DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF FOUNDATION AND

DIPLOMA STUDIES
UNIVERSITY TENAGA NASIONAL

Mechanics and
Materials Lab
Manual
MEMD212
 Semester 2 2017/2018

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section: Page No.

A. Laboratory & Reports: An Overview 3

B. Guidelines for Informal Laboratory Report 4
C. Guidelines for Formal Laboratory Report 6
D. Basic Laboratory Safety Rules 8

Experiment 1 Tensile Test 9

Experiment 2 Torsion Test 14
Experiment 3 Bending Test Open Ended Lab 20
Experiment 4 Buckling Test 21
Experiment 5 Hardness Test 32
Experiment 6 Thin Cylinder 37
Experiment 7 Impact Test 51
Experiment 8 Microstructure Analysis 60

Lab Schedule 64

A. Laboratory & Reports: An Overview

Preparations and : The experiment is conducted by groups of students under the guidance of

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procedures instructor.

Pre Lab Quizzes, : Pre Lab Quiz - Each student must answer the pre lab quiz at the beginning of
Informal Reports each session in group. These practices to ensure each student are fully
and Formal prepared to conduct the experiment as stated in course schedule.
Reports
Individual Informal Report - The informal report report should be submitted
before 5 pm two days after the experiment. The informal report must have
following criteria: date of experiment; title of experiment; objective(s); data and
observation; analysis; results and discussion; conclusion; and references.

Group Formal Report Report is a vital part of good engineering practice.

The reports permit organisation, condensation, analysis, interpretation, and
transmission of meaningful result. The reports are to be handed in at the
beginning of the next period unless otherwise directed by the instructor. No late
reports will be accepted. Late submission will be subjected to mark deduction
penalty. 20 marks will be deducted for one day late, 40 marks for 2 days, 60
marks for 3 days and no report will be accepted after that. The softcopy reports
in Microsoft Word (.doc / .docx) format are to be submitted to
: http://turnitin.com/. The Originality Report percentage must be less than
50%. Mark deduction penalty will be imposed for Originality Report percentage
within 51-69%. Zero mark (0) will be given for report with Originality Report
percentage exceeds 70%.

Type of report Type of reports for Semester 2 2015/2016 as follows:

No Experiment Type of report
1 Tensile Test Group Formal Report
2 Torsion Test Group Formal Report
3 Bending Test Group Informal Report
4 Buckling Test Individual Informal Report
5 Hardness Test Individual Informal Report
6 Thin Cylinder Group Informal Report
7 Impact Test Individual Informal Report
8 Microstructure Analysis Individual Informal Report

Grading : In order to obtain credit for each laboratory period, a student must:
a. answer the pre lab quizzes
b. work effectively as part of a team to obtain accurate data
c. submit an acceptable reports

These requirements imply that each student must come to the lab meeting on
time and fully prepared. Students who are tardy, who do not do their best in
being efficient and careful in conducting the experiment will receive a zero,
failing, or incomplete grade for that experiment. There will be no opportunity to
makeup work, which has been missed because of an unexcused absence or
tardiness. Exceptions will be made in cases where acceptable excuses are

3
 received in writing. If conditions develop which may cause a student to miss
any laboratory work, the student must inform their lab instructor as soon as
possible in advance of the scheduled laboratory.

Plagiarism : Student must not adopt or reproduce idea words or statements of another
person without an appropriate acknowledgement. Copying someone elses
work or facilitating academic dishonesty constitutes plagiarism. Plagiarism will
be heavily penalized and the student will receive zero marks for that report.
Students must submit Group Formal Report in Microsoft Word format to
http://turnitin.com/ for similarity checking. Class details (class section/ID and
enrolment password) will be informed by respective instructor. The similarity
checking must not exceed 70%. Special highlight will be given to summary,
discussion and conclusion.

B. Guidelines for Informal Laboratory Report

General description: Informal Report is an individual and manual report.
No Items Description
1. Cover page Cover page is compulsory and complete with following information:
1. Authors name and SID no.
2. Title of experiment
3. Day and date of experiment
4. Course and course code
5. Semester and Academic Year (e.g. Sem 1 2015/16)
6. Section and group number

2. Statement of This should be a brief description of what the experiment is

Purpose / demonstrating. Be specific. It should be consistent with the statement of
Introduction / the experiment instructions.
Objective (1%)
3. Data (2%) and The data and observations obtained in the experiments should be
Observations presented in an orderly form in a data table if possible.
(1%)
4. Analysis and The data obtained will be analysed with a view towards fulfilling the
Results (8%) purpose stated at the beginning of the report. If there is an accepted or
expected value for a quantity that is to be obtained by the experiment, the
percentage difference between the expected and experimental value
should be calculated. In many cases, complete with graph, which is often
a very helpful way of showing the relationship between two quantities.
The graph must have a title, each exist will show scale, units, and a label.
All data points must have a marking to show that it is an observed data
point and all data points must be connected showing the trend of the
data.

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5. Discussions This section should tie the results of the experiments to the purpose.
(4%) Sources or error, deviations and uncertainty should be discussed and
how they might affect the results. Any points that are specifically asked
for in experiment instructions should be discussed in this section.

6. Conclusions This section summarizes the lab report. Any conclusions drawn from the
(3%) results should be given in this section. Express the implication of the
results. Examine the outcome in the light of the stated objectives.

7. References A list of all references used in writing the report should be included in this
(1%) section. Use the following format:
1. Book :
a. Author (s). Year. Title. Edition. Place: Publisher. Page
number. (example: L.H. van Vlack. 1989. Elements of
Materials Science and Engineering. 6th Ed. Reading
:Addison-Wesely Publ. pp100-105.)
b. Title. Year. Book Title. Edition. Place: Publisher. Page
number. (Example: Materials Science Handbook. 1986.
20th Ed. Ohio: C.R.C. Press. pp. 1986)
2. Journals : Author (s), Year, Article Title; Journal Title, Volume,
Page number. (Example: Brandt, A. 1977. Multtilevel adaptive
solution to boundary value problems. Math of Computation. 31:
333-390)
3. Internet : Title. Year. URL. (Example: Selected encyclopedias
and major reference works in polymer science and technology at
Stanford University. 1998.
http://wwwsul.stanford.edu/depts/swain/polymer/encys.html

Note:
1. Lab Manual Mark will be awarded to current lab manual only.
2. Books and Journals are highly recommended.
3. Ensure the references listed are related to the experiment.

C. Guidelines for Group Formal Report

General Instructions:
1. Group Formal Report is a group report and must be printed properly.
2. Softcopy report MUST be submitted to http://turnitin.com/ with similarity checking not
exceed 70%.
No Items Description

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1. Title page This page must include:
(3%) 1. Title of experiment
2. Course and course code
3. Semester and Academic Year (e.g. Sem 2 2015/16)
4. Day and date experiment was performed and due date
5. Names and SIDs of group member
6. Section and group number
7. Name of the lab instructor

2. Table of This should be placed following the title page (for reports more than 10 pages). It
content (2%) should list up each section of the report and corresponding page number

3. Summary / This should encapsulate the major portion of the report and provides a concise
Abstract overview of the work. The length should be no more than 200-300 words or 2-3
(10%) paragraphs. It should highlight the objectives, results and conclusions of the
experiment.

4. Statement of This should be a brief description of what the experiment is demonstrating. Be

Purpose / specific. It should be consistent with the statement of the experiment instructions.
Introduction / Some experiments have one or more parts and each part demonstrates a
Objective different aspect. Be sure to include all objectives of the experiment in this section.
(5%)
5. Theory (5%) Any theory related to the experiment should be included. The theory must be
clearly explained and complete with diagrams where necessary. The relevant
equations should be introduced. Each figure should be labelled and numbered.

6. Equipment / A list of equipment and specimen used should be included. This may be the same
Description of as the list on the experiment instructions. Sketch of the equipment should also be
Experimental included where necessary.
Apparatus
(5%)
7. Procedure This is a step-by-step explanation of what was done in the lab and why each step
(10%) was performed. The procedure listed in the experiment instructions may be used
as a guide. The description does not have to be very lengthy, but should enough
detail so that a reader knowledgeable in the field would understand what was
done. Sufficient information should be provided to allow the reader to repeat the
experiment in an identical manner.
8. Data (10%) and The data and observations obtained in the experiments should be presented in an orderly
Observations form in a data table if possible. A spreadsheet would be ideal, especially if there are
(5%) many repetitive calculations in the analysis of the data. Each table, figure and graph
should be labelled and numbered.
9. Analysis and The data obtained will be analysed with a view towards fulfilling the purpose
Results stated at the beginning of the report. When possible, part of the analysis may be
(15%) combined with the data table in a spreadsheet. If there is an accepted or expected
value for a quantity that is to be obtained by the experiment, the percentage
difference between the expected and experimental value should be calculated. In
many cases, another part of the analysis will be the construction of the graph,
which is often a very helpful way of showing the relationship between two

6
 quantities.
The graph must have a title, each exist will show scale, units, and a label. All data
points must have a marking to show that it is an observed data point and all data
points must be connected showing the trend of the data. If the student is using a
computer software package to generate graphs, then this package must convey
the same information as would a hand generated graph.

10. Discussions This section should tie the results of the experiments to the purpose. Sources or
(15%) error, deviations and uncertainty should be discussed and how they might affect
the results. Any points that are specifically asked for in experiment instructions
should be discussed in this section.

11. Conclusions This section summarizes the lab report. Any conclusions drawn from the results
(10%) should be given in this section. Express the implication of the results. Examine the
outcome in the light of the stated objectives.

12. References A list of all references used in writing the report should be included in this section.
(5%) Use the following format:
Book :
1. Author (s). Year. Title. Edition. Place: Publisher. Page number. (example:
L.H. van Vlack. 1989. Elements of Materials Science and Engineering. 6th Ed.
Reading :Addison-Wesely Publ. pp100-105.)
2. Title. Year. Book Title. Edition. Place: Publisher. Page number. (Example:
Materials Science Handbook. 1986. 20th Ed. Ohio: C.R.C. Press. pp. 1986)
Journals : Author (s), Year, Article Title; Journal Title, Volume, Page number.
(Example: Brandt, A. 1977. Multtilevel adaptive solution to boundary value
problems. Math of Computation. 31: 333-390)
Internet : Title. Year. URL. (Example: Selected encyclopedias and major
reference works in polymer science and technology at Stanford University.
1998. http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/swain/polymer/encys.html

Note:
1. Lab Manual Mark will be awarded to current lab manual only.
2. Books and Journals are highly recommended.
3. Ensure the references listed are related to the experiment.
13. Appendices

D. Basic Laboratory Safety Rules

Each and every students taking MEMB221 (Mechanics and Material Laboratory) are
expected to follow these requirements in order to ensure the safety throughout the
semester:

GENERAL GUIDELINES
1. Do not enter laboratory until you are instructed to do so.

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2. Conduct yourself and your experiment in a responsible manner at all times in the
laboratory.
3. When first entering laboratory do not touch any equipment, chemicals, or other materials in
the laboratory area until you are instructed to do so.
4. All personal belonging, which you do not need during the experiments, must be placed in
the cupboard.
5. Perform only those experiments authorized by your instructor. Unauthorized experiments
are not allowed.
6. Follow all written and verbal instructions carefully.
7. Never work alone in the laboratory. No student may work in the laboratory without the
presence of the instructor or technician.
8. Do not eat sweets, drink beverages, or chew gum in the laboratory.
9. Be prepared for your work in the laboratory. Read all procedures thoroughly before
entering the laboratory remember you have to answer pre lab questions before
performing the experiments!
10. Never fool around in the laboratory.
11. Clean up all areas of the laboratory where you (and your group) worked.
12. Experiments must be monitored at all times. Do not wander around the room, distract
other students, startle other students or interfere with the laboratory experiments of others.
13. Dress properly and decently during a laboratory activity. Shoes must completely cover the
foot. No sandals and open toed shoes are allowed on lab days.

ACCIDENTS AND INJURIES

14. Report any accident (spill, breakage, etc.) or injury (cut, burn, etc.) to the instructor or
technician immediately.

HANDLING CHEMICALS
15. Check the label on all chemical bottles twice before removing any of the contents. Take
only as much chemical as you need.
16. Never return unused chemicals to their original container.
17. Place the used chemical in a labelled beaker inside the fume hood. Do not throw it into
sink.
18. Never remove chemicals or other materials from the laboratory area.

Experiment 1

Tensile Testing (Universal Tester)

Objectives

1. To understand the principles of tensile testing.

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2. To determine the stress-strain relationship for two types of materials
3. To determine the values of:
i. elongation at fracture
ii. tensile strength (UTS)
iii. yield strength (offset of 0.2%)
iv. Modulus of Elasticity

Theory

If a load is static or changed relatively slowly with time and is applied uniformly over a cross
section /surface of a member, the mechanical behaviour may be ascertained by a simple stress-
strain test. These tests are most commonly conducted for metals at room temperature. There are
three principal ways in which the load may be applied: tension, compression and shear.

Tension is one of the most common mechanical stress-strain tests. The stress-strain diagram
shows the different behaviour of the individual materials particularly clearly. Each material has a
characteristic pattern of stress and strain. A standard specimen is deformed, usually to fracture
with a gradually increasing tensile load that is applied uniaxially along the long axis of a
specimen. Most of the tension tests for metals are conducted according to the ASTM Standard E
8 and E 8M, Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials.

Technical Description of the Equipment

The WP 300 material testing device is a robust unit designed specifically for technical instruction
and is one of the classical materials testing device in materials science. The flexible design of the
unit permits a wide range of different tests requiring tensile or compressive force. Thanks to its
clear, sample layout, the unity is ideally suite for both students experiments and for
demonstrations. Its compact dimensions and relatively low weight permit mobile use and erection
on all common laboratory benches.

Basic

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 In its basic form, the unit does not require any external
connections. The test force is generated via a
manually actuated hydraulic system and displayed via
a large, easily legible display instrument with a trailing
pointer. Elongation of the samples is recorded via a
dial gauge. All accessories are screwed to the cross
members. This means that the test unit can be quickly
and easily refitted for various tests.

The basic unit essentially consists of the following

elements:
machine base (1) with handgrip (11)
support with cross-head (2)
load frame with upper (3) and lower cross-
member (4)
hydraulic system consisting of a main cylinder (5)
and a master cylinder with hand wheel (6)
force display (7)
elongation display via a dial gauge (8)
gripping heads (9) with sample (10)

Machine Base

The rigid machine base made of cast iron forms the

foundation and ensures stability of the test unit in
connection with 4 rubbers feat. The machine base
supports the hydraulics and the frame.

10
 Support

The posts (1) and cross-head (2) form fixed support of the test
unit. The various fixed sample receptacles are fastened to the
cross-head. The mobile load frame is also mounted on it low-
friction linear ball bearings.

Load Frame

The load frame consists of the upper (1) and lower cross-member
(2) and the guide rod (3). The load frame transmits the test force
from the hydraulic main cylinder to the relevant sample. The load
frame is slide-mounted in the cross-head of the support. Tensile
samples are clamped between the upper cross-member and the
cross-head, whilst compressive samples are clamped between
the lower cross-member and the cross-head.

Hydraulic system

The test force is generated by hydraulic means. A piston in

the master cylinder (2) actuated via the hand wheel (1) and
the threaded spindle creates a hydrostatic pressure, which
induces the test force in the main cylinder (3). The
hydraulic transmission ration is 2.77:1, whilst the
mechanical transmission ratio hand wheel / spindle is
503:1. Excluding friction losses, this would correspond to a
manual force of 1 N per 1.3 kN test force. The full stroke of
the main cylinder of 45 mm requires 83 revolutions of the
hand wheel.

Force display & elongation measurement

The force measuring device operates according to the

manometer principle. It measures the hydrostatic
pressure in the hydraulic system. The large display with a
diameter of 160 mm facilitates precise reading. A
maximum pointer stores the maximum force. The
elongation is measured via an adjustably mounted dial
gauge. The dial gauge indicates the relative displacement
between the upper cross member and the cross-head.

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Gripping heads

The gripping heads are designed for tensile samples with

an M10 threaded head. In addition, flat compression pads
can easily be inserted in the cross-head and cross-
member and are held by nut.

Tensile sample Round samples with an M10 threaded head in accordance

with DIN 50125 made of Material A and Material B.

Tensile sample B6 x 30 DIN 50125

This is a short proportional test bar with a measuring length of

30 mm and a diameter of 6 mm.

Procedure

The test device is set up as follows:

Untwist the hand wheel on the master cylinder as far as it will go and move
the load frame down to its lowest position. (if this has not been done, insert
the gripping heads in the upper cross-member and cross-head).
Screw down the gripping heads with the short bolt at the bottom and with
pressure pad.
Gripping head with the long bolt at the top

Insert the required tensile sample.

Measure and note down the test length L O of the sample between two
marks.
Screw the sample by hand into the lower gripping head as far as the end
stop.
Screw the sample into the upper gripping head as far as the end stop, by
rotating the gripping head itself.
Tighten the nut on the upper gripping head by hand until he gripping head is
seated without slack in the upper cross-member.

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 .

Adjust the dial gauge

Push the dial gauge upwards on the support bar until
the tracer pin is touching the drive.
Set the rotating scale on the dial gauge to zero.
Set the maximum pointer on the force display to zero.

Slowly and constantly loaded by rotating the hand wheel.

Application of the force should spread over a time interval of 5-10 minutes
It is essential to avoid sudden, jerky force application.
Observe the dial gauge and the sample.
For the first 1 mm extension, record the force value for every 0.1 mm extension.
Above 1 mm extension, record the force value for every 0.2 mm extension
Monitor the sample and note when constriction begins. From now on, the force will be no
longer increase, but instead, will tend to decrease.
ATTENTION: dont be startled! Particularly with some material, fracture will occur with a loud
bang.
Remove the sample from the gripping heads
Twist back the hand wheel on the master cylinder as far as it will go and move the load frame
down.
Repeat with the other specimen.

Question

1. Based on the data, observation and analysis sections:

a. Determine the Modulus of Elasticity, yield strength, tensile strength and ductility.
b. Identify the Material A and Material B. State your reasons.
c. State one application of Material A and Material B in actual engineering
application. For the chosen application, comparing between Yield strength and
Ultimate tensile strength, which one have to be considered for that application.
Why?

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 Experiment 2

Torsion Test

Objectives

1. To understand the principle of torsion test.

2. To determine the modulus of shear, G through measurement of the applied torque and angle
of twist.

Theory

Torsion is a variation of pure shear wherein a structural member is twisted, torsional forces
produce a rotating motion about the longitudinal axis of one end of the member relative to the
other end. Torsion tests are normally performed on cylindrical solids shaft or tube. Most of these
tests are performed according to ASTM Standard E 143, Standard Test for Shear Modulus.

In each test, torque and twisting angle are measured to determine the shear modulus, G.

T G r 4 d 4 Where;
, J T = torque
J L 2 32
J = polar moment of inertia
G = shear modulus
= angle after application of torque
L = length
d = diameter
r = radius

Specimen made of various materials, with differing diameters and lengths may be investigated.
The effective torque is recorded with the aid of a reference rod equipped with strain gauges. The
torque is directly displayed on a digital display of a strain gauge measurement amplifier. This also
incorporates important principles of electronic measurement of mechanical values into the
experimental program. The unit is primarily intended for practical laboratory experiments.

Technical description of the apparatus

The apparatus consists mainly of:

1 Loading device with scale and revolution counter for twisting angle measurement
2 Torque measurement unit
3 Calibration device
4 Specimen (is mounted between the loading device and torque measurement unit into
hexagon socket)
5 Track base
6 Digital torque meter

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 Figure 2.1: Layout of the torsion apparatus

Technical data

General data:
Main dimension : 1400 x 350 x 300 mm
Weight : 25 kg

Loading device:
Worm gear reduction ratio : 62
Revolution counter : 5 digit, with reset
Output scale : 360
Input scale : 360
Indicator : Adjustable

Torque Measurement unit:

Range : 0 30 Nm
Display : 6 digit, LED 14 mm
Temperature operating range : 0 - 50 C
Power supply : 230 V, 50/60 Hz

Calibration device:
Maximum load : 30 Nm
Load increment : 2.5 Nm

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Loading Device
The torsional loading is transmitted to the specimen by a worm
gear (1) and a hand wheel (4). The twisting angle at the output
and the input is read off by two 360 scales (2,3).

At the input side of the gear there is in addition a 5-digit

revolution counter (5) which shows the input revolutions 1:1.

The worm gear has a reduction ratio of 62. The specimens

hexagon ends are set into an axial moveable socket (6) at the
worm gear output end.

Torque measurement unit

In this testing the torque will be measured by a reference torsion

rod and strain gauges. The specimen is mounted on one side to
the loading device and on the other side to the torque
measurement device.

The load torque applied to the specimen produce shear stresses

in the measurement torsion rod. These shear stresses are
proportional to the load torque. Strain gauges are used for
detecting the shear stresses.

Because strain gauges can only measure strain but not twisting
they must be applied in the direction of the maximum principal
stress. In the case of pure torsion the maximum of principal
stress will occur at a 45 to the axial axis of the torsion rod.

Due to the arrangement of 4 strain gauges in form of a full

bridge circuit the distortion influence of additional bending and
direct stresses is minimized.

The signal of the gauges is conditioned by a measuring amplifier

with a digitally read out. The amplifier also delivers the supply
voltage for the bridge circuit.

The load torque will occur a slight deformation of the torsion rod.
This will cause an error in determining the twisting angle of the
specimen.

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 To reject this error, the specimen holder of the
torque measurement unit is turnable.

The deformation can be compensated by a lever

and a threaded spindle at the fixed side of the
torsion rod.

The compensation can be controlled by a dial

gauge at the side of the specimen holder.

The output signal of the strain gauge bridge is

conditioned in a measurement amplifier with a
digital display. (Attention: strain gauge circuit and
measurement amplifier is calibrated together at our
works. They should not be changed, otherwise the
accuracy will not be given any more.)

Specimen

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Procedure

a) Calibration
For calibration of the torque measurement unit a
defined load torque is used as reference. This
reference load torque is generated by a calibration
unit. The calibration unit mainly consists of a lever
and a load weight. The weight of the lever is
balanced by a certain counter weight. By that the
load torque only depends on the load weight.
A wide range of torque between 0 and 30 Nm can be
set thanks a division into weight discs. The
resolution is 2.5 Nm. The calibration unit must be
clamped near by the specimen holder of the torque
measurement unit. To connect both units use the 15
mm hexagon socket.

To calibrate the torque measurement unit:

Set the read out of the amplifier to zero.
Connect the torque measurement unit to the
measurement amplifier
Switch on measurement amplifier at the back
plane
To set the read outs to zero press and hold V
button and press P. there should be no load
torque.
Increase the load torque in steps by 5 Nm and
notice the read out
After reload check the offset and set it to zero as
necessary.

The read out values should be corresponding to the

applied load torque. The noticed values of load
torque and read out can be graphed in a diagram.
The curve will show you nonlinearities, if exist. In this
case, you can use it as calibration curve.

Graph 2.1: Example for a calibration curve of the torque

measurement unit.

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b) Performing the test

Mounting the specimen

1. In this test the short specimen is used.

2. Mount thee specimen between loading device and torque-measuring unit.
3. Use the 19 mm hexagon socket.
4. Make sure the shifting holder of the load device is in the mid position.
5. Make sure that there is no preload on the specimen. If necessary turn the hand wheel at the
input of the worm gear until the read out of the amplifier is zero.
6. Set both indicators at the input and at the output shaft of the worm gear to zero.
7. Set the dial gauge of the compensation unit to zero. Therefore turn the turnable scale.
8. Reset revolution counter.

Loading the specimen

1. Turn the hand wheel at the input of the gear clockwise to load the specimen. Turn it only for a
defined angle increment.
2. For the first rotation choose an increment of a quarter rotation (90), for the second and third
rotation of a half-quarter (180) and for the 4th to 10th rotation of one rotation (360).
3. To calculate the twist angle at the specimen (output angle of the gear) divide the rotations at
the input by the reduction ratio of 62.
4. Fracture will occur between 100 and 200 rotations.
5. Compensates the deformation of the measuring torsion rod after each angle increment.
Doing this turn the hand wheel of the compensation unit until the dial gauge indicates zero.
6. Read the torque value from the display of the amplifier and note it together with the indicated
twist angle.
7. Table the result.
8. Repeat the experiment with other test specimen

Questions

1. Plot a graph of calibration curve of Amplifier Torque value (read-out at amplifier torque value)
vs. the Applied Load Torque value. Observe and determine the trend of the curve.
2. The specimen torque value is measured by the amplifier (read-out at amplifier torque value).
By using the equation from the calibration curve, determine the actual Load Torque value
from the read-out amplifier torque value. Plot a graph of Load Torque vs. Revolution in radian
at gear output.
3. Determine the experiment shear modulus, G exp for each material. Compare the results with
the theoretical value, G.
4. Based on your results, conclude the different between specimens tested.
5. State two common mechanical parts that are subjected to torsion in real engineering
application? Explain in details.

19
 Experiment 3

Bending test tensile strength

Objective:

1. To investigate the relationship between load, span, height, width and deflection of a
beam, placed on two bear affected by a concentrated load at the center.
2. To ascertain the coefficient of elasticity for steel, brass, aluminum, brass and wood.

Theory

The apparatus has been design to enable students to carry out experiments on simply
supported and cantilever beams in order to investigate:-

(a) the relationship between the deflections and the applied loads
(b) the effect of variations in 1ength and cross sectional i.e. deflection per unit load.

Simply supported beam with central point load

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Cantilever beam with end point load

Simply supported beam subjected to uniform bending moment

Set of Apparatus:

21
 Twist and Bend Test Machine MT 210.

Procedure:

Task 1: To investigate the relationship between load, span, height, width and
deflection of a beam, placed on two bear affected by a concentrated load
at the center.

A: Investigate the relationship between load and deflection

1. Set the bearers so that a span of 600 mm. is obtained. The interval between each groove
on the shafts of the apparatus is 100 mm.
2. Place a test specimen with dimensions of 6 x 25 mm. on the bearers and mount the load
device in the center of test specimen.
3. Set the testing device so that the top of the gauge is centered on the upper plane of the
load device. Lower the gauge so that its small hand is at about 10 and set the gauge to
zero by twisting its outer ring. Load with weights as shown in the table below and read off
the deflection. One revolution of the large hand of the gauge corresponds to 1 mm. of
deflection.

4. Draw a graph of deflection vs. loading.

B: Investigate relationship between span and deflection

1. Employ a test specimen with dimensions of 6x25 mm and load with weight 10 N. Vary
the span as indicated in the table and read off the deflection.

2. Draw a graph of deflection vs. span.

C: Investigate the relationship between width and deflection of the test
specimen.
1. Set the bearers for a span of 500 mm. Employ the test specimens indicated in the
table

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below, load with weight 5 N and read off the deflection.

2. Draw a graph of width of the deflection vs. test specimen.

D: Investigate the relationship between the height and deflection of the test
specimen.

1. Set the bearers for a span of 500 mm. Employ the test specimens indicated in the
table below, load with weight 5 N and read off the deflection.

2. Draw a graph of height of the deflection vs. test specimen.

Task 2: To ascertain the coefficient of elasticity for steel, brass, aluminum and
wood.

E: Determine the coefficient of elasticity for steel, brass, aluminum and wood.

23
The span is set at 500 mm., and a circular test specimen of steel is employed.
Mount load device and set the testing device. Load with weights as shown in Table
below and read off the deflection. The test is repeated with test specimens of
brass, aluminum and wood.

Calculate the coefficient of elasticity and flexural stress.

When E is calculated, the initial load caused by the load device has no significance
since the gauge has been set at zero with the device in place. However, when
calculating flexural stress, F1 is included.

Questions
1: Plot graphs for Task 1 (a, b, c and d). Discuss the relationship observed.
2: Calculate the Coefficient of Elasticity (E). Compare the Coefficient of Elasticity
with theoretical value for steel, brass, aluminum & wood. Discuss the result.
3: Give one example of application which apply the concept of simply supported
beam with central point load.
a) Explain your answer in details.
b) Propose a material for the stated application. Why?
Experiment 4

24
 Buckling Test

Objectives

1. To determine critical buckling loads for columns with support.

2. To examination the Euler theory of buckling.
3. To investigate the influence of different material parameters.

Introduction

All relevant buckling problems can be demonstrated with the WP 120 test stand.
Buckling, as opposed to simple strength problems such as drawing, pressure, bending and
shearing, is primarily a stability problem. Buckling plays an important role in almost every field of
technology. Examples of this are:

- Columns and supports in construction and steel engineering

- Stop rods for valve actuation and connecting rods in motor construction
- Piston rods for hydraulic cylinders and
- Lifting spindles in lifting gear

Theory

a) Applying the Buckling Theory

If a rod is subjected to longitudinal forces, as implied in the sketch, it can fail in two ways. On the
one hand, it can be plasticized and flattened if its admissible compressive strain is exceeded (see
Fig. 3.8). On the other hand, it is possible that it will suddenly shift to one side and buckle before
attaining the admissible compressive strain. This effect is called buckling. The shape of the rod is
the factor determines which of the two cases of failure will occur. A slender, thin rod is more likely
to buckle than a thick, stout rod.

25
b) Euler Formula

Buckling occurs suddenly and without warning when a certain limit load is attained. It is therefore
an extremely dangerous type of failure, which must be avoided by all means. As soon as a rod
begins to buckle, it will become deformed to the point of total destruction. This is typical unstable
behavior. Buckling is a stability problem. The critical limit load F krit, above which buckling can
occur is dependent on both the slenderness of the rod, i.e. influence of length and diameter, and
the material used. In order to define slenderness the slenderness ratio will be introduced here.
l
k
i

In this case l k is the characteristic length of the rod. It takes both the actual length of the rod and
the mounting conditions into consideration.

For example, clamping the ends of the odds causes rigidity. The buckling length decisive for
slenderness is shorter than the actual length of the rod. Altogether, a differentiation is made
between four types of mountings, each having a different buckling length.
The influence of diameter in the slenderness ratio is expressed by the inertia radius i. It is
calculated using the minimum geometrical moment of inertia ly and the cross-sectional area A.

ly
i
A

The influence of material is taken into consideration by the longitudinal rigidity of the rod EA.
Here, E is the modulus of elasticity of the respective material and A is the cross-sectional area.
The influence of various factors on the critical load are summarized in the so-called Euler
formula":
EA El y
Fcrit 2 Fcrit 2
2 OR
l2
c) Influencing Factors

26
Below the influence of various characteristic values such as the E modulus, geometric moment of
inertia, length and the type of mounting on buckling behavior will be examined using the Euler
formula.

E modulus

The E modulus is a measure of the rigidity of a material. A stiff material is sensible for high
resistance to buckling. Since strength has no influence on buckling, materials with as high an E
modulus as possible should be used. For example, in the case of buckling strength a simple
constructive steel St37 with a tensile strength of only 370 N/mm should be given preference over
a high strength titanium allow TiAI6Zr5 with 1270 N/mm.
Whereas the constructive steel has an E modulus of 210 kN/mm, the titanium alloy only features
105 kN/mm.

Geometric moment of inertia

The geometric moment of inertia indicates the resistance against deflection resulting from the
cross-sectional shape of the rod. Since a rod buckles in the direction of least resistance, the
minimum geometric moment of inertia is the decisive factor. The table contains the geometric
moment of inertia for several cross-sectional shapes. Here, hollow sections with small wall
thickness are more favorable at the same weight as solid cross sections. For example, the ratio of
the geometric moment of inertia of a thin tube (dia. 52 x 2) to that if a solid rod (dia. 20 mm) with
the same cross-sectional area is 12.5 to 1. In addition, double symmetrical cross-sections such
as tubes or quadratic cross sections should be used since their geometric moment of inertia is the
same in every direction.

Buckling length

The length of the rod as well as the type of mounting determines the buckling length 1k. The
influence of the length is quadratic. At twice the length the admissible load is only one-fourth the
original value.

d) Tensions in Buckling Rod

In order to determine whether a rod has failed due to exceeding the admissible compressive
strain or by buckling, the normal compressive strain in the rod, which is part of the critical load,
must be calculated.
Fk E
k 2 2
A

If this normal compressive strain is lower than the admissible compressive strain, the rod will fail
due to buckling. If the admissible compressive strain is used as the normal compressive strain,
the critical slenderness ratio crit at which buckling occurs can be calculated.

E
crit 2
p

27
For constructive steel St37 with p =192 N/mm the crit = 104. Above crit buckling according to
Euler can be expected. The buckling strain curve can be seen in Diagram 3.10.

e) Estimation of Buckling Force and Deformation

It is expedient to calculate the expected buckling force prior to conducting the test. This is
especially true with regard to rod specimens from other manufacturers with unknown behavior.

The buckling force can be determined according to the foil wing formula (Euler formula).

EI y
Fcrit 2
l2
The modulus of elasticity E for steel is 210000 N/mm. T geometric moment of inertia I y is
calculated as follows for a square cross section:

bh 3
Iy
12

Technical Description of Unit

28
a) Layout of Test Device
The test device mainly consists of a basic frame, the
guide columns and the load cross bar.

The basic frame contains the bottom mounting for the

rod specimen, consisting of a force-measuring device
for measuring the testing force and an attachment
socket which can hold different pressure pieces for
realizing various storage conditions.

The height of the load cross bar can be adjusted along

the guide columns and it can be clamped in position.
This allows rod specimens with different buckling
lengths to be examined.

The load cross bar features a load spindle for

generating the test force. Using the load nut, the test
force is applied to the rod specimen via guided thrust
pieces. An axial mounting between the load nut and the
thrust piece prevents torsional stresses from being
applied to the rod specimen.

Two different thrust pieces are available for different storage conditions.

The device can be used both vertically as well as horizontally. The device is equipped with a base
foot on one of the guide columns for horizontal set-up. The display instrument of the force measu-
ring device can be turned 900 for easy readability.

b) Force Measurement

The measuring
Bottom specimen path is very small due to the hydraulic
holder
Twotransmission (max. 0.3options
different mounting mm). are available:

The
For articulated mounting
display is well damped by a hydraulic throttle.
Disturbing influencesnotch
Thrust piece with V for by
causes knife-edge mounting
friction are prevented
For clamped mounting
by direct support of the rod specimen on the force
A thrust piece, which is firmly connected to the rod specimen
measuring
- The thrustcell. pieces are inserted in the attachment socket
and are clamped firmly with a screw.

Top specimen holder

c) Specimen Holders Two different mounting options are available:

For articulated mounting

Long thrust piece with V notch for knife-edged mounting
For clamped mounting
Short adapter 29 and thrust piece firmly attached to the rod
specimen. The thrust pieces are inserted into the guide bush of
the load cross bar
d) Deformation Measurement

The measuring gauge for measuring the lateral deflection

of the rod specimen is fasted to a guide column with the
supplied support.

e) Lateral Load Device

T The lateral load device can only be used when the test stand
is in vertical position.

The lateral load device consists of a rope, a pulley, a bracket

and a set of weights. The pulley is clamped to one of the
guide columns. The bracket holds the rod specimen and is
locked in place with a cotter pin.

A lateral force of 0-20 N can be produced in 5 N increments.

f) Device Technical Data

30
Dimensions

Length: 620 mm
Width: 450 mm
Height: ll50 mm
Weight: 35 kg

Max. test force: 2000 N

Max. lateral load: 20 N
Max. lateral deflection: 20 mm
Max. rod specimen length: 700 mm
Max. load spindle stroke: l0 mm
Rod specimen hole: 20 mm dia.

Rod Specimens

The rod specimens contained in the standard set can be used to conduct tests on the influence of
mountings, length and material. The influences of eccentric mounting and different cross
sectional shapes can be studied with the WP120.01 accessories set.

a) Standard Set WP120

No: Material Diameter Length Mounting

mm mm
S1 Tool steel 1.2842 20 x 4 350 knife-edge/knife-edge
S2 Tool steel 1.2842 20 x 4 500 knife-edge/knife-edge
S3 Tool steel 1.2842 20 x 4 600 knife-edge/knife-edge
S4 Tool steel 1.2842 20 x 4 650 knife-edge/knife-edge
S5 Tool steel 1.2842 20 x 4 700 knife-edge/knife-edge
S6 Tool steel 1.2842 20 x 4 650 clamped/knife-edge
S7 Tool steel 1.2842 20 x 4 650 clamped/knife-edge
S8 Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22 25 x 6 600 knife-edge/knife-edge
S9 Brass CuZn40Pb2 25 x 6 600 knife-edge/knife-edge
S10 Copper E-Cu 25 x 6 600 knife-edge/knife-edge
S11 Fieberline 20 x 10 600 knife-edge/knife-edge

b) Accessories Set WP 120.01

31
 No. Material Diameter Length Mounting
mm mm
SZ1 Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22 25 x 6 500 knife-edge/knife-edge (e=0 mm)
SZ2 Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22 25 x 6 500 Knife-edge/knife-edge (e=1 mm)
SZ3 Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22 25 x 6 500 Knife-edge/knife-edge (e=3mm)
SZ4 Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22 40 x 6 500 knife-edge/knife-edge
SZ5 Fieberline 25 x 10 700 knife-edge/knife-edge
SZ6 PVC 1 6 x 2 400 knife-edge/knife-edge
SZ7 PVC 20 x 1.5 400 knife-edge/knife-edge
SZ8 Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22 20 x 10 x 2 700 knife-edge/knife-edge
SZ9 Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22 1 5 x 2 700 knife-edge/knife-edge
SZ10 Alu. AIMgSiO.5 F22 1 4 700 knife-edge/knife-edge

Procedure

1) Introductory Test

In this test the operation of the WP 120 buckling test device

and how to conduct a buckling test be demonstrated.

A rod with articulated mounting at both ends cording to Euler

case 1 is slowly subjected to an axial force. Above a certain
load it will buckle laterally. In this case the buckling
(deformation) of the rod specimen will be measured in the
middle of the rod and recorded in a table along with the
accompanying force. A force/deformation graph will be
developed using these measured values. The results of the
test should be compared with the buckling theory values.

The S2 rod specimen made of flat steel, dimensions 20 mm x

4 mm x 500 mm should be used has shaped edges at both
ends which sit in corresponding V notched of the testing
machine thrust pieces to form an ideal articulated mounting.

b) Testing

32
 1. Set up the test device in vertical or horizontal position. The force gauge can be turned 90 o for
this purpose

2. Insert thrust piece with V notch into

attachment socket
and fasten with clamping screw

3. Insert long thrust piece with V notch into the

guide bush of the load cross-bar and hold it
firmly

4. Insert the S2 rod specimen with edges in

the V notch.

5. The load cross-bar must be clamped on the guide column in such a manner that there
is still approx. 5 mm for the top thrust piece to move.
6. Align the rod specimen in such a manner that its buckling direction points in the
direction of the lateral guide columns. Here, the edges must be perpendicular to the
8. load
Align the measuring gauge to the middle of the rod specimen using the support clamps.
cross-bar.
7. Pretighten the rodgauge
The measuring specimen
mustwith low,atnon-measurable
be set force.
a right angle to the direction of buckling.
9. Pretighten the measuring gauge to 10-mm deflection with the adjustable support.
10. Slowly subject the rod specimen load using the load nut.
11. Read the deflection from the measuring gauge. Read and record the deflection every 0.25-
mm up to 1 mm.
12. Above 1-mm deflection, it suffices to record the deflection and force every 0.5-mm.

33
13. The test can be concluded when the force does not change, despite an increasing load (in the
case of rod specimen S2 this as at approx. 4 mm).
14. Slowly remove the tension from the rod specimen.
15. Table the result
16. Repeat the experiment with two other specimens

Safety

34
DANGER!

The load cross arm can drop of the clamping screws are loosened!
A drop could damage parts of the testing machine located underneath the cross arm.
Carefully support the cross arm by hand when loosening the clamping screws!
Before removing a rod specimen make sure that the clamping screws are tightened
securely! Pay attention to the top thrust piece when removing the rod specimen!
The hazards mentioned do not apply when the test device is set up horizontally.
Caution when working with brittle materials!

The rod specimen could break suddenly in this case. Pieces of specimen could fly around
and cause injuries!

This hazard is not posed with original G.U.N.T. rod specimens, since they are
made of ductile material.

CAUTION
Do not overload device!

The maximum testing force is 2000 N. Overloads can occur if attempts

are made to force a loaded rod specimen in the direction opposite that
of deflection.

Never deflect more than max. 6 mm, since there is a risk or plastic
deformation and damage to the rod specimen.

Questions
1. Plot a graph of Force vs. Deflection (mm). Identify the maximum experimental critical
force.
2. Calculate the theoretical critical force for each material.
3. Compare the values obtain in (1) and (2).
4. What are the different between one material and another?
5. Identify one engineering example where buckling is highly concerned. Explain your
answer in details.

Experiment 5

35
 ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTING

Objectives:
1. To understand the principles of RockwellTesting method.
2. To study the hardness of High Density Polyethylene and Low Density Polyethylene.

Introduction

Hardness refers to the resistance, which a body has to the penetration of another. Accordingly, in
common hardness testing methods, a hard test body is pressed into the sample perpendicular to
its surface.

A three-dimensional stress forms in the sample beneath the penetrating test body. Lasting
impressions can be achieved in very hard and brittle materials without resulting in cracks. This
distinguishes hardness testing from tensile testing in which only a mono-axial stress is generated
in the sample and no plastic deformation is possible with hard materials.

One advantageous aspect of hardness testing is that, in contrast to tensile testing, material
properties can be determined without destroying the sample, apart from the relatively small
impression made by the test body. One disadvantageous of hardness testing is that it is only
possible to give a number corresponding to strength, which depends on the test method used,
but not the strength itself. For this reason, the test method used must always be specified.

Rockwell Hardness

The Rockwell hardness tester is a reliable hardness tester used most widely for testing metal to
plastic materials due to its easy handling even by inexperienced operators and relatively little
personnel errors in measurement. The test is conducted according to E18-07 Standard TEST
Methods for Rockwell Hardness of Metallic Materials. The test principles and testing procedures
are identical for both the Rockwell and Rockwell superficial hardness test.

The superficial hardness tester is almost equivalent to the Rockwell type hardness tester in its
principle and structure. Since its indentation is minute due to small test load, it is the most
suitable for measurement of thin metal plates and completed parts, minute parts of watches,
clocks and computers, and carburized, nitrided or other surface-quenched parts that cannot be
measured by the Rockwell type hardness tester. It is thus frequently substituted for the Vickers
hardness tester.

To measure the Rockwell hardness of a specimen, an indenture is used to apply the minor load to
the specimen. Then, a test load is applied to the specimen, then released the minor load.

Rockwell hardness indenture may be steel bar or diamond cone type. The steel ball diameter
usually 1/8 inch or 1/16 inch. The Rockwell hardness is a value obtained from difference between
the depth of the indentations made by the first and second minor loads. The hardness value,
showed on the screen is related to the depth of indentation. If the materials are soft, the

36
indentation made are deep inside and vice versa. A unit of the hardness value corresponds to
2micron (2/1000 mm) depth for the Rockwell hardness test and 1-micron (1/1000 mm) depth for
superficial hardness test, which are displayed on the screen.

Rockwell hardness value is designated by a number and a prefix to indicate the test condition

Technical description

The Universal Hardness Tester is provided with a backlit, LCD display. It is used to display
measured hardness results, to monitor the progress of the test and to display information that
may be required when setting up the machine for a variety of parameters

37
Experiment procedure:

A. Changing Scale
The hardness scale is determined by the indenter and the test load. First select the indenter to be
used for a measurement which will in turn define the mode of operation (Rockwell, Vickers or
Brinell). Press the menu key once and then scroll through the available indenter options using
the and keys. When the desired indenter is dispayed, press the Enter key. The machine will, if
necessary change mode to itself to the appropriate test start condition.

B. Fitting the Indenter Lower the anvil, then push the indenter into the indenter sleeve from below
and hold in position with the M3 contersink screw. After that, lock the indenter screw tightly with
the 2 mm Allen key.

C. Moving the Indenter The indentation is made by lowering the indenter onto the test surface.
The indenter is fitted into a moveable sleeve, which is advanced to a fixed forward position when
the impression is made and retracted to a rear fixed position after the completion of indentation,
to allow viewing of the impression through the built-in microscope assembly.

38
The sleeve is moved by a means of a small handlever on the right hand side of the machine.
The angular position of the hand lever can be adjusted by pressing the button at the centre of the
hand lever boss.

D.Setting the height of the test surface

The height of the test surface should be positioned so that it is in focus when viewed through the
microscope. This automatically positions it with the correct gap between the indenter tip and the
test surface, and enables the indentation to be made correctly.

Steps as follows:
1. Advance the indenter to its forward position.
2. Raise the specimen until there is approximately 0.1 mm gap between the indenter tip and the
test surface.
3. Retract the indenter and view the test surface, through the microscope eyepiece, and carefully
adjust the specimen height until the test surface is in clear focus.
4. Adjust the eyepiece lens to bring the graticule lines into sharp focus. This only needs to be
done once for a particular session.
5. If the test surface is raised too far and contact the indenter tip, an audible beeps will be emitted
by the machine and a warning over travel message appears on the LCD display. In this case
lower the test surface clear of the indenter and reset.

E. Setting the Dwell Times

In Brinell mode, only full load dwell is needed and is set to 10 seconds.

F. Making Brinell Impression

1. Put HDPE specimen on stage.
2. Rotate the handwheel clockwise to bring specimen close to indenter.
3. Movement of the indenter is displayed by a bar graph and the correct pre-load is indicated
when the horizontal bar touches the end of the fixed bar.
4. When this point is reached, an audible bleep will be heard, and vertical movement of the
indenter should stop.
5. The rest of the loading cycle is automatic.
6. At the end of the load cycle, the hardness number will be displayed on the screen.
7. Turn the stage counter clock wise to release the specimen.
8. Take five readings for each sample.
9. Repeat steps 1-8 with LDPE.

Questions:
1. Record the data of HDPE and LDPE in a table completely.
2. Compare the hardness properties of HDPE and LDPE.
3. HDPE and LDPE have different polymeric chain. Explain how it affects the hardness
properties.
4. What are the important samples preparations need to be considered before conducting
hardness test?
5. Give two examples of the importance of hardness test.
6. What is the advantage of hardness testing in contrast to tensile testing?

39
 Experiment 6

THIN CYLINDER

Objective

1. To determination the behaviour of aluminium alloy 6063 in open ends condition and
closed ends condition.
2. To determine the principle plane in open ends and closed ends condition.

Theory

a) Complex Stress System

The diagrams in Figure 4.1 represent (a) the stress and (b) the forces acting upon an element of
material under the action of a two-dimensional stress system.

a) Stress diagram

b) Force Diagram

Figure 6.1: Stress and force diagrams for two dimensional stress systems

40
Assuming (b) to be a 'wedge' of material of unit depth and the side AB to be of unit length:

Resolving along will give:

y cos cos x sin sin cos sin sin cos

y cos 2 x sin 2 2 sin cos

y
cos 2 1 1 cos 2 sin 2
x
2 2

1
y x 1 y x cos 2 sin 2 (1)
2 2

Resolving along will give:

y cos sin x sin cos sin sin cos cos

sin 2 sin 2
y x sin 2 cos 2
2 2

1
y x sin 2 cos 2 (2)
2

From equation 2 it can be seen that there are values for e for which is zero and the planes on
which the shear component is zero are called 'Principal Planes'.

For equation 2:

0
1
y x sin 2 cos 2
2
cos 2 y x sin 2
1
2
y x tan 2
1
(3)
2

This will give two values of 2 differing by 1800 and, therefore, two values of differing by 900.
This shows that Principal Planes are two planes at right angles to each other.

Figure 6.2: Diagram representation of Equation 3

From the diagram:

41
 2
sin 2 (4)
y x 4 2
2

and
cos 2
y x
(5)
y x 4
2 2

The stresses on the principal planes are normal to these planes and are called principal stresses.

From equation 1 and substituting the above values:

1
y x 1 y x 2 4 2 (6)
2 2

Principal stresses are the maximum and minimum values of normal stress in the system. The
sign will denote the type of stress.

i.e Negative sign - Compressive Stress

Positive sign - Tensile Stress

Figure 6.3: Force diagram for an element

Assuming BC and AC are principal Planes, i.e. =0, and 1 and 2 are the principal stresses

1
2 1 sin 2 (7 )
2

Now maximum shear stress will be seen to occur when sin2 = 1, i.e. when =450.

Therefore the maximum shear stress occurs on planes at 45 0 to the principal planes, and

42
 1
2 1 (8)
2

or (using equation 6)

y x 4 2
2
(9)

b) Two Dimensional Stress System

Figure 6.4: Diagram of principal stresses on an element

Strain in direction of 1:
1 v 2
1 (10)
E E

Strain in direction of 2:
2 v 1
2 (11)
E E

1 and 2 are the values of the principal strains.

A negative quantity denotes compressive strain.
A positive quantity denotes tensile strain.
These strains can be used to construct a 'Mohr Strain Circle' in the same way as stresses.

43
 /2

Figure 6.5: Representation of strain on a Mohr circle

In the usual manner, referring to Figure 4.5:

OR is the maximum principal strain.

OP is the minimum principal strain at right angles to maximum

Q is the center of the strain circle.

From the diagram :

m 2 1 2 1 2 cos 2
2 2

m 2 1 1 2 cos 2 (12)
2 2

and

n 2 1 2 1 2 cos 2
2 2

n 2 1 2 1 cos 2 (13)
2 2

44
Theory as Applied to the Thin Cylinder

Because this is a thin cylinder, i.e. the ratio of wall thickness to internal diameter is less than
about 1/20, the value of H and L may be assumed reasonably constant over the area, i.e.
throughout the wall thickness, and in all subsequent theory the radial stress, which is small, will
be ignored. I symmetry the two principal stresses will be circumferential (hoop) and longitudinal
and these, from elementary theory, will be given by: -
pd
H (14)
2t
and
pd
L (15)
4t

As previously stated, there are two possible conditions of stress obtainable; 'open end' and
'closed ends'

Figure 6.6: Stresses in a thin walled cylinder

a) Open Ends Condition

The cylinder in this condition has no end constraint and therefore the longitudinal component of
stress L will be zero, but there will be some strain in this direction due to the Poisson effect.
Considering an element of material:

H will cause strains of:-

H
H1 (16)
E

and
v H
L1 (17)
E
and these are the two principal strains. As can be seen from equation 17, in this condition L will

45
be negative quantity, i.e. the cylinder in the longitudinal direction will be in compression.

b) Closed Ends Condition

By constraining the ends, a longitudinal as well as circumferential stress will be imposed upon the
cylinder. Considering an element of material:

H will cause strains of:-

H
H (18)
E
and
v H
L1 (19)
E

L will cause strains of:-

L
L (20)
E
and
v L
H (21)
E

The principal strains are a combination of these values i.e.

1
H H v L (22)
E
and
1
L L v H (23)
E

The principal strains may be evaluated and a Mohr Strain Circle constructed for each test
condition. From this circle the strain at any position relative to the principal axes may be
determined.

c) To determine a value for Poisson's Ratio

Dividing equations 16 and 17 gives :-

L1
v (24)
H1

This equation is only applicable to the open ends condition.

Description of the apparatus

46
 Figure 6.7: Thin cylinder SM1007

Figure 6.7 shows a thin walled cylinder of aluminum containing a freely supported piston. The
piston can be moved in or out to alter end conditions by use of the adjustment screw. An
operating range of 0-3.5 MN/m2 pressure gauge is fitted to the cylinder. Pressure is applied to the
cylinder by closing the return valve, situated near the pump outlet, and operating the pump
handle of the self-contained hand pump unit. To release pressure unscrew the return valve.

Open and Closed Ends

Figure 6.8: Sectional plan of the thin cylinder

The cylinder unit, which is resting on four dowels, is supported in a frame and located axially by
the locking screw and the hand wheel. The hand wheel sets the cylinder for open and closed
ends conditions.

47
When the hand wheel is screwed in, it forces the piston away from the end plate and the entire
axial load is taken on the frame, thus relieving the cylinder of all longitudinal stress. This creates
open ends experiments as shown in Figure 6.9. Pure axial load transmission from the cylinder
to frame is ensured by the hardened steel rollers situated at the end of the locking screw and
hand wheel.

Figure 6.9: Open Ends Conditions

When the hand wheel is screwed out, the pressurized oil in the cylinder forces the piston against
caps at the end of the cylinder and become closed Ends of the cylinder. The cylinder wall then
takes the axial (longitudinal) stress as shown in Figure 6.10.

Figure 6.10: Closed Ends Conditions

48
Strain Gauges

Figure 6.11; strain gauges positions

Six active strain gauges are cemented onto the cylinder in the position shown in Figure 6.11;
these are self-temperature compensation gauges and are selected to match the thermal
characteristics of the thin cylinder. Each gauge forms one arm of a bridge, the other three arms
consisting of close tolerance high stability resistors mounted on a p.c.b. Shunt resistors are used
to bring the bridge close to balance in its unstressed condition (this is done on factory test). The
effect on gauge factor of this balancing process is negligible.

To give a direct reading of strain, the raeding from a strain gauge is multiplied by a constant
called the gauge factor. This compensates for the slight difference in manufacture between each
batch of gauges. The gauge factor usually varies between 1.8 and 2.2. The manufacturer set the
gauge factor into the electronic circuit of the SM1007, thus allowances no need to be considered.

The strain display on the front of the equipment shows the reading from each strain gauge in
(microstrain). The display shows only four reading at a time, use the scroll readings button to
scroll up or down to see all six values. Negative reading is a compressive strain and positive
reading is a tensile strain.

Thin cylinder technical information

49
 Items Details
Dimensions 370 mm high x 700 mm long x 380 mm
front to back
Nett weight 30 kg
Electrical supply 85 VAC to 264 VAC 50 Hz to 60Hz
Fuse 20 mm 6.3 A Type F
Maximum cylinder pressure 3.5 MNm-2 Set by a pressure relief valve
on the hand pump
Strain gauges Electrical resistance self-temperature
compensation type
Cylinder oil Shell Tellus 37 (or equivalent)
Total oil capacity Approximately 2 litres
Cylinder dimensions 80 mm internal diameter
3mm wall thickness
359 mm length
Cylinder material Aged aluminium alloy 6063
Youngs modulus (E) 69 GN/m2
Poissons ratio 0.33

Table 6.1 : Technical Details

The pump is fitted with a pressure relief valve, adjacent to the pump handle pivot, which is set to
operate at approximately 3.5 MN/m2. A bleed nipple is fitted to the right hand end of the cylinder.

PROCEDURE

a) General
Switch on the power to the thin cylinder and leave it for at least five minutes before conduct the
experiment. This allows the strain gauges to reach a stable temperature and give accurate
readings.

Two conditions of stress may be achieved in the cylinder during test:

(i) a purely circumferential stress system which is the 'open ends' condition
(ii) a biaxial stress system which is the 'closed ends' condition.

To obtain the circumferential condition of stress; - (refer to Figure 6.9)

Ensure that the return valve on the pump is fully unscrewed so that oil can return to the oil
reservoir. Screw in the hand wheel until it reaches the stop. This moves the piston away from the
left-hand end plate and thus the longitudinal load is transmitted onto the frame. When in this
condition, the value of Young's Modulus for the cylinder material may be determined and also the
value for Poisson's Ratio.

50
To obtain the biaxial stress system: - (refer to Figure 6.10)

Ensure that the return valve on the pump is fully unscrewed. Unscrew the hand wheel and push
the crosspiece to the left until it contacts the frame end plate. Now close the return valve and
operate the hand pump to pump oil into the cylinder and push the piston to the end of the
cylinder.

Thus, when the cylinder is pressurized, both longitudinal and circumferential stresses are set up
in the cylinder. Before any test, and at zero pressure, each strain gauge channel should be
brought to zero or the initial strain readings recorded as appropriate.

This equipment is equipped with VDAS (Versatile Data Acquisition System), however, for teaching
purposes, students are encouraged to conduct the experiment manually.

Precaution: NEVER pump the oil pressure higher than 3.1 MN/m 2

a) Experiment 1 Open ends

i. Open the pressure control and screw in the hand wheel to set up the Open Ends
condition.
ii. Close the Pressure control and use the press & hold to zero button to zero the strain
gauge display readings.
iii. Increase the pressure in 0.5 MN/m 2 steps up to 2.5 MN/m 2, at each step allowing a
couple of seconds for the pressure and strain readings to stabilize. Note the reading.
iv. Open the Pressure Control to relieve the pressure.

b) Experiment 2 Closed Ends

i. Open the pressure control and carefully unscrew the hand wheel to set up the Closed
Ends condition.
ii. Open the Pressure Control to release the pressure.
iii. Close the Pressure control and use the press & hold to zero button to zero the strain
gauge display readings. All the strain gauge readings should now read 0 (+/-5),
and the pressure meter should read 0 MN/m 2 (+/- 0.05 MN/m2).
iv. Increase the pressure in 0.5 MN/m 2 steps up to 2.5 MN/m 2, at each step allowing a
couple of seconds for the pressure and strain readings to stabilize. Note the reading.
v. Open the Pressure Control to relieve the pressure.

Data

51
 Cylinder Condition: OPEN ENDS
Direct Strain
Pressure Hoop
Reading Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge
(MN.m-2) Stress
1 2 3 4 5 6
(MN.m-2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Values from actual Mohrs
Circle (at 2.5 MN.m -2)
Values from theorethical
Mohrs Circle (at 2.5 MN.m -2)

Data Table 6.1: Open Ends Results

Cylinder Condition: CLOSED ENDS

Direct Strain
Pressure Hoop
Reading Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge Gauge
(MN.m-2) Stress
1 2 3 4 5 6
(MN.m-2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Values from actual Mohrs
Circle (at 2.5 MN.m -2)
Values from theorethical
Mohrs Circle (at 2.5 MN.m -2)

Data Table 6.2: Closed Ends Results

Questions:

52
A. Open Ends Conditions
1. Plot a graph of Hoop Stress against Hoop Strain. Find the Youngs Modulus for the
cylinder material. Compare your result.
2. Plot a Longitudinal Strain against Hoop Strain. Find the Poissons ratio for the cylinder
material. Compare your result.
3. Draw the Mohrs Circle at 2.5 MN/m 2. Identify the Principles Strains for Open Ends
Conditions. Compare the values with theoretical Mohrs Circle (Hint: to construct the
theoretical Mohrs Circle, consider Poissons Ratio and Youngs Modulus given in
technical details, use these values with the Principal Strain equations 16 and 17 to
calculate theoretical principal strain with calculated Hoop Stress at 2.5 MN/m 2 pressure).

B. Closed Ends Conditions

1. Draw the Mohrs Circle at 2.5 MN/m2. Identify the Principles Strains for Closed Ends
Conditions.
2. Compare the values with theoretical Mohrs Circle (Hint: to construct the theoretical
Mohrs Circle, consider Poissons Ratio and Youngs Modulus given in technical details,
use these values with the Principal Strain equations 22 and 23 to calculate theoretical
principal strain with calculated Hoop Stress at 2.5 MN/m 2 pressure).

C. State one example of real engineering application using open ends condition
and closed ends condition concept. Explain your answer in details.

Experiment 7

53
 IMPACT TEST

Objective

To investigate the impact strength of High Density Polyethylene and Low Density Polyethylene.

Theory

Impact testing

For determination of both tensile strength and hardness testing, the test piece is loaded
continuously and slowly. How a material reacts to a sudden tension due to a quick blow or impact
is shown by means of an impact tester. The test is conducted according to D6110-06 Standard
Test Method for Determining the Charpy Impact Resistance of Notched Test pieces of Plastics.

Impact Strength

In impact testing, the pendulum is released from a known height strikes the test piece once it is
released and fracture the test piece. By knowing the mass of the pendulum, the original position
of the pendulum, and final position of the pendulum; the potential energy when released, the
potential energy in the pendulum after is has broken the test piece and the energy consumed
when breaking the test piece able to be calculated. The impact strength is the energy received
divided by the cross sectional area of the test piece.

Testing Apparatus
The test is completed using a drop hammer mounted as a pendulum; see fig. 8:1, which breaks a test piece.

Fig. 8:1. Impact tester HIT25/50P Type S1107.

54
Two methods of impact testing techniques are applicable namely Charpy Test and Izod
Test.Figure 8.2 shows the Charpy method, which consists of placing the test piece between two
supports. Fig. 8:3 shows the Izod method. This entails fixing the test-piece and allowing the
pendulum to break off a piece of the test-piece.

Fig 8.2: Charpy method Fig 8.3: Izod Method

Test pieces

Charpy test-pieces see fig. 8:4 can have slightly different instruction as to how the test is
conducted.

Keyhole and U test-pieces give equally good results. The specific impact energy or impact unit
KCU is measured in kj /m 2. For U test-pieces the impact energy or impact strength kV, is
measured in j (joules). There is no sure method of calculation of impact energy for test pieces, for
tests carried out with different instructions on the test piece.

Fig. 8:4. Charpy test pieces.

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

55
This section describes on the Impact tester.

(a) Overview of the equipment.

Fig. 8. 5. Schematic diagram of the equipment.

Charpy Impact Testing

56
 i. Charpy Impact Fixture

Figure 8.6. Charpy Impact Fixture

ii. Chapy Pendulun 25 Joule

a) Technical data of the pendulum

b)Pendulum

57
 Figure 8.7: Charpy Pendulum 25 J Overview

iiii. Function Description

Once the pendulum released, all pulses until the pendulum reverses its direction are counted.
When the number of pulses corresponding to the pendulum deflection is substrected, the results
is the angle of deflection after the impact. This angle is used to determine the height of the
reversal point and thus the absorbed energy.

Safety Measures:

58
 .

(a) Protection screen of the equipment

Figure 8.8: Safety features of the equipment

59
Ensure the protective screens are properly closed before performing the experimen

60
Procedure

Impact bending test to Charpy

The impact bending test to Charpy, also known as the "Charpy" test, is described in a number of
test standards. These standards prescribe the permissible geometry of the test pieces, as well as
that of the supports, anvils, and the impact tup(s).

Prepare testing system for testing

1. The correct Charpy impact fixture with optional supports, anvils, and connector plates is
installed.
2. The correct Charpy pendulum hammer is installed.
3. Place the test piece on the supports.
4. For the notch alignment fixture for V- and U-notched test pieces (refer 8.9):
- Turn the centering pin upward with the hand wheel.
- Place the test piece with the notch at the centering pin, thus making sure that the test
piece is centered.
- Turn the centering pin downward into the test position with the hand wheel.

61
 1 Centering pin
2 Test piece with a V or U notch
3 Hand wheel
4 Centering pin in test position

Fig. 8.9. Centering the notch alignment.

5. Click the pendulum into the release position intended for this pendulum.
6. Close both sides of protection screens.
7. Press the two pendulum release buttons to release the pendulum.
8. The pendulum drops and hits the test piece at the corresponding impact velocity.
9. Repeat the experiment with another test piece.

Questions

1. Compare the results between HDPE and LDPE.

2. HDPE and LDPE have different polymeric chains. Explain how it affects the impact strength
obtained.

3. Other than impact strength, state other information can be gathered through Charpy method?

4. Give one example of engineering application where impact is a real concern. Explain your
answer in details.

62
 Experiment 8

Microstructure Analysis

Objective:

1. To be familiar with metallography techniques such as grinding, polishing and etching.

2. To be familiar with metallurgy microscope
3. To investigate the microstructure of metal and alloy.

Theory

Metallurgy is the study of microstructural features of materials. The structure studied by

metallography are indicative of the properties and hence the performance of material in service.

Typical application of metallography techniques in research centres and industry may include:
a. To monitor metal alloy heat treatment
b. To measure the thickness of coating
c. To evaluate/examine the weld or braze
d. To evaluate corrosion, etc.
e. For failure analysis

In this technique, planar surface is prepared by sectioning followed by mounting in a

thermosetting resin prior to grinding and polishing to obtain a reflective surface. In order to
delineate the microstructure chemical or other etching method is often employed prior to
microscopy investigation.

a) Sectioning and cutting

The areas of interest forming the metallography specimens need to be sectioned for ease of
handling. Depending on the type of material, the sectioning operation can be done by using
abrasive cutter (for metal and metallic composite), diamond wafer cutter (ceramics, electronics,
and minerals) or thin sectioning with a microtome (plastics).

In order not to damage the specimen, proper cutting requires the correct selection of abrasive
cutting wheel, proper cutting speed & cutting load and the use of coolant.

b) Mounting

The mounting operation accomplishes three important functions:

1. To protects the specimen edge and maintain the integrity of materials surface features.
2. Fill voids in porous materials.
3. Improves handling of irregular shaped samples.

63
Samples for microstructure evaluation are typically encapsulated in a plastic mount for handling
during sample preparation. Large sample or samples for macrostructure evaluation can be
prepared without mounting.

The metallography specimen mounting is done by encapsulating the specimen into:

1. A compression/hot mounting compound (thermosets e.g. phenolics, epoxies or
thermoplastics e.g. acrylics)
2. A castable resin/cold mounting (e.g. acrylics resins, epoxy resins and polyester resins)

c) Grinding

Grinding is required to ensure the surface is flat & parallel and to reduce the damage created
during sectioning. Grinding is accomplished by decreasing the abrasive grit size sequentially to
obtain the required fine surface finish prior to polishing.

It is important to note that the final appearance of the prepared surface is dependent on the
machine parameters such as grinding/polishing pressure, relative velocity distribution and the
direction of grinding/polishing.

d) Polishing

For microstructure examination a mirror/reflective finish is needed whereas a finely ground finish
is adequate for macrostructure evaluation. Polishing can be divided into two main steps:

1. Rough polishing
The purpose is to remove the damage produced during grinding. Proper polishing will maintain
the specimen flatness and retain all inclusions or secondary phases by eliminating the previous
damage and maintaining the specimen integrity.

2. Fine polishing
The purpose is to remove only surface damage.

e) Etching

Etchans are specially formulated for the specific material and evaluation objectives. Etching
alters the microstructural features based on composition; stress or crystal structure and it will
develop the surface topology, which can be visible in the microscope.

Typically, chemical etching involves immersing the polished surface in the prepared chemical
solution for a specified time (usually seconds) followed by rinsing the etched specimen under
running tap water and drying.

f) Microscopic Analysis

For microscopic analysis, a reflective surface is required. The analysis can be done by using a
metallurgy microscope.

64
g) Equipment, Apparatus and Sample

1. Abrasive cutter machine 8. Grinder

2. Polisher 9. Silicon carbide paper (4 different mesh)
3. Lubricant 10. Diamond spray (6 micron and 1 micron)
4. Ultra sonic cleanser 11. Dryer
5. Soapy water 12. Cotton
6. Nital solution (2% HNO3) 13. Alcohol
7. Metallurgy microscope 14. Sample mild steel

Procedure

1. Grinding is done using planar grinding machine covered with silicon carbide (SiC) paper and
water. In this operation four different grade of paper is used. Starts with the smallest grit
number; which represents coarse particles.

2. During grinding apply light pressure on the centre of the sample. Continue grinding until all
the blemishes have been removed, the sample surface is flat, and all starches are directed in
one direction.

3. Wash the sample in water and move to the next grit, orienting the starches from the previous
grade normal to the planar direction.

4. Repeat the grinding procedure until the final grinding operation. After that wash the sample
thoroughly followed by cleaning using alcohol and dry the sample.

5. Polishing is done using rotating disc covered with soft cloth impregnated with diamond
particles and lubricant. Begin the polishing operation with 6-micron grade and continue the
process until the grinding starches have been removed.

6. Wash the sample under running tap water followed by cleaning with alcohol, immerse the
sample in ultrasonic cleaner for one minute and then dry the sample.

7. Repeat the same procedure for final polishing stage using 3-micron diamond paste..

8. Examine your sample by using metallurgy microscope. Note down your observation.

9. Immerse the polished sample in the etching solution for about 2 to 3 seconds. Wash the
sample with water followed by alcohol. Dry the sample prior to microscopy examination.

Precaution:
While using the microscope be careful not to raise the stage too much which
may result in contact between the objective lens and the specimen and cause
damage.
Never touch the optical surfaces with your fingers or any object.

65
Question:

1. Label the microstructure obtained.

2. Discuss the difference between before- and after- etching process.

3. Discuss the effect of etching process. What will happen if the process is too long (more
than 3 seconds)?

4. Explain the relationship of grain and grain boundary with mechanical properties of
materials.

5. Other than metallurgy microscope, identify another two methods applicable to investigate
the morphology and microstructure in area related to mechanical engineering. State the
advantages of that equipment.

6. Give two real examples where microstructures study are real concern in
mechanical engineering application. Explain your answer in details.

66
 Lab Schedule
Mechanics and Materials Laboratory Schedule (MEMB221)
Semester 2 2015/2016
Time table

Section 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
AP. Dr.
Lecturer Rogemah Siti Zubaidah Siti Zubaidah Nuraslinda Nuraslinda Nuraslinda Siti Zubaidah Siti Zubaidah
Shahida
Day Monday Wednesday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Tuesday Thursday Tuesday Friday
Time 1700-2000 1100-1400 900-1200 1700-2000 1900-2200 1700-2000 1600-1900 1300-1600 800 - 1100

W16-
W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 W7 W8 W9 W10 W11 W12 W13 W14 W15
W17
30 28
19 -23 26-30 2-6 9-13 16-20 23-27 7-11 14-18 21-25 4-8 11-15 18-22 25-29 1-17
Nov-4 Dec-1
Oct Oct Nov Nov Nov Nov Dec Dec Dec Jan Jan Jan Jan Feb
Dec Jan
2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2015 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016
2015 2016
G1 1 2 4 75 8 - 3 6

Mid Semester Break

Add and Drop Week

G2 2 4 75 8 - 1 3 6

Replacement

Replacement
Introduction

Exam week
G3 4 75 8 - 1 2 3 6
G4 75 8 - 1 2 4 3 6
G5 8 - 1 2 4 75 3 6
G6 - 1 2 3 75 8 3 6

24/12
11 Dec
Maulidur
10/11- Sultan 1/1 New
Note Deepavali Selangors
Rasul,
24/12
Year
Birthday
-Christmas

Exp No.:
1 Tensile test (Universal Tester) 4 Buckling Test 7 Impact test

2 Torsion Test 5 Hardness Test 8 Microstructure Analysis

3 Bending Test 6 Thin Cylinder