
flowing from the cyclone.
The vertical sand transport from elevator to the horizontal tube
of P V C is regulated by a simple clasp around the P V C tube.
Air pressure is measured at the ventilator inlet, at its exhaust,
and at the cyclone intake. Air flow is measured in the ventilator
exhaust.
Essential for a successful introduction of the sand are dry and
loose sand grains. W e t sand causes dirtying of the pneumatic
system, and a decrease in sand transport efficiency, if not a com-
plete blocking of passages.
In case one wants to add cement and water to a low percentage,
this should be done close to the cyclone, although water is suc-
cessfully added to the system quite near the sand inlet, see Fig. 4.
Fluidized vertical sand transport from elevator to horizontal
tube causes a marked decrease in the pressure gradient needed to
effect the horizontal transport of a given quantity of sand in
weight units per time unit.
Therefore, it is desirable to connect the sand elevator to the
compressed ah system, when available. In the layout shown in
Fig. 4, the compressed air was taken from the laboratory system
and introduced through an inlet of the cover of the elevator. An
effective pressure of 0.1 k g / c m 2 suffices already to cause fluidiza-
tion and to guarantee a regular supply of dry and loose sand
grains to the horizontal tube. In the experimental layout, the
system from sand inlet tube to open end of cyclone was sub-
mitted to a pressure difference of 0.08 k g / c m 2 . Sand transport
proved to be controllable from 0 to 1.6 kg/sec.
One may also effect a pressure differential between elevator
and horizontal tube, to obtain fluidization, b y introducing the
outlet of the sand elevator into the throat of a venturi tube.
This idea was realized b y Louis Bakker in the venturi shown in
Fig. 2.
The sand outlet to the venturi tube can be closed by a sliding
valve. Noting the very low pressure needed to obtain fluidiza-
tion, an alternative system was used, where the compressed air
tube from the laboratory system leading to the cover of the sand
elevator was disconnected, and a connection arranged between
from sand
elevator
Fig. 2 Louis Bakker's venturi for introducing sand from elevator into h o r i z o n t a l tube of pneumatic a n d
transport system
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the hole, made for taking the static pressure of the ventilator
exhaust, and the top of the elevator. See for this, the tube
marked "alternative connection. . . " in Fig. 4. Then, in the
elevator, an effective pressure with respect to the ambient at-
mosphere of 0.08 k g / c m 2 occurred during a test run.
A typical result was, e.g., 0.16 kg/sec air transported 0.97
k g / s e c sand. The pressure gradient over the horizontal circular
tube of 700 cm length and of an internal diameter of S.85 cm was
abt. 0.07 X 10" 3 k g / c m 3 .
It was observed that the sand flowed from the outlet of the
cyclone in a rotatoric symmetrical fashion.
In test runs at low air velocities, the sand flow passed through
a narrow sector of the outlet of the cyclone. Accelerating the air
current to an average velocity of abt. 16 X 103 cm/sec, the sand
flow was leaving the outlet of the rotatoric symmetrically.
The cyclone produced a high quality separation when trans-
porting Meuse river sand with grain sizes ranging from 0.02 to
0.07 cm. Only v e i y few and small sand particles appeared in the
air exit on top of the cyclone. Transporting North Sea beach
sand, the separation was worse. A real dust cloud appeared over
the air exit on top of the cyclone.
North Sea beach sand mixed with Limburg clay could be trans-
ported, but clogging of the cyclone outlet occurred now and then.
At an average velocity of 16 X 103 cm/sec, moistened sand
could be transported at a rate of abt. 0.8 kg/sec. Water was
added in the section marked in Fig. 4. Through twelve holes in
a vertical tube, each hole of 0.15 cm diameter, water was in-
jected at the rate of 0.04 X 10~ 3 cm 3 /sec. In another arrange-
ment, water was sprayed from a number of holes in a circularly
bent tube around and below the outlet of the cyclone, moistening
the outflowing sand.
From a second elevator, very fine sand was added in small
doses to the air currentthis was to imitate the addition of
cement, which occurs to a few percent in moulding sand.
The layout as described, and as shown in Fig. 4, could transport
sand at rates of up to 2 kg/sec, the conditions of pressure and
velocity being as given for the typical example above.
Franz Verijzer's Investigations
Franz Verijzer designed a filling head for moulding sand with
two types of air and sand mixers, and including a small sand ele-
vator. In Fig. 3, this filling head is sketched in exploded form.
The elements 2 and 3 can be used alternatively. Elements 5, 4, 3
(or 2) and 1 move into each other to obtain a complete filling
head-cum-elevator.
Air is injected axially, radially, and tangentially, and originat-
ing from the central compressed air system, as available in a
foundry.
An instanteneous supply is available in the cylindrical vessel to
which 2 (or 3) is connected.
The complete unit should be suspended from a derrick-crane
to bring it above the mould. Or, the unit should be suspended
near the moulding spaces, and the air/sand mixture carried
through a flexible tube connected to element 5. Water and
cement slill have to be added.
Transactions of the A S M E
 sand elevator

holes for
outlet

connection for
sand hose

cross section A-B

Fig. 3 Exploded v i e w of Franz Verijzer's filling head for m o u l d i n g sand ( w i t h t w o alternatives for inner
cone2 and 3)

Journal of Engineering for Industry MAY 1 9 69 / 321

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 During experiments in the Foundry of the R o y a l Shipbuilding
and Engineering C o m p a n y D e Schelde, Flushing ( T h e Nether-
lands), Verijzer had varying results. Great hindrance was
experienced f r o m the dust cloud around the filling head. M o r e -
over, arching occurred in the sand supply. This could be sup-
pressed b y having an effective pressure in the sand elevator, with
respect to the ambient atmosphere.
Verijzer's filling head is regularly applied as a booster of rough
granular material in laboratory installations.
Discussion and Some Conclusions
In test runs at low air velocities, the sand flow passed through
a narrow sector of the outlet of the cyclone at the end of the test
stand. In accordance with the theory presented, and the air
flow being laminar in the horizontal tube of 700 c m length, sand
grains can only be carried b y the air in the lower half of the tube,
and in the lower half of the tube only in a narrow sector s y m -
metrical plane of symmetry. T h e narrow sector flow in the tube
does correspond therefore with the narrow sector flow f r o m the
outlet of the cyclone, see also [1].
Accelerating the velocity of the air current, until turbulent
flow occurs in the tube, the sand flow was leaving the outlet of
322 / MAY 19 6 9
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the C3 r done over the complete circumference. In accordance
with the theory presented, now the turbulent b o u n d a r y layer
in the tube is carrying sand grains over the complete inner wall.
T h e thin tube of sand at the inner wall of the tube leaves the
outlet of the cyclone as a thin tube of sand. This mechanism is
very stable; merely b y decelerating and accelerating the v e l o c i t y
of the air current in the tube, one can change the character of the
outflow of the sand to that of narrow sector flow or full circum-
ferential flow again.
So m u c h for theory and experiment; as for practical applica-
tion, it is the simplicity of a pneumatic installation which at-
tracts the shop foreman, and the low capital investment and low
maintenance cost which attract the management.
A pneumatic system for carrying sand grains can have any
direction, as shown before the nature of the boundary, viz., the
presence of rotations, is essential for the sand-carrying capacity,
independent of the direction of the boundary.
Reference
1 Broersma, G., Behaviour of Granular Materials, The Technical
Publishing Company, H. Stam Ltd. Culemborg, The Netherlands
(at press).
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