Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
INQUIRY
ANO
RESEARCH
DESIGN
Choosing
Among
:hve
Traditions
JOHN W. CRESWELL
Five Different
Qualitative Studies
.. 27
28 T QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Five Different Qualitative Siudies T 29
The study ends with the researcher reflecting on the use of the 3. The author then facuses on one event (or epiphany) in the lile of
metaphor as a useful framework for analyzing stories o informants the individual.
in lile history projects. Furthermore, the study illustrates the benefits
o the "in-depth autobiographical interview methodology" for estab- 4. The author interprets the meaning of this event (e.g., metaphor,
empowerment).
lishing the human dimension o mentally disordered persons and for
"contextualizing" the interview information within the ongoing lile 5. The author relates the meaning to the larger literature.
experiences o Vonnie Lee.
6. The author discusses the lessons leamed in conducting the study.
The author tells the story of a single individual, thus providing a A PHENOMENOLOGY
central focus for the study. (Riemen, 1986; see Appendix C)
tions, and their interviews are tape-recorded. The specific steps in data The study reports briefly the philosophical perspecbve of the phe-
analysis used are as follows: nomenological approach.
l. The researcher first reads a11descriptions in their entirety. The author studies a single phenomenon, the caring interaction.
2. The author then extracts significant statements from each descrip- The researcher "brackets" preconceptons so as not to inject hy-
bono potheses, questions, or personal experiences into the study.
3. These statements are formulated into meanings, and these rnean- The researcher advances specific phenomenological data analysis
steps.
ings are clustered into themes.
4. The researcher integrates these themes into a narrative description. The author returns to the philosophical base at the end of the study.
Grounded theory aspects. A distinguished qualitative researcher This discussion includes procedural issues such as whether the can-
(Smith) and a counseling psychologist (Morrow) both bring their didates are to be selected from within the district and the manner of
talents to this study. They present a visual model of their substantive conducting the interviews. Then the author provides a description of
theory, the theory that explains the wornen's actions in response to several candidates, beginning with "Mr. Seventh," not following the
feelings of threat, danger, helplessness, powerlessness, and lack of specific order of interviews but rather following the candidates' final
control. The authors use rigorous procedures, such as collaboration ranking in the process except for the sixth candidate (i.e., seventh,
and the search for disconfirming evidence, to verify their account. In fth, fourth, third, second, first). Following the description of the
this article, they also educate the reader about grounded theory by interview process with each of these candidates, the author analyzes
an extensive passage on coding data into categories of information the proceedings and develops three themes: the lack of professional
and memoing their thoughts throughout the project. In terms of knowledge associated with the role, an esteem for personal feelings,
averall structure, it does not cover all facets of grounded theory and a proclivity toward "variety-reducing" behavior. This last theme
procedures such as open coding, forming initial categories of infor- takes on special meaning as Wolcott discusses its importance for
mation, developing propositions or hypotheses specifying relations "change" in the public schools.
among categories, and the conditional matrix (a diagram useful in
conceptualizing the wide range of conditons and consequences Ethnographic aspects. Wolcott writes clearly and convincingly and
related to the phenomenon under study). Perhaps space limits the takes the reader on interesting joumeys. His overall intent is to see
presentation. However, the authors advance a study that models the culture of the school at work in the activities o the Principal
good grounded theory research: Selection Cornmittee. He creatively builds the narrative from the
final candidate (Mr. Seventh) on to the winner selected in the process,
The authors mentan at the beginning that their purpose is to thus adding suspense to the last scene o the story. 1 find this study
genera te a theory using a "construct-oriented" (or category) ap- to have many elements central to an ethnography:
proach.
The procedure is thoroughly discussed and systematic. The author uses description and a high level of detail.
The authors present a visual model, a coding diagram of the theory. The author tells this story informally, as a "storyteller" (Wolcott,
The language and feel of the article are scientific and objective 1994b, p. 109).
while, at the same time, addressing a sensitive topic effusively The author explores cultural themes of roles and behavior o the
committee.
ACASESTUDY
(Asmussen & Creswell, 1995; see Appendix F) A Case Study
d~ su~ as open coding and axial codng, and they represent the
ethnography. ln a case study, a specific case is exarnined. Tuming to
relationship . among categories with a visual model. The overall t one
the five studies, the oci of the traditions become more evident.
o f thi s stu d y 15 one of rigor and scientific credibility.
Using Vonnie Lee (Angrosino, 1994) as a case in point, one decides
An .ethnographic design is chosen when one wants to study the
to write a biography or life history when a single individual needs to behaVl?rS o~ a culture-sharing group, such as the Principal Selection
be studied as suggested by the literature or when that individual can Comn:uttee m Wo~cott's (1994a) study. This design requires consider-
illuminate a specific issue, such as the issue of being intellectually able ~e obs~~mg and interviewing in the school and with the
challenged. Furthermore, the researcher needs to make a case for the committee. This involves several meetings and the recordin f -
need to study this particular individual-someone who illustrates a cifi d ails g o spe
c ~t ; as Wolcott mentions, "The ethnographers task s the
problem, someone who has had a distinguished career, someone in recording of human behavior in cultural terms" (p. 116). Wolcott
the national spotlight, or someone who lives an ordinary life. The chooses
. three cultural terrns--the
. role of th e prmC1pa
.. 1 an d profes-
process of data coHection involves gathering material about the per- slOnal. knowledge about. it, personal feelings, and variety-reducing
son, either historically or from present-day sources, such as conversa- beh~vlOr to record, descnbe, and interpret what he sees.
tions or observations in the case of Vonnie Lee. A key consideration is Finally, a case study is chosen to stud ya case with clear boundaries
whether the material is available and accessible. lo the case of Vonnie ~uch as the campus in our study (Asmussen & Creswell, 1995). It is
Lee, Angrosino is able to win his confidence and encourage him to mportant. too, for the researcher to have contextual material available
talk. This occurs first when Angrosino helps him with ros reading to d~scnbe the setting for the case. Also, the researcher needs to have
assignments and then makes a mental note "to see if he would at some a .wlde arr~y of infonnation about the case to provide an in-depth
later time be arnenable to telling me the 'story of my lie' " (p. 17). pl~tur: of it, lo our gunman case, we went to great lengths to paint
The phenomenological study, on the other hand, focuses not on the this pl~ture for the reader through our table of infonnation sources in
life of an individual but rather on a concept or phenomenon, such as the artJ.cl~ and to illustrate our wide array of data collection proce-
the psychological meaning of a caring interaction (Riemen, 1986), and dures. With these data, we construct a picture of the incident and the
this Iorm of study seeks to understand the meaning of experiences of campus reaction to it through several themes.
individuals about this phenomenon. Furthennore, in the Riemen . ~ith ~ese thoughts, 1 focus attention on a chief characteristic that
study, the researcher talks with several individuals who experience distinguishes ~ach' tradition from the others-the study of an individ-
the phenomenon, 10 individuals who submit to interviews. And the ual, the exarnmation of the meaning of experiences toward a phe-
author includes a philosophical discussion about the principies of ~omenon, the gener~tion of a theory, the description and interpreta-
exploring the meaning of individual experiences and how these tion of ~ ~ture-shanng group, and the in-depth study of a single case.
meanings can be reduced into a specific description of the experiences. lo addition, other factors need to be considered in a choi f
tradition: oice o a
Whereas the phenomenologica1 project focuses on the meaning of
people's experience toward a phenomenon, researchers in grounded
theory have a different objective-to generate a substantive theory, The ""?". =r: What tradition is frequently used by gate-
such as a model about women surviving and coping with abuse in the keepers ~ the field (e.g., cornmittee members, advisers, editorial
Morrow and 5mith study (1995). In the introductory passages, the boards of joumals)?
authors describe the need for a "theoretical frarnework." Thus,
The background question: What training does the researche h .
grounded theorists undertake research to develop theory. The data the i . r ave m
e mqmry approach?
coHection method involves primarily interviewing (although other
data collection procedures were used). Also, the researchers use sys- The scholarly Iiter~ture question: What is needed most as contributing
tema tic procedures for analyzing and developing this theory, proce- to the scholarly literature in the field (e.g., a study of an individual,
40 T QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Five Different Qualitative Siudies T 41
an exploration of the meaning of a concept, a theory, a portrait of a descriptions of the basic elernents of each. In Chapter 4, 1will provide
culture-sharing group, an in-depth case study)? more details about each tradition.
Smith. L. M. (1987). The voyage of the Beagle: Fieldwork lessons Conrad, e F. (1978). A grounded theory of academic change.
from Charles Darwin. Educational Adminstration Quarterly, Sociology of Education, 51,101-112.
23(3),5-30. Creswell, J. w., & Brown, M. L. (1992). How chairpersons enhance
faculty research: A grounded theory study. Review 01 Higher
For phenomenological research studies, examine Aanstoos's study Educaiion, 16(1),41-62.
of thinking in chess; Drew's (1986) study of patients' experiences
with caregivers: Grigsby and Megel's (1995) study of caring expe- Frontman, K. e, & Kunkel, M. A. (1994). A grounded theory of
riences between nurse faculty and students; Harpers (1981) study counselors' construal of success in the initial session. Journal of
of leisure; Heinrich's (1995) study of doctoral advisement relation- Counseling Psychology, 41,492-499.
ships berween women; and Lauterbach's (1993) study of mothers' Hutchison, S. A. (1986). Creating meaning: A grounded theory of
experiences with deaths of wished-for babies. NICU nurses. In W. eChenitz & J. M. Swanson(Eds.), From
Aanstoos. e M. (1985). The structure of thinking in chess. In A. practice to grounded theory (pp. 191-204). Menlo Park, CA: Ad-
dison- Wesley.
Giorgi (Ed.), Phenomenology and psychological research (pp. 86-
117). Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press. Keamey, M. H., Murphy, S., & Rosenbaum, M. (1994). Mothering
Drew, N. (1986). Exclusion and confirmation: A phenomenology of on crack cocaine: A grounded theory analysis. Social Science
patients' experiences with caregivers. Image: [ournal of Nursing
Medicine, 38(2), 351-361.
Schotarship, 18(2),39-43.
For ethnographic studies, see Bruckerhoff's (1991) book-length
Grigsby, K. A., & Megel, M. E. (1995). Caring experiences of nurse
work on the culture of a high school; Geertz's (1973) classic notes
educators. [ournal of Nursing Research, 34; 411-418.
on the Balinese cockfight; Rhoads' (1995) study of college fratemity
Harper, W. (1981). The experience of leisure. Leisure Sciences, 4, lile; Sells, Smith, Coe, Yoshioka, and Robbins' (1994) study of
113-126. reflective team practice in family theraphy; Trujillo's (1992) study
Heinrich, K. 1. (1995). Doctoral advisement relationships between of the culture of baseball; and Wolcott's (1983) well-known study
women. [ournal of Higher Educaiion, 66,447-469. of the "sneaky kid."
[ohnson, J., Holcombe, M., Sirnms, G., & Wilson, D. (1992). Writing
in the classroom: Case studies of three home econornics teachers.
[ournal 01 Vocationa! Home Economics Education, 10(1),46-58.
Martens, M. L. (1992). lnhibitors to implementing a problem-
solving approach to teaching elementary science: Case study of
a teacher in change. Social Science and lvuuhematics, 93, 150-156.
Medoff, P., & Sklar, H. (1994). Streets 01 hope: The [al! and rise 01 an
urban neighborhoo. Boston: South End.
4
Five Qualitative Traditions
of Inquiry
The five articles described in fue preceding section provide examples
of fue varieties of qualitative research. Hopefully, fue reader can see
that research in the five traditions differs in form, terms, and focus.
In this chapter, 1add other dirnensions for distinguishing among fue
five traditions of inquiry. For each tradition, 1pose a definition, briefly
trace its history, explore variants, introduce procedures involved. in
conducting a study and indicate potential challenges in using fue
tradition.
ABIOGRAPHY
T 47
48 T QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Five QUillitative 'Iraditions of Inquiry T 49
lesser lives, great Iives, thwarted lives. lives cut short, or lives miracu- Procedurally, then, a qualitative researcher faces several decisions
lous in their unapplauded achievement (Heilbrun, 1988). Regardless in undertaking a biographical type of study (and 1 would not go so
of the type of life, 1use the term biography to denote the broad genre far as to imply an order to these decisions). The first issue is to select
of biographical writings (Smith, 1994) that includes individual biog- the type of biographical study to be undertaken. Denzin (1989a)
raphies, autobiographies, life histories, and oral histories. 1 also rely reviews the various types and their characteristics. Although bio-
on Denzin's (1989a) approach to biography, called an interpretive graphical forms of research vary and the terrns reflect different disci-
biogrllplry, because the writer tells and inscribes the stories of others: pline perspectivas, all forms represent an attempt to construct the
"We create the persons we write about, just as they create themselves history of a life.
when they engage in storytelling practices" (p. 82).
Biographical writing has roots in different disciplines and has In a biogrllplriclIl sfuy, the life story of an individual is written by
found renewed interest in recent years. The intellectual strands of this someone other than the individual being studied using archival
tradition are found in literary, historical, anthropolcgical. psychologi- documents and records (Denzin, 1989a). Subjects of biographies
cal, and sociological perspectives as well as in interdisciplinary views may be living or deceased. Throughout this book, 1focus attention
from feminist and cultural thinking (see Smith, 1994, who discusses on this forro beca use of its popularity with graduate students and
these variants). social and human science writers.
My particular interest is in exploring the sociological perspective.
and thus 1 rely on writers such as Plummer (1983) and especiaBy In an lIutohiograpby, the life story is written by persons about
Denzin (1989a, 1989b). Evoking a "baseline" from the humanities. themselves (Angrosino, 1989a). This form seldom is found in
graduate student research.
Plummer (1983), for example, discusses the evolution of "documents
of life" research from the great literary works of Dostoevski, Dickens, Another form, the lile bistory, is an approach found in the social
Balzac, and Austen with a focus on hurnan-centered research. Plum- sciences and anthropology where a researcher reports on an indi-
mer ties biographical writings to the ear1y works of the Departrnent vidual's life and how it reflects cultural themes of the society,
of Sociology at the University of Chicago in the 19205 and 19305 personal thernes, institutional themes, and social histories (Cole,
through works such as Thomas and Znaniecki's (1958) The Polish 1994). The investigator collects data primarily through interviews
Peasant in Europe and America, a study of some 2,200 pages of Polish and conversations with the individual (see Bailey, 1978; Geiger,
immigrants to Chicago. Other books are instrumental across anthro- 1986). For a sociological definition, Plummer (1983) states that a life
pology, psychology, and sociology in laying the foundation for social history is "fue fulllength book's account of one person's life in his
science biographical writing such as Dollards (1935) Criteria for the or her own words. Usually, it will be gathered over a number of
Life Historv, the psychological approaches in Allport's (1942) The Uses years with gentle guidance from the social scientist, the subject
of Personai Documents in Psychological Science and, more recently, Edel's either writing down episodes of lile or tape recording them. At its
(1984) Writing Lives and anthropologst Langness's (1965) The Life best, it will be backed up with intensive observation of the subject' s
History in Anthropological Science. 1could mention many other authors Iife, interviews with friends and perusals of letters and photo-
who have influenced biographical writing in the social sciences in graphs" (p. 14).
general and in sociology in particular (Smith, 1994); however, in my
biographical discussions, 1 rely on Denzin (1989a), who not only An oral "istory is an approach in which the researcher gathers
constructs the classical approach to biography but also espouses an personal recollections of events, their causes, and their effects from
interpretive approach. an individual or severa! individuals. This information may be
collected through tape recordings or through written works of
individuals who have died or who are stillliving.
so .. QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Fiue QUJllitative Traditions o/Inquiry .. 51
in addition to these broader forms, specific biographies may be 3. These stories are organized around themes that indicate piv-
written "objectively," with little researcher interpretation; "schol- otal events (or epipbanies) in an individual's life.
arly," with a strong historical background of the subject and a chrono-
logical organization; "artistically," from the perspective of present- 4. The researcher explores the meaning of these dones, relying
ing details in a lively and interesting manner; or in a "narrative" form, on the individual to provide explanations and searching for
multiple meanings.
a fictionalized account of scenes and characters (Smith, 1994).
One needs to decide whether he or she is going to approach the 5. The researcher also looks for larger structures to explain the
biography from the more classical traditional stance (Denzin, 1970; meanngs, such as social interactions in groups, cultural is-
Helling. 1988; Plummer, 1983) or from the interpretive approach (Den- sues, ideologas, and bistoncol coltfexf, and provides an inter-
zin, 1989a, 1989b). In a classicol biograpny, the researcher uses sta te- pretation for the life experiences of the individual (or cross-
ments about theory, concems with validity and criticism of documents interpretations if several individuals are studied).
and materials, and the formulation of distinct hypotheses, all drawn
from the perspective of the researcher (Denzin, 1989a). The interpretive .. Given these procedures and the characteristics of a biography, it
biograpny, my preferred approach to biographical writing, operates on is challenging for the following reasons:
an entirely different set of assumptions and is well identified in a slirn
volume by Denzin (1989a) on Interpretive Biography. This form o The researcher needs to collect extensive information from
biographical writing challenges the traditional approaches and asks and about the subject of the biography.
that biographers be cognizant of how studies are both read and
written. The investigator needs to ha ve a clear understanding of
in the interpretive view, biographies are, in part, written autobiog- historical, contextual material to position the subject within
raphies of the writers, thus blurring the lines between fact and fiction the larger trends in society or in the culture.
and leading the authors to "create" the subject in the text. Biographers
cannot partial out their own biases and values; thus, biographies
It takes a keen eye to determine the particular stories, slant,
become gendered class productions reflecting the lives of the writers.
or angle that "works" in writing a biography and to uncover
These points, Denzin (1989a) alleges, need to be acknowledged by the
the "figure under the carpet" (Edel, 1984) that explains the
biographers and reflected in the written biographies. multilayered context of a life .
2. Next, the researcher gathers concrete con textual biographical Whereas a biography reports the lile of a single individuo/, a pneno-
materials using interviewing (e.g., the subject recounts a set
meno/ogical sfllJy describes the meaning of the lived expenences for
severa! individuals about a concept or tbe pbenomenon. Phenomenolo-
of lile experiences in the forro of a story or narrative). Thus, a
focus is on gathering sfones. gists explore fue structures of consciousness in human experiences
(Polkinghome, 1989). It has roots in the pbilosopbiclII perspedjves of
52 . QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Five Qualitative TraditiOI1So/Inquiry .
53
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) and philosophical discussions to follow 3. The intentionality 01 consciousness. This idea is that consciousness
by Heidegger, Sartre, and Merleau-Ponty (Spiegelberg, 1982), and it always is directed toward an object. Reality of an object, then, is
has been used in the social and human sciences, especially in sociology inextricably related to one's consciousness of it. Thus, reality, ac-
(Borgatta & Borgatta, 1992; Swingewood, 1991), psychology (Ciorgi, cording to Husserl, is not divided into subjects and objects, thus
1985; Polkinghome, 1989, 1994), nursing and the health sciences (Ni- shifting the Cartesian duality to the meaning of an object that
eswiadomy, 1993; Oiler, 1986), and education (Tesch, 1988). appears in consciousness.
The history of phenomenology starts with German mathematician
4. The refusal o/ the subject-object dichotomy. This theme flows naturally
Edrnund Husserl (1859-1938) and his extensive writings addressing
frorn the intentiona/ity 01 consciousness. The reality of an object is only
phenomenological philosophy frorn 1913 until his retirement (Stewart
perceived within the meaning of the experience of an individual.
& Mickunas, 1990). Husserl's ideas are abstract, and, as late as 1945,
Merleau-Ponty (1962) raises the question "What is phenomenology?"
The individuals who embrace these tenets and carry them forward
in his Phenomenology o/ Perception.ix fact, Husserl is known to call any
in intellectual thought come from many social science areas, espe-
project currently under way "phenomenology" (Natanson, 1973).
cially sociology and psychology, and form different philosophical
Husserl emphasizes many points (Moustakas, 1994; Natanson,
camps such as reflective/transcendental phenomenology, dialogical
1973). Researchers search for the essentia/, invarianf structure (or essence)
phenomenology, empirical phenomenology, existential phenome-
or the central underlying meaning of the experience and emphasize
nology. hermeneutic phenomenology, and social phenomenology
the intentiona/ity 01 consc;ousness where experiences contain both the
(Barritt, 1986; Tesch, 1990). 1 briefly mention social phenomenology
outward appearance and inward consciousness based on memory,
and focus attention on psychological phenomenology as expressed
i.mage, and meaning. Pbenomenological data analysis proceeds through
through empirical/ lranscendelJhJl pIJenomeno/ogy.
the methodology of reduction, the analysis of specific statements and
The sociological perspective, social phenomenology, owes much to
themes, and a search for all possible meanings. The researcher also
Schutz, who articulates the essence of phenomenology for studying
sets aside a11prejudgments, hracefng (see epocbe) his or her experi-
social acts (Swingewood, 1991). Schutz is interested in how ordinary
ences (a retum to "natural science") and relying on intuition, irnagi-
members of society constitute the world of everyday life, especially
nation, and universal structures to obtain a picture of the experience.
how individuals consciously develop meaning out of social interac-
From these philosophical tenets, four themes are discemible (Stewart
tions (people interacting with each other). As an extension of Schutz' s
& Mickunas, 1990):
thinking, a man by the name of Garfinkel calls this approach "eth-
nomethodology," a way in which to examine how individuals in
1. A reiurn to the traditional tasks o/ philosoply. By the end of the 19th
society make meanings of their everyday lives. Often drawing on
century, philosophy had become lirnited to exploring a world by
ethnography and cultural themes, ethnomethodology relies on meth-
emprical means, called "scientism." The retum to the traditional
ods of analyzing everyday talk (Swingewood, 1991).
tasks of philosophy is a retum to the Greek conception of philoso-
My preferred approach, the psymo/ogical approaclr, also focuses on
phy as a search for wisdom before philosophy became enamored
the meaning of experiences but has found individual experiences, not
with empirical science.
group experiences, central. Coming from the Duquesne Studies in
2. A philosophy unthoui presuppositions. Phenomenology's approach is Phenomenology, the central tenets of this thinking are
to suspend a11judgments about what is real-the "natural atti-
tude" -until they are founded on a more certain basis. This sus- to determine what an experience means for the persons who have had the
pension is called epocbe by Husserl. experience and are able to provide a comprehensive description of it. From
the individual descriprions, general or universal meanings are derived, in
Five Qualitative Tradiiions of Inquiry T 55
QUALITATIVE INQUIRY
54 T
T The investigator writes researeh ouestions tnat explore the meaning of The researcher requires a solid grounding in the philosophical
that experience for individuals and asks individuals to describe their precepts of phenomenology.
everyday Iive experiences. The participants in the study need to be carefully chosen to be
T The investigator ihen col/ects data from indioiduals who haue experi- individuals who have experienced tilo plrenomenon.
enced tIIe phenomenon under investigation. Typically, this informa- Bracketing personal experiences by the researcher may be difficult.
tion is collected through long interviews (augmented with re-
searcher self-reflection and previously developed descriptions The researcher needs to decide how and in what way his or her
from artistic works) with informants ranging in number from 5 to personal experiences will be introduced into the study.
25 (Polkinghome, 1989).
T The phenomeno/ogical dato ana/ysis steps are general/y similar [or a/l A GROUNDED THEORY STUDY
psychological phenomenologists who discuss the methods. According
Altho~gh a phenomenological study emphasizes the meaning of an
to Moustakas (1994) and Polkinghorne (1989), all psychological
expenence for a number of individuals, the intent of a groundell tbeory
phenomenologists employ a similar series of steps. The original
56 T QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Five Qualitative Traditions of lnquirq T 57
problem or population of people. This theory is subjected to further Brown, and Mead and their studies of comparative cultures. Although
empirical testing because now we know the variables or categories they took the natural sciences as a model for research, they differed
from field-based data, although the study may end at this point from traditional scientific approaches through the firsthand collection
because the generation of a theory is a legitimate outcome of the of data of existing "primitiva" cultures (Atkinson & Hammersley,
1994). In the 19205 and 19305, sociologists such as Park, Dewey, and
study.
A grounJeJ tneory shJcIy challenges researchers for the following Mead at the University of Chicago adapted the anthropological field
methods to study cultural groups in the United States (Bogdan &
reasons:
BikIen, 1992). Recently, scientific approaches to ethnography have
The investigator needs to set aside, as much as possible. theoretical expanded to include "schools" or subtypes of ethnography with
ideas or notions so that the analytic, substantive theory can emerge. different theoretical orientations and aims such as structural function-
alism. symbolic interactionism, cultural and cognitive anthropology,
Despite the evolving, inductive nature of this form of qualitative feminism, Marxism, ethnomethodology, critical theory, cultural stud-
nquiry, the researcher must recognize that this is a systematic ies, and postmodernism (Atkinson & Hammersley, 1994). This has led
approach to research with specific steps in data analysis. to a distinct lack of orthodoxy in ethnography as a general approach
The researcher faces the difficulty of determining when categories to the description and interpretation of a cultural or social group, and
are saturated or when the theory is sufficiently detailed. authors need to be explicit about what school they espouse when they
discuss this approach, especially as it has been embraced by re-
The researcher needs to recognize that the primary outcome of this
searchers in many fields outside anthropology and sociology such as
study is a theory with specific components: a central phenomenon,
the health sciences and education.
causal conditions, strategies, conditions and context, and conse-
quences. These are prescribed categories of information in the My approach is to rely mainly on procedures found in the socio-
logical approach of Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) and to draw on
theory.
the educational anthropology of Wolcott (1994b) and Fetterman
(1989). Through these texts, one finds that the ethnographer begins
the study by looking at people in interaction in ordinary settings and
AN ETHNOGRAPHY
by attempting to discem pervasive pattems such as life cycles, events,
An etlrnography is a description and interpretation of a cultural or and cultural themes (H. F. Wolcott, personal communication, October
social group or system. The researcher examines the group's obse~v- 10,1996). Cu/ture is an amorphous term, not something "lying about"
able and leamed pattems of hehavior, customs, and ways of life (Wolcott, 1987, p. 41) but rather something the researcher attributes to
(Harris, 1968). As both a process and an outcome of research (Agar, a group as he or she looks for patterns of daily living. It is inferred
1980), an ethnography is a product of research, typically found in from the words and actions of members of the group and is assigned
book-length formo As a process, ethnography involves prolonged to this group by the researcher. It consists of 100kIDgfor what people
observation of the group, typically through partic;pant ohservafon in do (belumors), what they say (/angUGge), and some tension between
which the researcher is ;mmerseJ in the day-to-day lives of the people what they realiy do and what they ought to do as well as what they
or through one-on-one interviews with members of the group. The make and use (artilacts) (Spradley, 1980). Thus, the ethnographer
researchers studies the meanings of &e&avior, langUGge, and interac- gathers artifacts and physical trace evidence; finds stories, rituals, and
tions of the cvlture-shar;ng group. myths; and/or uncovers cultural themes. Such themes are diverse, as
Ethnography has its genesis in cultural anthropology through early illustrated in Winthrop's (1991) Dictionary o/ Concepis in Cultural An-
2Oth-century anthropologists such as Boas, Malinowski, Radcliffe- thropology. Fetterman (1989), for example, suggests that the themes of
QUALlTATIVE INQUIRY Five Qualitative Traditions ollnqry T 61
60 T
structure and function guide research of social organizations. Structvre 1989). By cultural poma;', 1 refer to an overview of the entire cultural
refers to the social structure or configuration of the group, such as the scene by pulling together all aspects leamed about the group and
kinship or political structure of the social-cultural group. Funmon showing its complexity.
refers to pattems of the social relations among members of the group The ethnography is challenging to use for the following reasons:
that help regulate behavior.
To establish these pattems, the ethnographer engages in extensive The researcher needs to have a grounding in cultural anthropology
work in the field, called lie/work, gathering information through and the meaning of a social-cultural system as well as the concepts
observations, interviews, and materials helpful in developing a por- typically explored by ethnographers.
trait and establishing "cultural rules" of the culture-sharing group. As The time to collect data is extensive, involving prolonged time in
Wolcott (1996) comments, "They [researchers] establish what a the field.
stranger would have to know in order to understand what is going on
here or, more challenging still, what a stranger would have to know In many ethnographies, the narratives are written in a literary,
almost storytelling approach, an approach that may limit the audi-
in order to be able to participate in a meaningful way" (p. 6). The
ence for the work and may be challenging for authors accustomed
ethnographer is sensitive to fie/dwork issues (Harnmersley & Atkin-
to traditional approaches to writing social and human science
son, 1995) such as gaining access to the group through gatekeepen,
research.
individuals who can provide entrance to a research site. The ethnog-
rapher locates leey inlomtanfs, individuals who provide useful insights There is a possibility that the researcher will "go native" and be
into the group and can steer the researcher to information and con- unable to complete the study or be compromised in the study, This
tacts. The field researcher also is concemed about reciprocity between is but one issue in the complex array of fieldwork issues facing
the investigator and the subjects being studied, so that something will ethnographers who venture into an unfamiliar cultural group or
be retumed to the people being studied in exchange for their informa- system.
tion, and reactivity, the impact of the researcher on the site and the
people being studied. In accord with ethical standards, the ethnogra-
pher makes his or her presence known so that decept;on about the A CASE STUDY
purpose or intent of the study is not practiced.
Sensitive to these field issues, the procedures in ethnography call Whereas some consider "the case" an object of study (Stake, 1995) and
for a detailed desuiption 01 tire cultvre-sharing group or individual, an others consider it a methodology (e.g., Merriam, 1988), a case study is
analysis 01 tire cultvre-sharing group by themes or perspectives, and an exploration of a ''bounded system" or a case (or multiple cases)
some ;nferpreta1on 01 tire cvlture-slraring group for meanings of social over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multi-
interaction and generalizations about human social life (Wolcott, ple sources of information rich in context. This bovnded s}'3tem is
1994b). The amounts of weight researchers give to these three aspects bounded by time and place, and it is the case being studied-a
vary. The final product of this effort is a Iro/istic cultural portrait of the program, an event, an activity, or individuals. For example, several
social group that incorporates both the views of the actors in the group programs (multi-site study) or a single program (witltin-site study)
(emic) and the researcher's interpretation of views about human social might be selected for study. Multiple sources 01 ;momta1on include
life in a social science perspective (etic). By Ito/istic, 1 mean that the observations, interviews, audio-visual material, and documents and
ethnographer attempts to describe as much as possible about a cul- reports. The context 01 tire case involves situating the case within its
tural system or social group, and this might include the group's setting, which may be a physical setting or the social, historical,
history, religin, politics, economy, and environment (Fetterman, and/or economic setting for the case. The focus may be on the case
62 T QUALlTATIVE INQUIRY Five Qualitative Traditions oj lnquirv T 63
tha t, beca use of its uniqueness, requires study (intrinsic case stvdy), or visual materials. For example, Yin (1989) recommends six types of
it may be on an issue or issues, with the case used instrumentally to information: documentation, archival rcords. interviews, direct ob-
illustrate the issue (an instrumental case stvdy) (Stake, 1995). When servations, participant observations, and physical artifacts. The type
more than one case is studied, it is referred to as a collectivo case stvdy of analysis of these data can be a bolistic analysis of the entire case or
(Stake, 1995). an emhedded analysis of a specific aspect of the case (Yin, 1989).
Many of my students choose the case study as their preferred Through this d~ta collection, a detailed description of the case emerges,
approach to qualitative research. Their rationale often is that a case as do an analyslS 01 tbemes or issues and an interpretation or assertions
study is familiar; they undoubtedly ha ve read case studies in psychol- about the case by the researcher (Stake, 1995). This analysis isrich in
ogy (Freud), medicine (case analysis of a problem), law (case law), the context 01 tito tase or setting in which the case presents itself
and/or political science (case reports). Case study research holds a (Merriam, 1988). The investigator narrates the study through tech-
long, distinguished history across many disciplines. Hamel (1993) niques such as a chronology of major events followed by an up-close
traces the origin of modem social science case studies through anthro- or a detailed perspective about a few incidents. When multiple cases
pology and sociology. He cites anthropologist Malinowski's study of are chosen, a typical format is to first provide a detailed description
the Trobriand Islands, French sociologist LePlay's study of families, of each case and themes within the case, called a witbin-case analysis,
and the case studies of the University of Chicago's Department of followed by a thematic analysis across the cases, called a cross-case
Sociology in the 19205 and 19305 (e.g., Thomas & Znaniecki's (1958) analysis, as well as assertions or an interpretation of the meaning of
srudy, The Polist: Peasani in Europe and America) as antecedents of the case. In the final interpretive phase, the researcher reports, as
qualitative case study research. Today, the case studywriter has a large
Lincoln and Cuba (1985) mention, the "lessons learned" from the case.
array of texts and approaches from which to choose to develop a case
Some of the challenges inherent in qualitative case study develop-
study. Yin (1989), for example, espouses both quantitative and quali-
ment are as follows:
tative approaches to case study development and discusses the ex-
ploratory and descriptive qualitative case studies. Merriam (1988)
advocates a general approach to qualitative case studies in the field
The researcher must identify his or her case. 1 can pose no clear
of education. Hamel (1993), a sociologist, provides a historical and
solution for the researcher; he or she must decide what bounded
problem-centered discussion of qualitative case studies. Stake (1995),
system to study, recognzng that several rnight be possible candi-
the approach 1 use extensively, systematically establishes procedures
dates for this selection and realizing that either the case itself or an
for case srudy research and uses Stake's own case study of Harper
issue, for which a case or cases are selected to illustrate, is worthy
School as an example. of study.
In conducting case study research, 1recornmend that investigators
first consider what type of case study is most promising and useful. The ~esearcher must consider whether to study a single case or
The case can be single or collective, multi-sited or within-site, focused multiple cases. 1am rerninded how the study of more than one case
on a case or on an issue (intrinsic, instrumental) (Stake, 1995; Yin, dilutes the overall analysis; the more cases an individual studies
1989), In choosing what case to study, an array of possibilities for the greater the lack of depth in any single case. When a researchers
purposelul sampling is available. 1 prefer to select cases that show chooses multiple cases, the issue becomes "How many?" -which
different perspectives on the problem, process, or event 1 want to 1cannot answer except to indica te the lack of depth issue. Typically,
portray, but 1 also may select ordinary cases, accessible cases, or however, the researcher chooses no more than four cases. Wha t
unusual cases, motivates the researcher to consider a large number of cases is the
The data collection is extensive, drawing on multiple sources 01 idea of generalizabilty, a term that holds little meaning for most
inlormation such as observations, interviews, documents, and audio- qualitative researchers (Clesne & Peshkin, 1992).
64 ... QUALITATlVE INQUIRY
'" oa. o ~
~o.:.5
CJ
e
0'-
e
~
'';:
c:
-s: _
>-
Ol
O o
:a.:: (;
case studies may not have clean beginning and ending points, and E..2
o '"" 'C e::> a.
:t: .=" '0o u ::>
the researcher will need to work with contri ved boundaries. o " o o
Q; -=s e
u""
u Ol
::>
o
e
E
'"
e ~e
0-
THE FIVE TRADITIONS COMPARED o _el> o
.r.-
o
;<;: 0-0
-c en .!::
o .s
From these sketches of the five traditions, 1 can identify fundamental .=
~
"U
0."'-0
0-0-
>-
8'
o
differences among these types of qualitative research. As shown in ~~
...
u
'" ~.r.
O o
Ol_ '"
'o
O
Table 4.1, 1 present several dimensions for distinguishing among the o ""
G)
~'"
five. At a most fundamental level, the five differ in what they are
a.
trying to accomplish-their foci or the primary objectives of the G) ::>
e(;
narrative forrn, takes shape from a11the processes before it. A detailed zs u 'O o
picture of an individual's life forms a biography; a description of the
.E i5 's 88 o
e
o z..Q
... 65
QUALITATIVE INQUIRY
66 T
"o- eo"a.
e-
(or several cases) becomes a case study. (i-
o " ~
in a comparison of the five traditions, two issues of overlap that ~E
_V'l o
need clarification arise. The first issue is that an apparent overlap o
-'<
exists between an ethnography and a case study. in the forrner, we O
O
- .IJ
examine a cultural system; in the latter, we examine a bounded
system. Thus, confusion exists when studying both as systems. In my
el.
e
8' u
.,
O
c: t
mind, however, there are some fundamental differences. In an ethnog- -c: O
:i
raphy, an en tire cultural or social system is the focus of attention o
E
:>
(except in a microethnography). in a case study, on the other hand, a .~
o
system of people is typically not the case. in case study research, one e
works with a smaller unit such as a program, an event, an activity, or c:
.2
individuals and explores a range of topics, only one of which might
be cultural behavior, language, or artifacts. Furthermore, in an ethnog- .,
~
.s.. .,
the case. Although it certainly is possible to conduct a case study of a w o
e
single individual, 1 only recommend such a practice when the re- ct
VI
searcher can obtain substantial contextual material about the indi- 4>
.J:
vidual (e.g., the individual's family, daily life, work life). For the v
to follow. But it might be useful at this point to take the narrative form ~
.., -Si
1have described in general terms and suggest a preliminary structure O>
C-C
._ u
.,
c> .Q
:00
for the content of a study within each of the five traditions. As shown 8,eo
t
o 1:
el.
in Table 4.2,1 advance an outline for each type of study. These outlines <>:~ ~ =
~.:o
may be used in designing a joumal article-length study; however, o
Z
o
c:
because of the numerous steps in each, they also have applicability as
T 67
68 T QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Five Qualitative Traditions of Inquiry T 69
chapters of a dissertation or a book-length work. 1introduce them here Bowen, C. D. (1969). Biography: The eraft and the calling. Boston:
because the reader, with an introductory knowledge of each tradition, Little, Brown.
now can sketch the general "architecture" of a study. Certainly, this
architecture will emerge and be shaped differently by the conc1usion Denzin, N. K. (1989a). Interpretive biography. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage.
of the study, but it provides a framework for the design issues to
follow. 1recommend these outlines as general templates at this time. Denzin, N. K. (1989b). Interpretive interaetionism. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage.
Husserl. E. (1970). The crisis of European sciences and transcendentol Chenitz, W. e, & Swanson, J. M. (1986). From practice to grounded
phenomenology (D. Carr, Trans.). Evanston, IL: Northwestem theory: Qualitative research in nursing. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-
University Press. Wesley.
Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962). Phenomenology of perception (c. Smith, Claser, B. C. (1978). Theoretical sensitivity. Mili Valley, CA: Sociology
Trans.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Press.
Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Glaser, B. C. (1992). Basics of grounded theory analysis. Mili Valley,
Oaks, CA: Sage. CA: Sociology Press.
Natanson, M. (Ed.). (1973). Phenomenology and the social sciences. Claser, B., & Strauss, A (1967). The discovery of grounded theory.
Evanston. IL: Northwestem University Press. Chicago: Aldine,
Oiler, C. J. (1986). Phenomenology: The method. In P. L. Munhall & Strauss, A (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. New York:
C. J. Oiler (Eds.), Nursing research: A qualitative perspective (pp. 69- Cambridge University Press.
82). Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Strauss, A, & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded
Polkinghome, D. E. (1989). Phenomenological research methods. theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
In R. S. Valle & S. Halling (Eds.), Existential-phenomenological Strauss, A, & Corbin, J. (1994). Crounded theory methodology: An
perspectives in psychology (pp. 41-60). New York: Plenum. overview. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualita-
Spiegelberg, H. (1982). The phenomenological mouemeni (3rd ed.). The tive research (pp. 273-285). Thausand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff.
For a detailed overview of ethnographic research, see Spradley
Stewart, D., & Mickunas, A. (1990). Exploring phenomenology: A
(1979, 1980), Fetterman (1989), and Hammersley and Atkinson
guide to me field and its Iiieraiure (2nd ed.). Athens: Ohio Univer-
(1995) and examine the methodolagical procedures by Wolcott
sity Press. (1987, 1994b). Spindler and Spindlers (1970) fieldwork studies in
Tesch, R. (1990). Qua/itative research: Analysis types and software tools. eleven cultures provide some of the best examples of contemporary
Bristol, PA: Falmer. ethnographic research.
Van Kaarn, A (1966). Existential foundations of psychology. Pitts- Fetterman, D. M. (1989). Ethnograp}y: Step by step. Newbury Park,
burgh, PA: Duquesne University Press. CA: Sage.
In grounded theory research, consult the most recent and highly Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (1995). Ethnography: Principies in
readable book by Strauss and Corbin (1990) before reviewing ear- practice (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
lier works such as Claser and Strauss (1967), Claser (1978), Strauss Spindler, C. D., & Spindler, L. (1970). Being an anthropologist: Field-
(1987), or Claser (1992). For brief methodological overviews of work in eleven cultures. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
grounded theory, examine Charmaz (1983), Strauss and Corbin
Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. New York: Holt,
(1994), and the boak by Chenitz and Swanson (1986). Rinehart & Winston.
Charmaz, K. (1983). The grounded theory method: An explication Spradley, J. P. (1980). Participant obseroation. New York: Holt, Rine-
and interpretation. In R. Emerson (Ed.), Contemporary field re- hart & Winston.
search (pp. 109-126). Bostan: Little, Brown.
.,
72 ... QUALITATIVE INQUIRY
1
Wolcott, H. F. (1987). On ethnographic intent. In G. Spindler &
I
L. Spindler (Eds.). interpretiue etlmography of educatitm: At home
and abroad (pp. 37-57). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Walcatt, H. F. (1994b). Transforming ouuluatioe data: Descripticn,
analvsis, and interpretation. Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage.
Finally, for case study research. consul t Stake (1995) or earlier books
such as LincoIn and Cuba (1985), Merriam (1988), and Yin (1989)
Stake (1994) provides a good overview of qualitahve case study
research.
EXERClSES
Data collection offers one more instance for assessing research design
within each tradition of inquiry. However, before explorng thi.s
point, 1 find it useful to visualize the phases of data collection com-
mon to all traditions. A "circle" of interrelated activities best displays
thi.s process, a process of engaging in activities that include but go
beyond collecting data.
~ 109
110 'f' QUALITATIVE INQUIRY
Data Collection 'f' 111
centrol phenomenon
cose
typicol, o criticol cose)
Whol type of informo- Documenls ond orchivol Inlerviews wilh up lo 1 O Primorily inlerviews with Porticipont observolions, Exlensive forms such os
lion typicolly is col- material, open-ended people 20-30 people lo interviews, ortifods, ond documenls ond records,
leded? (forms of dolo) interviews, subjed jour- ochieve deloil in the documenls interviews, observation,
noling, porticipont obser- theory ond physicol ortifocls
volion, cosuol choHing
How is informotion Noles, inlerview protocol Long interview prolocol Inlerview protocol, Fieldnotes, inlerview ond Field notes, interview ond
recorded? (recording memoing observolionol prolocols observolionol protocols
informolion)
Whol ore common dolo Access lo moleriols, Bracketing one's Interviewing issues (e.g., Field issues (e.g., reflex- Interviewing ond
col/edion issues? (field outhenticity of occount experiences, loqiscs of loqistics, openness) ivity, reoctivity, recipro- observinq issues
issues) ond moteriols inlerviewing colity, "going notive,"
divulging privole infor-
molion, deception)
How is informotion File folders, computer Tronscriplions, computer Tronscriptions, computer Field notes, tronscrip- Fieldnotes, tronscrip-
typicolly sto red? (storing files liles files tions, computer liles tions, computer files
doto)
~
...
...
...,
114 "f" QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Data Cal/ectian
"f" 115
What will the gatekeeper gain from the study? Maximum voriation Documents diverse variations and identilies important
common potterns
PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING STRATEGY Critical case Permits logical generalization and maximum application 01
inlormation to other cases
The purposeful selection of participants represents a key decision Theory based Find examples 01 a theoretical construcf and thereby
point in a qualitative study, Researchers designing qualitative studies elaborate on and examine it
need clear criteria in mind and need to provide rationales for their Confirming and Elaborate on inifial analysis, seek exceptions, looking lor
disconlirming cases variation
decisions. 1 recommend that qualitative researchers, regardless of
tradition, examine the typology of 16 strategies for purposeful sam- Snowball or chain Identilies cases 01 interest Irom people who know people
pling advanced by Miles and Huberman (1994). As shown in Figure who know what cases are inlorrnotion-rich
7.3, the authors identify the purpose for each saropling option. 1 Extreme or deviant Learn Irom highly unusual manilestations 01 the
case phenomenon 01 interest
especially like when writers can identify their specific strategies, offer
definitions for them, and provide brief rationales for their use. 1 Typicol case Highlights what is normal or average
illustrate this approach for each of the five traditions, Intensity Information.rich cases that manifest the phenomenon
In a biographical study, the individual may be" convenient" to study intensely but not extremely
beca use she or he is available, may be a "politically important case" Politically important Attracfs desired aHention or ovoids attracfing undesired
who attracts attention or is marginalized, or may be a "typical" case, cases aHention
the ordinary persono Inquirers may select several options depending Random purposeful Adds credibility to sample when potential purposeful
on whether the person is marginal, great, or ordinary (Plummer, 1983). sample is too large
Vonnie Lee, who consented to participate and provide insightful Strctified purposelul IIlustrates subgroups and facilitates comparisons
information about the mentally retarded (Angrasino, 1994), was con- Criterion AII coses that meet some criterion; useful [or quality
venient to study but also was a "critical case" who permitted gen- assurance
eralization and application to individuals with mental retardation. Opportunistic Follow new leads; taking advantage 01 the unexpecfecd
1 find, however, a much more narrow range of sampling strategies
Combination or mixed Triangulation, Ilexibility; meets multiple inierests and
for a phenomenological study. It is essential that all participants experi- needs
ence the phenomenon being studied. "Criterion" sampling works
Convenience Saves time, money, and elfort, but at the expense 01
well when al! individuals studied represent peopIe who have experi- inlormation and credibility
enced the phenomenon. Al! individuaIs meet this criterion. For a
grounded theory study, the investigator chooses participants based on Figure 7.3 Typology 01 Sampling Strategies in Qualitative Inquiry
their ability to contribute to an evolving theory. Using the terms of SOURCE: Miles and Huberman (1994, p. 28). Reprinted with permission Irom Miles,
M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qua/itative dato anolysis: A sourcebook of new
Miles and Huberman (1994), this process is "theory based," but in
methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. .
grounded theory the term is theoretical sampling, which means that the
investigator examines individuals who can contribute to the evoIving
theory. This begins with selecting and studying a homogeneous sam- women who have experienced childhood abuse). The rationale for
pIe of individuals (e.g., al! women who have experienced childhood studying this heterogeneous sample is to confirm or disconfirm the
abuse) and then. after deveIoping the theory, selecting and studying conditions, both contextual and intervening, under which the model
a heterogeneous sample (e.g., types of support groups other than holds (see Creswell & Urbom, 1997, for this pracedure).
Data Collection " 121
QUALlTATlVE INQUIRY
120 "
Observo/ion s:
In an ethnography, once the investigator selects a site with a cultural
group, the next decision is who and what will be studied. Thus, Gother fieldnoles by conduding on observalion os o porticipanl
within-culture sampling proceeds, and several authors oHer sugges- Gother lieldnoles by conduding on observolion os on observe .
Gother fieldnoles by spen diIng more time os o participanl Ihan r.os b
nons for this procedure. Fetterman (1989) recommends proceeding Goth f' Id on o server
with the "big net approach" (p. 42), where at first the researcher er le noles by spending more lime os an observer Ihon os o rt" .
Gother fieldnotes fir51by observing os on " l' " po icipont,
mingl with everyone. Ethnographers rely on their judgment to setting and observing os an "insider." au sider and Ihen moving inlo Ihe
es
select members of the subculture or unit based on their research
Interviews:
questions. They take advantage of opportunities ("opportunistic"
Condud an unslrudured, apen-ended inlerview and lake inlerview not
sampling (Miles & Huberman, 1994]) or establish critea for studying
Condud an un51rud ure d ,open-en d e d .interview o di I the i . es.
select individuals (criterion sampling). The criteria for selecting who transcribe Ihe inlerview. ' u 10 ope e interview, and
and what to study for Hammersley and Atkinson (1993) are based on ~~~~e~~~emi51rudured inlerview, audiolape Ihe interview, and Ironscribe
gaining some perspective on time in the sociallife of the group, people
representative of the culture-sharing group in terms of demographics, .CUCondtUdo focus group interview, audiotape Ihe interview, and transcribe the interview
Do mens: .
and the contexts that lead to different forms of behavior.
m a case stlidy, the investigator might consider any one of the Keep o ournal during the research study.
strategies Ior sampling identified by Miles and Huberman (1994). 1 Hove o participant keep o ournal or diory during Ihe research study
prefer to select unusual cases in collective case studies and employ Colled personalletters from porticiponts. .
display multiple perspectives about the cases. "Extreme and deviant xamme auto ioqrophies and biographies. .
cases" may comprise rny collechve case study, such as our study of . Have
. informanls toke p h o Iograp h s or videotopes
. (i.e., phota elicitalion)
Aud,o-vlsual materials: .
the campus response to the gunman (Asmussen & Cres'vvell, 1995).
Examine physicol lrace evidence (e.g., footprints in the snow)
Videotope or film o social siluolion or on individual/group. .
Examine pholographs or videolapes.
FORMS OF DATA : Colled sounds (e.g., musical sounds, a cbild's laughter, car horns honkin )
Colled e-rnoil or eleclronic messages. g .
Although approaches to data collechon continually expand in the Examine possessions or ritual objects
qualitahve area (see Creswell, 1994), there are four basic types of
information to collect: observations (ranging from nonparticipant to Figure 7.4
Reseorch A C ompen d iurn 01 Doto Colledion Approoches in Quolitotive
participant), interviews (ranging from semistructured to open-
ended), documents (ranging from prvate to public), and audio-visual
materials (including materials such as photographs, compact disks, and asked& Linco
by the resea rch e.r to discuss
.
(Denzin the contents of the pctures
and videotapes). In Figure 7.4,1 present a compendium of approacheS
oid camera load~d l~~~.~e: (19~, for example, handed a Polar-
under these four categories. In recent years, new forros of data nave
emerged such as joumaling in narrative story writing, using text from
e-mail messages, and observing through videotapes and photo-
graders in ~lorida and West G~;:y
of images that represented war and
a:! :k:~ and 40 fem~le 4th
em to take pictures
peace.
graphs. 1encourage individuals designing qualitative projects to pur- The traditon of inqui
uuy directs an mvestgator's
. attenti
sue information from sources generally unfamiliar to the reader. For preferred approaches to data collecton although th on toward
example, 1 like the technique of "photo elicitation" in which partici- are not rigid guidelnes . Fo r a b'IOgrap hy,' for example, ese approaches
the portrait of
pants are shown pictures (their own or those taken by the researcher)
122 T QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Data Collection T 123
an individual's life is created from documents, interviews, and per- facts (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995; Spradley, 1980), although ob-
haps observations. For a life history of a living individual, Plummer serving and interviewing appear to be the most popular forms of data
(1983) discusses having the individual write down his or her history, collection. Participan' observation, for example, offers possibilities for
a form of joumaling. Also, the researcher conducts unstructured , the researcher on a continuum from being a complete outsider to being
cpen-ended interviews, with a "mixture of participant observation a complete insider (Jorgensen, 1989). The approach of changing roles
and almost casual chatting with notes taken" (p. 95). The comerstone from that of an outsider to an insider through the course of the
for life history writing for Plummer, however, is the open-ended sthnographic study is well documented in field research (Jorgensen,
interview. 1989). Wolcott's (1994b) study of the Principal Selection Cornmittee
For a phenomenologcal study, the process of collecting information illustrates an outsider perspective as he observed and recorded events
involves primarily in-depth interviews (see, e.g., the discussion about in the process without becoming an active participant in the commit-
the long interview in McCracken, 1988) with as many as 10 individu- tee's conversations and activities.
als. 1have seen the number of interviewees referenced in studies range A case study involves the widest array of data collection as the
from 1 (Dukes, 1984) up to 325 (Polkinghome, 1989). Dukes (1984) researcher attempts to build an in-depth picture of the case. 1 am
recommends studying 3 to 10 subjects, and the Riernen (1986) study reminded o the multiple forms of data collection recommended by
included 10. The important point is to describe the meaning of a small Yin (1989) in rus book about case studies. He refers to six forms:
number of individuals who have experienced the phenomenon. With documents. archival record s, interviews, direct observation, partici-
an n-depth interview lasting as long as 2 hours (Polkinghome, 1989), pant observation, and physical artifacts.
la subjects in a study represents a reasonable size. Added to 10 Because of the extensive data collection in our gunman case study
in-depth interviews might be the self-reflection of the researcher as a (Asmussen & Creswell, 1995), we presented a matrix of information
preparatory step to interviewing (Polkinghome, 1989) or as the initial sources for the reader. This matrix contains four types of data (in ter-
views, observations, documents, and audio-visual materials) for the
step in the analysis (Moustakas, 1994). Besides interviewing and
self-reflection, Polkinghome (1989) adds gathering information from columns and specific forms of information (e.g., students at large,
central adrninistration) in the rows. Our intent was to convey through
depictions of the experience outside the context of the research proj-
this matrix the depth and multiple forms of data collection, thus
ects such as descriptions drawn from novelists, poets, painters, and
suggesting the complexity of our case. The use of a matrix, especially
choreographers.
applicable in an information-rich case study, might serve the inquirer
Interviews playa central role in the data collection in a grounded
equa11y well in a11traditions of inquiry.
theory study. With the intent of developing a model or theory and
In an examination of the data co11ection forms of the five traditions
saturating categories, 1 recommend that a grounded theorist inter-
in Table 7.1, interviewing and observing are central to all traditions
view 20 to 30 individuals. In our study of academic chairpersons
and deserve additional attention. Because of the extensive discussions
(Creswell & Brown, 1992), each of our interviews with 33 individuals
of these topics in the literature, 1highlight only basic procedures that
lasted approximately 1 hour. Other data forms besides interviewing,
1 recornmend to prospective interviewers and observers.
such as participant observation, researcher reflection or joumaling
(memoing), participant joumaling, and focus groups, may be used to
help develop the theory (see Morrow & Smith's [1995J use of these
forms in their study of women's childhood abuse). However, in my Interoiewing
experience, these multiple data forms playa secondary role to inter-
viewing in grounded theory studies. One might view interviewing as a series of steps in a procedure:
In an ethnographic study, the investigator collects descriptions of T Identify interviewees based on one o/ the purposejul sampling procedures
behavior through observations, interviewing, documents, and arti- mentioned in the preceding (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
124 T QUALITATIVE INQUIR)' Data Collection T 125
T Determine totiat type of interuieio is practical and will net the most T During the interview, stick to the quesiions, complete within the time
useju! injormation to answer reseurch questions. Assess the types specified (if possible), be respectjul and courteous, and offerfew questions
available such as a telephone interview, a focus group interview, and advice. This last point may be the most important, and 1 arn
or a one-on-one interview. A telephone intervew provides the reminded how a good interviewer is a listener rather than a
best source of information when the researcher does not have speaker during an interview. Also, record information on the
direct access to indviduals. The drawbacks of ths approach are interview protocol in the event that the audio-recording does not
that the researcher cannot see the informal cornmunication, and work. Recognize that quickly inscribed notes may be incomplete
the phone expenses. Focus groups are advantageous when the and partial because of the difficulty of asking questions and
interaction among interviewees willlikely yield the best informa- writing answers at the same time.
tion, when interviewees are similar and cooperative with each
other, when time to collect information is limited, and when
individuals interviewed one on one may be hesitant to provide
Observing
information (Krueger, 1994; Morgan, 1988; Stewart & Sham-
dasani, 1990). With this approach, however, care must be taken to
encourage all participants to talk and to monitor indviduals who Observing in a setting is a special skill that requires management
ma y dominate the conversation. For one-on-one interviewing, the of issues such as the potential deception of the people being inter-
researcher needs individuals who are not hesitant to speak and viewed, impression management, and the potential margnality of the
share ideas and needs to determine a setting in which this is researcher in a strange setting (Harnmersley & Atkinson, 1995). Like
possible. The less articula te, shy interviewee may present the interviewing, 1 also see observing as a series of steps:
researcher with a challenge and les s than adequate data. T Select a site to be observed. Obtain the required permissions needed
T Whether conduciing one-on-one or[ocus group inienneios, 1recommend to gain access to the site.
the use of adeouate recording procedures, such as a lapel mike for both T At the siie, idenlify who or what lo observe, uihen, and for how long. A
the interviewer and interoieioee or an adeouate mike sensitive to the gateleeeper or leey inlormants help in ths process.
aco!lstics of the room.
T Determine, initially, a role as an observer. This role can range from
T Design the interuieio protocol, aform about [our orfive pages in length, that of a complete participant (going native) to that of a complete
unih approxlmately [iie open-ended questlons and ample space between observer. 1 especially like the procedure of being an outsider
the questions lo urrite responses to the inieruieuiee's comments. initially followed by becoming an insider over time.
T Determine ihe place for conducting the interuieto. Find. if possible, a
T Design an observational protocol as a method for recording notes in the
quiet location free from distractions. Ascertain that the physical
feld. Include in this protocol both descriptive and reflective notes
setting lends itself to audiotaping, an essential necessity, 1believe,
(i.e., notes about your experiences, hunches, and leamings).
in accurately recording information.
T Record aspects such as portraits of the injormant, the physical eeuing,
T After arriuing at the interview site, obtain consent from the interviewee
particular events and activities, and your own reactions (Bogdan &
to participa te in the study. Have the interviewee complete a consent Biklen, 1989).
form for the human relations review board. Go over the purpose
of the study, the amount of time that will be needed to complete T During the observation, have someone introduce you if you are an
the interview, and plans for using the results from the interview outsider, be passive and friendly, and start with limited objectives in the
(oHer a copy of the report or an abstract of it to the interviewee). first few sessions of observation. The early observational sessions
126 QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Data Col/ection 127
After obseroing, slowly withdraw from the site, thanking the partici- Time 01 interview:
pants and informing them of the use of the data and their accessibility to Dote:
Place:
the study. Interviewer:
Interviewee:
Position 01 interviewee:
Place space berUJeenthe questions in the protocol formo Recognize that 5. To whom should we tolk to find out more obout compus readion to the incident?
an individual may not always respond directly to the questions
being asked. For example, while you ask Question 2, the inter-
viewee may respond to Question 4. Be prepared to write notes to
al! of the questions as the interviewee speaks.
(Thonk individuol lor porticipoting in this interview. Assure him or her 01 conlidentiolify 01
Memorize the questions and their arder to minimize losing eye contacto
responses ond potentiol future interviews.)
Provide appropriate verbal transitions from one question to the
next.
Figure 7.5 Somple Interview Protocol
Write out the closing comments that thank: the individual for the inter-
view and request fol/ow-up injormation, if needed, from them.
QUALlTATlVE INQUIRY Data Cotlection T 129
128 T
includes "descriptive notes" where the researcher record s a descrip- See clossroom loyoul ond comments oboul Overheod wi/h f/ops: I wonder f he bock
tion of activities and a drawing of the physical setting. Moreover, the physicol setting 01 Ihe bottom 01 Ihis poge. 01 the room wos ob/e lo reod il.
researcher provides "reflective notes"-notes about the process, re- Approximotely s: 17 p.m., Dr. Creswell Overheod profedor no/ plugged in o/ the
flections on activities, and summary conclusions about activities for enters the lilled room, inlroduces Dr. beginning 01 /he closs: I wonder if Ihis wos
Wolcott. Closs members seem relieved. O distrodion (when i/ lcok eldro lime to
la ter theme development. A line down the center of the page divides
plug i/ in).
descriptive notes from reflective notes. A visual sketch of the setting
and a header provide additional useful inforrnation. Dr. Creswell gives briel bockground, Lo/eness 01 /he orrivol of Drs. Creswell ond
concentroting on his internotionol Wolcoff: Studen/s seemed bit omcious.
Whether the investigator is using an observational or interview experiences; lectures o comment obout the Moyhe il hod lo do wilh /he chonge in
protocol, the essential process is recording information or, as Lofland educolionol ethnogrophy The Mon in Ihe storting time lo 5 p.m. (some moy hove
Principo/'s Olfice. hod 6:30 closses or oppoinlmenls lo gel
and Lofland (1995) put it, "loggng data" (p. 66). This process involves
to).
recording informabon through various forms such as observational
fieldnotes, interview write-ups. mapping, census taking, photograph- Dr. Wolcott begins by telling the closs he Drs. Creswell ond Wo/coff seem lo hove o
now writes out educotionol ethnogrophy ond good rOPPOrt belween Ihem, judging from
ing. sound recording, and collecting and organizing documents. An highlighls Ihis primory occupotion by mony short exchonges Ihot Ihey hod.
informal process may occur in recording information composed of mentioning two books: Tronsferring
Quo/ilo/ive Doto ond The M of Fieldworlc.
initial "jottings" (Emerson, Fretz, & Shaw, 1995), daily logs or summa-
ries, and descriptive summaries (see Sanjek, 1990, for examples of While Dr. Wolcott begins his presentotion by Cholkboord
fieldnotes). These forms of recording information are popular in opologizing lar his weory voice (due to
lolking 011 doy, opporently), Dr. Creswell
SC/ choir
biographies, ethnographies, and case studies. leoves the dossroom to retrieve the guest's
overheod tronsporencies.
tice, 1 recommend limited data collection, such as one or two inter- quolitotive reseorch?' lollowed by'How SKETCHOF ClASSROOM
views or observations, so that researchers can estmate the time does ethnogrophy lit in?'
needed to collect data. Along with the time issue is the concem about
the amount of energy and focus required to establish a substanbal Figure 7.6 Sample Observalional Proloco!
database
130 T QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Data Collection T 131
In Figure 7.7, 1 enumera te other field issues and group thern into Access/site questions:
topical areas. These issues span access/ si te problems to observations, Difliculty making inilial canloe! with person in Ihe field
interviews, document research, journals, video materials, and general Building trusl or credibility 01 the field sile (feeling like inlruder)
ethical issues. Gaining access lo the site ond individual,
Issues of locating and obtaining permission to use materials pre- Getting people to respond to reqvesls lar inlormalion
Deciding whether to collee! inlormolion in the nolurol sile
sent a challenge to biographical writers. The issues related to inter-
Delermining whelher one con underslond o seHing when one is clase lo il
viewing surface during phenomenological studies and grounded the-
ory studies, whereas ethnographers struggle with access concems and Observations:
with sharing information with interviewees and participants in the
Delermining whelher lieldnotes ore credible
cultural group. Case study writers, who gather extensive infor- Writing down "joHings'
mation, struggle with the time commitment and the details of inter- Incorporoting "quoes" inlo fieldnotes
viewing. Assuming on observer rele ond how lo chonge roles
Conducting interviews is taxng, especially for inexperienced re- Leoming how lo best collee! inlormotion from eorly lield visils in Cose slvdies
Learning how lo "funnel" from brood observotions lo norrow ones
searchers engaged in studies that require extensive interviewing, such
as phenomenology, grounded theory, and case study research. Equip- Jnterviews:
ment issues 100m large as a problem in interviewing, and both record-
Soying "liHle" during inlerview
ing equipment and transcribing equipment need to be organized in Hoving topes Ihot will work in Ihe lronscribing machine
advance of the interview. The process of questioning during an inter- Scheduling o time lor 011 to por1icipole in o grovp interview
view (e.g.. saying "little." handling "emotional outbursts," using Motching the "level" 01 questions to the ability al inlormonts
"ice-breakers") includes problems that an interviewer must address. Realizing the costliness ond lengthy process 01 tronscribing dolo
Many inexperienced researchers express surprise at the difficulty of Using on oppropriate level of questioning 01 the beginning al the inlerview
Internuptions during on interview
conducting interviews and the lengthy process involved in transcrib-
Difliculty scheduling on interview
ing audiotapes from the interviews. In addition, in phenomenological
Hoving conlidence in interviewing skills
interviews, asking appropriate questions and relying on informants Hoving difliculty toking notes while interviewing
to discuss the meaning of their experiences require patience and skill Condue!ing interview with two or more individuols
on the part of the researcher. In document research, the issues involve Encouroging 011 porticiponls lo tolk in a group inlerview
locating materials, often at sites far away.-and obtaining permission Asking appropriole questions
to use the materials. For biographers, the primary form of data collec- Leoming to listen rother thon lolking in interviews
Handling emotional outbursls
tion might be archival research from documents.
Addressing par1iciponts who do nol wonl lo be oudiotoped
When the researcher asks participants in a study to keep joumals,
Finding o Ironscriplionisl ond the righl type 01 equipmenl in o cose study ond grounded
additional field issues surface. Joumaling is a popular data collechon theory project
process in case studies. What instructions should be given to individu- Moving from ice-breokers lo queslions in inlerview
als prior to writing in their journals? Are a11 participants equally Aduressing when inlerviewee, slray Irom the interview queslions
comfortable with joumaling? Is it appropriate, for example, with Giving the interview questions to por1icipanls belore the inlerview
Working with the logislics of Ihe tope-recordinq equipmenl
small children who express themselves well verbally but have limited
"Brocketing" personal bias
writing skills? The researcher also may have difficulty reading the
Focusing Ihe queslions 10 osk in o group inlerview
handwriting of participants who jouma!. Recording videotapes raises (continued)
issues for the qualitative researcher such as keeping disturbing room
sounds to a mnimum, deciding on the best location for the camera, Figure 7.7 Field Issues in Qualitative Research
132 T QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Data Collection T 133
Some principles about data storage and handling that are especially concems about sources of bias surface in discussions about the classi-
well suited for qualitative research include the following: cal approach to biographical writings (Plummer, 1983).
Fourth, the traditions vary in their intrusiveness of data collection.
Always develop backup copies of computer files (Davidson, 1996). Conducting interviews seems less intrusive in phenomenological
projects and grounded theory studies than does the high level of
Use high-quality tapes for audio-recording information during
access needed in personal biographies, the prolonged stays in the field
interviews. Also, make sure that the size of the tapes fits the
in ethnographies, and the irnmersion into programs or events in case
transcribers machine.
studies.
Develop a master list of types of information gathered. In my review of the five traditions and data collection, 1 found
Protect the anonyrnity of participants by masking their names in overIap in several areas. A number of these were highlighted earlier
in the chapter. All qualitative studies conducted in public organiza-
the data.
tions need to be approved by ahuman subjects review board. Also,
Convert word processing files over to ASCII files for easy entry into the use of interviews and observations is central to many of the
some qualitative computer programs (this topie will be addressed traditions. Furthermore, the recording devices such as observational
further in Chapter 8). and interview protocols can be similar regardless of tradition (al-
Develop a data collection matrix as a visual means of locating and though specific questions on each protocol will reflect the language of
identifying information for a study, the tradition). Pinally, the issue of storage of information is closely
related to the form of data collection, and the basic objective of
researchers, regardless of tradition, is to develop some filing and
storing system for organized retrieval of information.
FIVE TRADITIONS COMPARED
Retuming again to Table 7.1, there are both differences and sirnilarities
SUMMARY
among the activities of data collection for the five traditions of inquiry,
Tuming to differences, first, the diversity of forms of data collection In this chapter, 1 addressed several components of the data collection
is great. For case studies. the researcher uses multiple forms of data to process. The researcher attends to locating a site or person to study,
build the in-depth case. For grounded theory studies, pheno- gaining access and building rapport at the site or with the individual,
menological projects, and biographies, investigators rely prirnarily on sampling purposefully using one of the many approaches to sampling
interviews. Ethnographers rely heavily on participant observation. in qualitative research, collecting information through as many as four
Unquestionably, some mixing of forms occurs, but in general these forms (interviews, observations, documents, and audio-visual mate-
pattems of collection by tradition hold true. rial), establishing approaches for recording information such as the
Second, the unit of data collection vares. Biographers, pheno- use of interview or observational protocols. resolving field issues
menologists, and ground theorists study individuals; case study re- ranging from access to ethical concerns, and developing a system for
searchers examine groups of individuals participating in an event or storing and handling the databases. Applied to the five traditions of
activity or an organization; and ethnographers study entire cultural inquiry, the traditions differ in the diversity of information collected,
systems or some subcultures of the systems. Third, 1found the amount the unit of study being examined. the extent of field issues, and the
of discussion about field issues to vary. Ethnographers ha ve written intrusiveness of the data collection effort. Researchers, regardless of
extensively about field issues (e.g., Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995), tradition, need approval from review boards, engage in similar data
thus reflecting the concems of a stranger going into the field. Biogra- collection of interviews and observations, and use similar recording
phers are less specific about field issues (e.g., Denzin, 1989b), although protocols and forms for storing data.
136 .. QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Data Collection .. 137
...ADDITIONAL READINGS Sanjek, R. (1990). Fieldnotes: The makings 01an/hropology. Ithaca, NY:
Come11 University Press.
For a discussion about purposeful sampling strategies, 1 recorn-
mend Miles and Huberman (1994). For a discussion of field relations and issues, see Harnmersley and
Atkinson (1995) and Lofland and Lofland (1995).
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitatlve data analysis: A
sourcebook 01new methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (1995). Ethnography: Principies in
practice (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
For interviewing, 1 direct researchers to Kvale (1996), McCracken Lofland, J., & Lofland, L. H. (1995). Analyzing social settings: A guide
(1988), Rubin and Rubin (1995), Seidman (1991), and Weiss (1992). to qualitative obseruaiion and analyss (3rd ed.). Belmont, GA:
Wadsworth.
Kvale, S. (1996). In/erViews AIl introduction lo ouaiitatiue research
inienneunng. Thousand Oaks, CA: 5age
McCracken, G. (1988). The long interuieui. Newbury Park. CA: Sage. EXERCISES
Weiss, R. 5. (1992). Leaming from s/rangers: The art and meihod 01 2. It is helpful to design the data co11ection activities fOI a project.
quatitatiue interoieui studies. New York: Free Press. Examine Table 7.1 for the seven activities. Develop a matrix that
describes data collection for a11seven activities fOI your project.
For discussions about making observations and taking fieldnotes,
1 suggest several writers: Bemard (1994), Bogdewic (1992), Emer-
son et al. (1995), Hammersley and Atkinson (1995), Jorgensen
(1989), and Sanjek (1990).
T 139
140 T QUALlTATIVE INQUIRY Data Annlysis and Representation T 141
T How might the overall data analysis be conceptualized in quali- TABLE 8.1 General Data Analysis Strategies by Authors
tative research? - Bogdon & Biklen Hubermon & Miles
T What are specific data analysis procedures within each tradition Anolytic Strotegy (1992) (1994) Wofcoff ( 994b)
of inquiry, and how do they differ?
5ketching ideos Jot down ideos in Write morgin notes Highlight certoin
T How can one represent the analysis using a computer prograrn. morgins ollieldnotes in lieldnotes informotion in
and how would this representation differ by tradition of inquiry? description
the general data analysis strategies advanced by three qualitative Disploy data Develop diagrams, Make contrasts and Display lindings in
continua, tables, comporisons tables, charts,
authors (Bogdan & Biklen, 1992; Huberman & Miles, 1994; Wolcott,
matrices, and graphs diagroms, ond
1994b). These three authors advocate many similar processes, as well figures; compore
as a few different processes, in the analytic phase of qualitative cases; compore with
o standard
research.
Identify codes Develop coding Write codes, memos
They recomrnend, first, a general review of al! information, often categories
in the form of jotting down notes in the margins of text (e.g., observa-
Reduce information Sort molerial inta Note pottems ond Identify potterned
tional fieldnotes, interview transcriptions, notes about photographs categories themes regularities
or videotapes). 1personally favor reading through aJl collected infor- Count frequency 01 Count Irequency 01
mation to obtain a sense of the overall data, a procedure also advo- codes codes
cated by Tesch (1990). In addition, writing findings in the form of Relating cotegories Factoring, noting
memos and reflective notes is an initial sorting-out process. One also relotions among
variobles, building a
might begin to write summaries of field notes. logical chain 01
At this point, the researcher might obtain feedback on the initial evidence
summaries by taking information back to informants, a procedure to Use systemotic Follow lieldwork
be discussed later as a key verification step in research as well as an procederes 01 procederes in
tredition 01 inquiry ethnography
analysis step. Also at this point, a researcher looks closely at the words
Relate ta analytic Cantextualize in
used by participants in the study, such as the metaphors they use, or fromework in fromework Irom
the researcher translates participants' ideas into metaphors. The pro- literoture literature
cess of reducing the data begins. lt is followed by creating displays of Redesign sludy Propase a redesiqn
information such as diagrams, tables, or graphs-means for visualiz- 01 the study
Data management, the fust loop in the spiral, begins the process.
At an early stage in the analysis process, researchers organize their
THE DATA ANALYSIS SPIRAL data into file folders, index cards, or computer files. Besides organiz-
ing files, researchers convert their files to appropriate text units (e.g.,
Data analysis is not off-the-shelf; rather, it is custorn-built, revised, and a word, a sentence, an entire story) for analysis either by hand or by
"choreographed" (Huberman & Miles, 1994). Qualitative researchers computer. Materials must be easily located in large databases of text
"learn by doing" (Dey, 1993, p. 6). This leads critics to claim that (or images). As Patton (1980) says,
qualitative research is largely intuitive, soft, and relativistic or that
qualitative data analysts fal! back on the three "I's"_"insight, intui-
The data generated by qualitative methods are voluminous. 1have found
tion, and impression" (Dey, 1995, p. 78). Undeniably, qualitative re-
no way of preparing students for the sheer massive volumes of informa-
searchers preserve the unusual and serendipitous, and writers craft
tion with which they will find themselves confronted when data collection
each study differently, using analytic procedures that evolve in the
has ended. Sitting down to rnake sense out of pages of interviews and
field. But given this perspective, 1 believe that the analysis process
whole fiJesoi field notes can be overwhelming. (p. 297)
conforms to a general contour.
The contour is best represented in a spiral image, a data analysis
Computer programs help with this phase o analysis, and their role in
spiral. As shown in Figure 8.1, to analyze qualitative data, the re- this process will be addressed later.
searcher engages in the process of moving in analytic circIes rather
Following the organization and conversion of the data, researchers
than using a fixed linear approach. One enters with data of text or
continue analysis by getting a sense of the whole database. Agar
images (e.g., photographs, videotapes) and exits with an account or a
(1980), for example, suggests that researchers "read the transcripts in
narrative. In between, the researcher touches on several facets of
their entirety several times. Irnmerse yourself in the details, trying to
analysis and circles around and around.
get a sense of the interview as a whole before breaking it into parts"
Data A1Ullysis and Representation T 145
QUALlTATlVE INQUIRY
144 T
to fue reader.
With fue data in our gunman case study (Asmussen & Creswe11, l I
1995), we scanned a11of our databases to identify major organizing I
ideas. Looking over our fieldnotes from observations, interview data,
physical trace evidence, and audio and visual images, we disregarded I I I l
predetermined questions to "hear" what interviewees said. We re- Retrigger Campus
flected on fue larger fuoughts presented in fue data and ormed initial Denial Fear Safety
-ing Planning
categories. These categories were few in number (about 10), and we
looked for multiple forms of evidence to support each. Moreover, we
found evidence that portrayed multiple perspectives about each cate-
gory. Data I
This process 1 have described consists of moving frorn fue reading
and memoing loop into fue spiral to fue describing, classifying, and
~ __ ..;;;;;.Base 1
interpreting loop. In this loop, category formation represents fue heart
of qualitative data analysis. Here researchers describe in detail, de- Figure 8.2 Loyers 01 Anolysis in G unman C ase (Asmussen & Creswell, 1995)
velop themes or dimensions through some classification system, and
provide an interpretation in light of their own views or views of
perspectives in the literature. Aufuors employ descriptive detail, clas-
such as interpretation based on hunches.i , " ,
sification, or interpretation or sorne combination of fuese analysis might be an interpretation ithin " msl~hts, and intuition.It also
W1 a SOCIalscience e tru id
procedures. Detailed description means that aufuors describe what a combination of personal views ' ons ct'1'
or 1 ea or
as contrasted with
they see. This detail is provided in situ, that is, within fue context of construct or idea At this . , thei a SOCla science
fue setting of fue person, place, or event. Description becomes a good and form larger ~earun' POfIDthID, eir ~alyses, researchers step back
gs o w a t 15 gOIDg o ' the si ,
place to start in a qualitative study (after reading and managing data), In the fin 1 h n ID e situations or sites
a pase of the . 1 '
and it plays a central rol e in ethnographiC studies. packaging of what was foU::: ~e~se:a~~ers pre;ent the data, a
Classifying pertains to taking the text or qualitative information example, creating a visual image of fue Worm:~ or igure formo For
apart, looking for categories, themes, or dirnensions of information. present a " ." on, a researcher may
a companson table (see Spradley 1980) .
As a popular Iorm of analysis, classification involves identifying five example, a 2 x 2 table that e ,or a matrix-e-for
ompares men and women i t f
or six general themes. These themes, in turn, 1 view as a "family" of of the themes or categories in the study (see Miles & H ~ erms o one
themes with children, or subthemes, and grandchildren represented The cells contain text, not numbers A hi cm u ez:man, 1994).
by segments of data. It is difficult, especia11y in a large database, to resents another forrn of '. ~rar cal tree diagram rep-
reduce fue information down into five or six "families," but my abstraction with the b p~senthtation, This shows different leveIs of
, oxes ID e top of th tree '
process involves winnowing fue data, reducing them to a small, abstraet information d th e representng the most
an ose at the bottom representin th 1
manageable set of fuemes to write into my final narrative. abstract themes Figure 8 2 ill g e east
used in the' . ustrates the levels of abstraction that we
lnterpretation involves making sense of the data, fue "lessons gunman case (Asmussen & Creswe11, 1995). Although 1
leamed" as described by Lincoln and Cuba (1985). Several forros exist,
146 .. QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Data Analysis and Represeniation .. 147
have presented this figure at conferences, we did not include it in the prompts a subject to expand on various sections of the stories and asks
published joumal article version of the study. This illustration shows the interviewee to theorize about his or her life. These theories may
inductive analysis that begins with the raw data consisting of multiple relate to career models, processes in the life course, models of the
sources of information and then broadens to several specific themes social world, relational models of biography, and natural history
(e.g., safety, denial) and on to the most general themes represented by models of the life course. Then, narrative segments and categories
the two perspectives of social-psychological and psychological fac- within the interview-story are isolated by the researcher, and larger
torso patterns and meanings are de termine d.
Hypotheses or propositions that specify the relationship among Finally, the indvidual's biography is reconstructed, and the re-
categories of i..nformation also represent informabon. In grounded searcher identifies factors that have shaped the lile. Ibis leads to the
theory, for example, investigators advance propositions that interre- writing of an analytic abstraction of the case that bighlights (a) the
late the causes of a phenomenon with its context and strategies. processes in the individual's life, (b) the different theories that relate
Finally, authors present metaphors to analyze the data, literary de- to these life experiences, and (c) the unique and general features of the
vices in which something borrowed from one domain applies to life.
another (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995). Qualitative writers may In the life history of Vonnie Lee (Angrosino, 1994), the reader finds
compose entire studies shaped by analyses of metaphors. many of these forros of analysis in the clrronology of the bus trip, the
specific sfOl'ies such as the logo on the bus, and the theorizing (at least
by the author) about the meaning of the bus trip as a metaphor for
ANALYSIS WITHIN TRADITIONS OF INQUIRY
Vonnie Lee's experiences in life as an individual with mental retarda-
Beyond these general spiral analysis processes, 1 can now relate the tion.
procedures to each of the five traditions of inquiry and highlight
specific differences in analysis and representing data. My organizing
framework for tbis discussion is found in Table 8.2. 1 address each
tradition and discuss specific analysis and representing charac- Phenomenology
teristics. A t the end of this discussion. 1retum to significant differences
and sirnilarities among the five traditions. 1 see the biographical approach by Denzin (1989b) as a general
templa te for analysis in contrast to the detailed, specific approaches
to phenomenological analysis advanced by Moustakas (1994). Mous-
Biography takas reviews two approaches, but 1see his second approach, called a
modification of the Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen method, being used fre-
Denzin (1989b) suggests that a researcher begin analysis by identi- quently in phenomenological studies. The steps are as follows:
fying an objective set of experiences in the subject's life. Having the
.. The researcher begins with afuII description o/ his or her own experience
individual joumal a sketch of his or her life may be a good beginning
o/ ihe phenomenon.
point for analysis. In this sketch, the researcher looks for life-course
stages or experiences (e.g., childhood, marriage, employment) to .. The researcher ihen finds statements (in the interviews) about how
develop a mrono/ogy of the individual's life. Stories and epiphanies individuals are experiencing the topic, lists out these significant state-
will emerge from the individual's joumal or from interviews. The ments (horizonalizllfion o/ the data) and treats each statement as having
researcher looks in the database (typicaUy interviews or documents) equal ioorth, and works lo develop a lisio/ nonrepetiiiue, nonouerlapping
for concrete, contextuaJ biographicaJ materials. An interviewer statements.
~
...
~
Doto monoging o Creo le ond orqonize o Creote ond orgonize o Creole ond organizo o Creole ond orgonize o Creole ond orgonize
files for dolo liles for dolo files for dolo Iiles for dolo files for dolo
Reoding, memoing o Reod through lexl, o Reod through lexl, o Reod through texl, o Reod throvgh lext, o Reod Ihrough lexl,
moke morgin notes, moke morgin notes, moke morgin notes, moke morgi n notes, moke morgin notes,
form iniliol codes lorm iniliol codes form initiol codes lorm inillol codes lorm iniliol codes
Oescribing o Describe objeclive sel o Describe the meoning o Describe the sociol o Describe Ihe cose ond
of experiences al the experisnce lar setting, octors, events; its conlexl
-ch,onology al lile reseorcher drow pictvre 01 seHing
Clossifying o Identify slories o Find ond lisl slatements o Engoge in axial coding--- o Analyze dolo fa, o Use cotegorical
o Lacale epiphanies al meaning lar causal condition, themes and pottemed oggregalion
o Identify contextual individuols contexl, intervening regvlarilies o Establi.h pollems
material, fa, life o Group slatements into conditions, strotegies, al coteqories
meaning units consequences
o Engage in open
coding-categories,
properties, dimension-
olize properties
Interpreting Theorize toword o Develop o texturol o Engoge In selective o Interpret ond moke o Use direel interpretotion
developing pottems description, "Whot coding ond develop- sense 01 the lindings o Develop noturolistic
ond meonings hoppened" menl 01 stories generolizotions
o Develop o slruclurol o Develop o condilionol
description, "How" the molrix
phenomenon wos
experiencod
Develop on overo"
descriplion of the
experience, the
"essence"
Represenling, Present norrofion Present norrotion of o Presenl o visual model Present norrotive Present narrative
visuolizing focusing on processes, the "essence" 01 Iho or Iheory presentotion ougmented by
Iheories, ond unique experience; use tobles o Presenl propositlons ougmented by tobles, tobles, ond figures
ond generol faotures of or figures of stoternents ligures, ond sketches
the life ond meoning unit.
~
...
""
ID
150 T QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Data Amzlysis and Representation T 151
T These statements are then grouped into "meaning units," the researcher stances that represent the category and to continue looking (and inter-
lists these uniis, and he or she writes a descripiion of the "textures" viewing) until the new information obtained does not further provide
(Ie.rlvral description) of the experience-what happened-inc1uding inSight into the category. These categories are cornposed of sub-
verbatim examples. categories, calledproperlies, representing rnultiple perspectives about
the categories. Properties, in tum, are JimensionalizeJ and presented
T The researcher next reflects on his or her own description and uses on a continuurn. Overall, this is the process of reducing the database
imaginative variation or structvral description, seeking all possible to a small set of themes or categories that characterize the process or
meanings and divergent perspeciiues, varying the frames of reference action being explored in the grounded theory study.
about the phenomenon, and constructing a description of how the phe- Once an initial set of categories is developed, the researcher iden-
nomenon was experienced. rfies a single category as the central pbenomenon of interest and begins
T The researcher then conslructs an overall description of the meaning and exploring the interrelationship of categories, called mal toJing-
the essence of the experience. causal tonJitions that influence the central phenomenon, the sfra1egies
for addressing the phenomenon, the context and intervening conditions
T This process is followed first for lhe researcher's account of the experience that shape the strategies, and the consequences of undertaking the
and then for thal of each participanl. After this, a "composite" de- strategies. In this phase of analysis, the researcher creates a toJing
scription is written. paradigm, or a theoretical model that visually portrays the interrela-
tionship of these axial coding categories of information. A theory is
In the nursing-patient caring interaction study by Riemen (1986), built or generated. At the broadest level of analysis, the researcher can
the researcher presents significant statements of caring and noncar- create a tonclitional matrix. This matrix is an analytical aid-a diagram-
ing interactions for both males and females. Furthermore, Riemen that helps the researcher visualize the wide range of conditions and
formulates meaning statements from these significant statements consequentes related to the central pbenomenon (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).
and presents them in tables as well. Finally, Riemen advances two Seldorn have 1 found this broad level of analysis in grounded theory
"exhaustive" descriptions for the essence of the experience-two studies.
short paragraphs-and sets thern apart by enclosing them in tables. The specific form for presenting the theory differs. In our stud y of
departrnent chairs, we present it as hypotheses (Creswell & BroWTI,
1992); in their study of coping strategies of sexually abused women,
Grounded Theory Morrow and Smith (1995) advance a visual rnodel; and in our study
of balance between work and personallife (Creswell & Urbom, 1997),
Similar to phenomenology, grounded theory uses set procedures we offer a visual rnodel and three stories.
for analysis. It consists of open, mal, and se/emve coding as advanced The grounded theory study of survival and coping from childhood
by Corbin and Strauss (1990). Grounded theory provides a procedure abuse by Morrow and Smith (1995) reflects several of these phases of
for developing categories of information (open coding), interconnect- data analysis. They present results of the mal toding by discussing
ing the categories (mal toJing), building a "story" that connects the causal conJitions that influence the terrtral pbenomellon, threatening or
categories (se/ective toJing), and ending with a discursive set of theo- dangerous feelings as well as helplessness, powerlessness, and lack of
retical propositions (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). control. They specify two groups of strclfegies these wornen used and
In the open coJing phase, the researcher examines the text (e.g., indicate the narrower tontext in which these strategies occurred as well
transcripts, fieldnotes, documents) for salient eategories of informa- as the broader intervening tonJmons such as family dynamics and the
tion supported by the text. Using the constant comparative approach, victim's age. They detail the consequenteS of using the strategies such
the researcher attempts to "satvrate" the categories-to look for in- as coping. healing, and empowerment. They present these categories
152 T QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Data Analysis and Representation
T 153
in a visual model, called a "theoretical model for surviving and coping rween the cvhvre-sbaring group and larger theoretical frameworks.
with childhood sexual abuse" (p. 27). Other analysis steps include critiquing the research process and pro-
posing a redesign for the study.
Making an ethnographe interpretation 01"'0 culture-sharing group is
Ethnography a data transformation step as well. Here the researcher goes beyond
the database and probes "what is to be made of them" (Wolcott, 1994b,
For ethnographic research, 1 recorrunend the three aspects of data p. 36). The researcher speculates outrageous, comparative interpreta-
transformation advanced by Wolcott (1994b): Jesu;ption, analys;s, and tions that raise doubts or questions for the reader. The researcher
;nterpmation o''''e ruhvre-sbar;ng group. Wolcott (1990b) believes that draws inferences from the data or tums to theory to provide struc-
a good starting point for writing an ethnography is to describe the ture for his or her interpretations. The researcher also personalizes the
culture-sbar;ng group and setting: interpretation: "This is what 1 make of it" or "This is how the
research experience affected me" (p. 44). Finally, the investigator
Description is the foundation upon which qualitative research is built .... forges an interpretation through expressions such as poetry, fiction,
or performance.
Here you become the storyteller, inviting the reader to see through your
eyes wha t you have seen.... 5tart by presenting a straightforward descrip- Wolcott (1994b) includes the ethnography of the Principal Selection
tion of the setting and events. No footnotes, no intrusive analysis-just the Committee in the section on "description" in rus book Transfonning
facts, carefully presented and interestingly related al an appropriate level Qualitatve Data: Descripticn, Analysis, and Interpretaton. In this ethnog-
of detail. (p. 28) raphy, Wolcott details the procedures of this committee as its members
interviewed seven candidates. He does not make explicit his steps in
analysis, but they can be easily seen. He isolates a single episode,
This Jescription may be analyzed by presenting information in chrono-
describes the interviews with six of the seven candidates, analyzes and
logical order or by using the researcher or narrator order (as seen in
presents three themes (i.e., lack of professional knowledge, an esteem
Wolcott's [1994a] Principal Selection Committee study). The writer
for personal feelings, and a proclivity toward variety-reducing behav~
describes through progressively focusing the description or chroni-
ior), and reflects or interprets these themes as to their impact on
cling a "day in the life" of the group or individual. Finally, other
education, change, and the principalship.
techniques involve focusing on a critical or key event, developing a
"story" complete with a plot and characters, writing it as a "mystery,"
examining groups in interaction, following.an analytical framework,
or showing different perspectives through the views of informants. Case Study
Analys;s for Wolcott (1994b) is a sorting procedure-"the quantita-
tive side of qualitative research" (p. 26). This involves highlighting For a case study, as in ethnography, analysis consists of making a
specific material introduced in the descriptive phase or displaying detailed Jescription of the case and its setting. If the case presents a
findings through tables, charts, diagrams, and figures. The researcher chronology of events, then 1 recomrnend analyzing the multiple
also analyzes through using systematic procedures such as those sources of data to determine evidence for each step or phase in the
advanced by Spradley (1979, 1980), who calls for building taxonomies, evolution of the case. Moreover, the setting is particularly important.
generating comparison tables, and developing semantic tables. Per- In our gunman case (Asmussen & Creswell, 1995), we analyzed the
haps the most popular analysis procedure, also mentioned by Wolcott information to determine how the incident fit into the setting-in our
(1994b), is the search for pattemed regularities in the data. Other forms situation, a tranquil, peaceful midwestem community.
of analysis consist of comparing the cultural group to others, evaluat- In addition, Stake (1995) advocates four forms of data analysis and
ing the group in terms of standards, and drawing connections be- interpretation in case study research. In categorical aggregation, the
154 T QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Data Analysis and Representation T 155
researcher seeks a co11ection of instances from the data, hoping that classifying show distinct language among these traditions; what is
issue-relevant meanings will emerge. In direcf interpretatiOll, on the called open coding in grounded theory is similar to the first stage of
other hand, the case study researcher looks at a single instance and classifying (statements) in phenomenology or categoricaI aggregation in
draws meaning from it without looking for multiple instances. It is a case study research. The researcher needs to become familiar with the
process of pulling the data apart and putting them back together in definition of these terms of analysis and employ them correctly de-
more meaningful ways. Also, the researcher establishes pattenu and pending on tradition of inquiry, The presentation of the data, in tum,
looks for a correspondence between two or more categories. This refleds the data analysis steps, and it varies from a narration in
correspondence might take the form of a table, possibly a 2 x 2 table, biography to tabled statements, meanings, and description in phe-
showing the relationship between two categories. Fina11y, the re- nomenology, to a visual model or theory in grounded theory.
searcher develops nafuralistic generalations from analyzing the data,
generalizations that people can leam from the case either for thern-
selves or for applying it to a population of cases.
COMPUTERS, ANALYSIS, AND TRADITIONS
To these analysis steps 1would add description of the case, a detailed
view of aspects about the case-the "facts." In OUT gunman case study
(Asmussen & Creswell, 1995), we describe the events fo11owing the Overall, authors overlook the specific application of computer pro-
incident for 2 weeks, highlighting the major players, the sites, and the grams in analysis for traditions of inquiry except for a short discussion
activities. We then aggregate the data into about 20 categories (cate- by Lonkila (1995) about programs and grounded theory and the
gorical aggregation) and collapse them into 5 pattems. In the final suggestion that some programs are best suited for one approach than
section of the study, we develop generalizations about the case in another (e.g., the program Ethnography was designed for ethno-
terms of the pattems and how they compare and contrast with pub- graphic studies; NUDIST, a theory-generation program, was de-
lished literature on campus violence. signed for grounded theory).
The link between computer programs to analyze text and traditions
of inquiry needs to be established. It is especially important beca use
not a11qualitative researchers see such programs as relevant to their
COMPARING THE FlVE TRADITIONS needs. 1feel, however, that computer programs help in the analysis of
qualitative data, especially in understanding a large (e.g., 500 or more
Retuming to Table 8.2, data analysis and representation have several pages) text database. For those studies employing especially large
common and distinctive features among the five traditions. Across all databases, such as ethnographies with extensive fieldnotes and inter-
five traditions, the researcher typica11y begins with creating and or- views, grounded theory studies comprised of 20-30 extensive inter-
ganizing files of information. Next, the process of a general reading views, or case studies with multiple types of information, computer
and memoing of information occurs to develop a sense of the data and programs provide an invaluable aid in research. Fo11owing are some
to begin the process of making sense of them. Then, all traditions have
of these advantages:
a phase of description with the exception of grounded theory, in which
the investigator seeks to begin building toward a theory of the action The computer program provides an organized storage "file" sys-
or process. Now the analysis procedures begin to depart. tem so that the researcher can quickly and easily loca te material
Grounded theory and phenomenology have the most detailed, and store it in one place. This aspect becomes especially important
explicated procedure for data analysis. Ethnography and case studies in locating entire cases or cases with specific characteristics.
have analysis procedures that are cornmon, and biography represents The computer program helps a researcher loca te material easily,
the least structured procedure. Also, the terms used in the phase of whether this material is an idea, a statement, a phrase, or a word.
156 T QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Data Analysis and Representation T 157
No longer do we need to "cut and paste" material onto file cards Using NUD 1ST and Analysis Features
and sort and resort the cards according to themes. No longer do we
need to develop an elaborate "color code" system for text related Several programs are available for both the PC and the MAC
to themes or topics. The search for text can be easily accomplished platforms (see Weitzman & Miles, 1995, for a review of 24 programs).
with a computer programo The basic feature of all of these programs is that they enable the
Acomputer program "forces" the researcher to look at the database researcher to "tag" text information and place it into a category, ca.lled
Une for line and think about the meaning of each sentence and idea. code and retrieve programs by Weitzman and Miles. This category is then
Without a program, the researcher is likely to casually read through labeled by the researcher. Also, many programs enable one to search
the text files or transcripts and not analyze each idea carefully. for certain words or a string of words in the text databases, called text
retrevers. Other programs are good at organizing a large number of
files (textbase managers such as Folio VIEWS, as mentioned in Chapter
The disadvantages of using a computer program go beyond their
7), whereas still others provide for testing a hypothesis of the relation-
cost and maintenance:
ship of categories in a text database, called code-based theory builders. A
final set of programs enables one to draw networks or diagrams that
Computer programs require a researcher to leam how to use the function to conceptualize relationships among categories, called con-
programs, a sometimes daunting task that is above and beyond cepiual nettoork builders.
leaming required for understanding the procedures of qualitative 1focus on one of these programs, a theory-building program cal1ed
research. Granted, some people leam computer programs more NUDIST (non-numerical unstructured data indexing, searching, and
easily than do others, and prior experience with programs shortens theorizing; Richards & Richards, 1994). This program was developed
the leaming time. in Australia in 1991, and it is a popular qualitative analysis package
available for both the MAC and PC platforms. My interest is not to
Computer programs may take the place of a careful analysis of the market NUD 1STbut rather to use it to illustrate the workings of one
material. As such, they should not be a substitute for a close reading program and to discuss its features that aid in data analysis and
of the material to obtain a sense of the whole; they should be an qualitative report writing. NUD1ST requires at least 4 megabytes of
adjunctiue procedure in the analysis process. RAM and space for data files (at least 2 megabytes), depending on the
As one builds categories of information from databases, computer size of the database to be analyzed. For the PC, it operates under
programs "fix" those categories and researchers label the catego- Windows. It is being marketed by Scolari under Sage Publications for
ries. An individual may reluctantly change categories, relabel in- approximately $300, and Scolari has produced a demonstration pro-
formation, or organize it under different categories beca use he or gram available for downloading from the World Wide Web.
she believes that data are fixed or set by the program (Kelle, 1995). NUDIST helps researchers by providing a system for the fol-
lowing:
The manuals for qualitative computer programs describe the steps
in "running" the programs. They provide little assistance in quali-
tative data analysis, in procedures used in writing narratives, and Storing and organizing files. 1 can establish "document"files (con-
in the use of the computer to aid in this process. verted from a word processing program to DOS, ASCII, or text in
some prograrns) and store information with the NUDIST programo
Computer programs vary in their features. Accordingly, a prospec- These document files consist of information from one discrete unit
tive buyer should assess the features of programs as discussed in of information such as a transcript from one interview, my set of
WeitzInan and Miles (1995) or Miles and Huberrnan (1994). observational notes, or one article scanned from a newspaper. I
Data Analysis and Represeniation .. 159
QUALITATlVE INQUIRY
158 T
Figure 8.5 Tree Diogrom for Grounded Theory Study Using NUD'IST Figure 8.6 Tree Diogrom for Ethnogrophy Using NUD'IST Progrom
Progrom
Phrose sludy in Locole commonly used words or Use word seorch procedure,
Comparison tables provide useful visuals to present information that
words 01 par1iciponls phroses ond develop thern inlo slring or pollern seorch, ond crosses nodes.
Ihemes place contenrs ino a nade;
spread lex! oround the word (or Leuels 01 absiraction show the complexity of a study and help a
phrose) lo caplure Ihe conlexl al
Ihe ward (or phrase)
reader understand the evolution of the study from specific data-
bases to increasingly broader themes. The tree diagram or my
Creale o Compore colegories 01 Use malrix feoture 01 program
comporison lable informotion template portrays these levels and my process of data analysis.
Show levels 01 Presenl o visual 01 Ihe calegories Presenl the 'Iree' diagrom
o bslrodi on in Ihe in Ihe onolysis
onalysis
Discuss me!ophors Find lexl in which melophors ore Sel up one nade lar melophors
presented ond graup inlo wilh children 01 differen! Iypes 01 SVMMARY
cofegories melophors; place lexl in nades
by Iypes 01 melophors
This chapter presented data analysis and representation. 1began with
a review of data analysis procedures advanced by three authors and
noted the general process that starts with sketching ideas and taking
studies by locating useful words, phrases, or dialogue. 1 find ~t
notes, and I moved to broad analytic frameworks. I then advanced a
helpful to consider the interrelationship of specific data analys.ls
spiral of analysis that captures the general process. This spiral con-
elements, objectives for my writing, and specific proc~dures In
tains aspects of data management; reading and memoing; describing,
NUD 1ST.The templates, for exarnple, illustrate developmg a VlS-
ual model for analysis of the data to frame the analysis within a classifying, and interpreting; and representing and visualizing data. 1
tradition of inquiry. But a template is only one way in which to next introduced the traditions of inquiry and related them to this
interconnect analysis, writng. and NUD 1ST.As shown in Table spiral, and 1 presented procedures of analysis found in discussions
8.3, 1 see others: about biography, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography,
and case studies. Finally, 1 suggested that computer programs aid in
164 . QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Data Analysis and Representation
T 165
the analysis and representation of data and discussed one program, Kelle, E. (Ed.). (1995). Computer-aided qualitative data ana/ysis. Thou-
NUD'1ST, as an illustration of using computer analysis within tradi- sand Oaks, CA: Sage.
tions to write qualitative narratives. To show the utility of NUD'1ST,
Tesch, R. (1990). Qualitative research:Ana/ysis types and software tools.
1 created a template for each of the five traditions of inquiry, and 1
Bristol, PA: Falrner.
suggested procedures that interrelate data analyss, writing objec-
tives, and use of NUD 1ST. Weitzman, E. A., & Miles, M. B. (1995). Computer programs [or
qua/itative data ana/ysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
T ADDITIONAL READINGS
EXERCISES
Perhaps the classic on qualitative data analysis is Miles and Huber-
man (1994), now in its second edition. Also for general approaches 1. AnaIyze data from your data collection in the Exercises in Chapter
to coding text information, 1 recornrnend Tesch (1990). 7. Analyze them using the steps or phases for your tradition of
Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: A inquiry. Present a surnrnary of findings.
sourceoook of new methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 2. Plan the data analysis steps for your project. Using TabIe 8.2 as a
Tesch, R. (1990). Qualitative research: Analysis types and software tools. guide, discuss how you plan to describe, classify, and interpret your
Bristol, PA: Falrner. informa tion.