Psychology in the Schools, Vol.

49(10), 2012 
C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
View this article online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/pits DOI: 10.1002/pits.21651

PREPARING TRANSITION-AGE STUDENTS WITH HIGH-FUNCTIONING AUTISM

SPECTRUM DISORDERS FOR MEANINGFUL WORK
GLORIA K. LEE
University at Buffalo, The State University of New York

ERIK W. CARTER
Vanderbilt University

This article provides an overview of promising essential elements for fostering vocational success
among students with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders (HFASDs) by drawing literature
from the fields of school-to-work transition for post-secondary students and vocational rehabil-
itation for individuals with disabilities. We highlight seven important elements of high-quality
transition services, including (a) individualized, strengths-based transition services and supports;
(b) positive career development and early work experiences; (c) meaningful collaboration and in-
teragency involvement; (d) family supports and expectations; (e) fostering self-determination and
independence; (f) social and employment-related skill instruction; and (g) establishing job-related
supports. These elements provide a comprehensive, collaborative, and longitudinal framework for
clinical and research interventions aimed at fostering successful employment for students with
HFASDs. Clinical and research implications are discussed.  C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The transition to life after high school can be accompanied by a mix of both excitement and
uncertainty as youth prepare to embark on new college and career pathways. Most young people
in the United States hold aspirations for a future career characterized by compelling wages, good
benefits, opportunities for advancement, and close alignment with ones personal interests and
strengths (Zimmer-Gembeck & Mortimer, 2006). Moreover, a good job is often the gateway to
other valued outcomes. For example, in addition to promoting financial well-being, a meaningful
career can contribute to a persons sense of accomplishment, self-worth, and confidence; promote
independence and self-determination; provide a venue to share strengths and talents in ways that are
valued by others; lead to new friendships and supportive relationships; and offer deeper connections
to, and engagement in, the larger community. It is not surprising, therefore, that preparing adolescents
and young adults for the world of work has remained a dominant theme of secondary educational
and transition efforts for more than 2 decades (National Collaborative on Workforce and Disability
for Youth, 2009; Wehmeyer & Webb, 2012).

E MPLOYMENT O UTCOMES FOR YOUTH AND YOUNG A DULTS W ITH AUTISM

S PECTRUM D ISORDERS
For many youths and young adults with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), however, these early
educational and vocational aspirations often go unfulfilled. Findings from numerous studies suggest
that the post-secondary career and college pathways can often be difficult to navigate, and meaningful
work remains unacceptably elusive (e.g., Holwerda, van der Klink, Groothoff, & Brouwer, 2012;
Howlin, 2003; Shattuck et al., 2012). For example, the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2
(NLTS2) provides a nationally representative portrait of the in-school and post-school employment
experiences of youth and young adults with autism. During secondary school, only half (50.2%)
of youth with autism were reported to have had any type of school-sponsored on- or off-campus
work experience (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Levine, & Marder, 2003), and only 14.5% had held

Correspondence to: Gloria K. Lee, Department of Counseling, School & Educational Psychology, Baldy 419,
University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 142601000. E-mail: glee4@buffalo.edu

988
 School-to-Work Transition for Students With HFASD 989

a paid after-school or summer job at any time during the previous year (Wagner, Cadwallader, &
Marder, 2003). Access to job shadowing, job skills training, job placement support, job coaching,
and internship or apprenticeship experiences during high school are also consistently low (Wagner,
Newman et al., 2003).
After graduation, the employment landscape remains similarly bleak. Newman et al. (2011)
reported that up to 8 years after leaving high school, only 63.2% of young adults with autism had
worked at any point since graduation and only 37.2% of these young people were currently employed
at the time of the survey. Among those currently employed, young adults with autism averaged just
24.1 hours of work per week, earned an average of $9.20 per hour, and only 52.8% reported receiving
any benefits (e.g., paid vacation or sick leave, health insurance, retirement benefits). Compared with
employment statistics for young adults without a disability, those with autism clearly reported greater
difficulties obtaining employment and remaining employed; and even once employed, reported
working fewer hours, making less money, and receiving benefits less often (Newman et al., 2011).
Other follow-up studies paint a similarly disappointing picture. In their analysis of vocational
rehabilitation data collected between 2002 and 2006, Cimera and Cowan (2009) reported that only
40.8% of adults with autism were employed by the time their cases were officially closed by
vocational rehabilitation. On a weekly basis, those adults with autism worked an average of 18.6
hours and earned an average of $146.65. Taylor and Seltzer (2011) found that almost one third
(29.4%) of young adults with autism who did not have a comorbid intellectual disability in their
longitudinal sample were not participating in any type of employment or college experiences. Finally,
Howlin (2003) reported that employment outcomes for adults with ASDs are generally poor in the
United Kingdom, as those with a mild intellectual disability have unemployment rates as high as
60% to 70%.
Collectively, these and other studies (e.g., Howlin, Goode, Hutton, & Rutter, 2004; Mawhood
& Howlin, 1999) highlight the need for stronger vocational preparation and employment supports
for students with ASDs before, during, and beyond high school. In addition, these disappointing
outcomes also challenge schools, service systems, and other stakeholders to focus more concerted and
coordinated efforts on equipping young people with ASDs with the skills, supports, opportunities,
and connections needed to find success in the workplace. Absent such efforts, too many adults
with ASDs will continue to encounter limited employment opportunities, difficulty in job retention,
limited opportunities for career advancement, and negative work experiences. Such pathways can
have a profoundly negative impact on overall quality of life for the individual and create additional,
yet preventable, long-term costs for society.

A RTICLE OVERVIEW
The purpose of this article is to review key components of promising transition services and
supports that might enable students with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders (HFASDs)
to successfully transition into meaningful employment experiences during and after high school.
Although the educational needs of students with ASDs have received burgeoning attention in the
empirical literature, policy discussions, and the popular media, surprisingly few rigorous studies
have examined high-quality secondary and transition experiences for the subgroup of young people
at the high-functioning end of the autism spectrum (i.e., those with HFASDs; Carter, Sisco, Chung,
& Stanton-Chapman, 2010; Hendricks & Wehman, 2009; Moxon & Gates, 2001). Indeed, the
knowledge base remains unacceptably lean. Therefore, we draw on relevant and related research
to identify promising elements for enhancing the employment outcomes of this group of youth.
Such elements contribute to a framework for designing transition interventions specifically for these
youth.

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990 Lee and Carter

W HO A RE S TUDENTS W ITH HFASD S ?

More than 370,000 school-aged children receive special education and related services under
the category of autism (U.S. Department of Education, 2011). Although individuals with ASDs
can receive special education under other disability categories or may not even be eligible for such
services at all, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act defines autism as:

a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social
interaction, generally evident before age three, that adversely affects a childs educational perfor-
mance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and
stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual
responses to sensory experiences. (300/a/300.8/c/1/i)

Although several other autism definitions exist (e.g., American Psychiatric Association, 2000), most
refer to a triad of symptoms, including impairments in social relations, difficulties in communication,
and repetitive behaviors and/or restricted intense interests.
Students with HFASDs represent the higher-functioning subset of individuals on the autism
spectrum, that is, those with more intact cognitive and language abilities. They are often described as
having Aspergers syndrome, high-functioning autism, or high-functioning pervasive developmental
disorders-not otherwise specified. The boundaries of this label have been quite varied and frequently
debated. Regardless of where definitional lines are drawn, there is consensus that many young people
with HFASDs face limited opportunities and disappointing outcomes associated with their disability
(Klin & Volkmar, 2000; Tsatsanis, Foley, & Donebower, 2004).

FACTORS I MPACTING E MPLOYMENT O UTCOMES OF S TUDENTS W ITH HFASD S

A constellation of factors may coalesce to limit the employment outcomes of youth and
young adults with HFASDs. First, given the divergent diagnostic and eligibility criteria, some youth
with HFASDs may not actually be eligible to receive formal transition- or employment-related
services and supports provided by public schools, adult agencies, or other organizations (e.g., intact
cognitive abilities leading to perceptions of reduced need for services). Second, the educational
programs of adolescents with HFASDs often emphasize academic achievement and general education
participation to the exclusion of other transition domains, such as career development and early work
experiences. Third, the social-related challenges associated with HFASDs may have a particular
impact on the employment prospects of affected youth. For example, Carter and Wehby (2003) found
that employers of transition-age youth tend to emphasize the contributions that strong social and
interpersonal skills can make to success on the job. Navigating the social demands associated with the
job search process, coworker and supervisor relationships, and disability disclosure likely represent
core challenges for young people with HFASDs (e.g., Higgins, Koch, Boughfman, & Vierstra,
2008; Hurlbutt & Chalmers, 2004; Muller, Schuler, Burton, & Yates, 2003). Fourth, interventions
and supports for youth with autism have tended to focus on promoting post-secondary educational
pathways rather than on preparation for the workforce (Levinson 2004). A college degree can
be instrumental in launching a new career. However, strengthening students academic capacities
represents only one aspect of what will help them succeed in the workplace.

P ROMISING E LEMENTS OF H IGH -Q UALITY E MPLOYMENT P REPARATION

The remainder of this article describes major elements that hold promise for fostering voca-
tional success among students with HFASDs. We highlight seven important elements of high-quality
transition services, including: (a) individualized, strengths-based transition services and supports;
(b) positive career development and early work experiences; (c) meaningful collaboration and

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 School-to-Work Transition for Students With HFASD 991

interagency involvement; (d) family supports and expectations; (e) fostering self-determination and
independence; (f) social and employment-related skill instruction; and (g) establishing job-related
supports. Although these broad components are not fundamentally different from those recom-
mended for other youth with disabilities, they differ, at times, in their intensity and configuration for
youth with HFASDs. Moreover, we emphasize from the outset that although these seven elements
are important transition considerations for this population, they are not to be interpreted as a com-
prehensive or exhaustive list for addressing the transition needs and vocational education of these
students.

Individualized, Strengths-Based Transition Services and Supports

One hallmark of credible special education and transition services is that they must be indi-
vidually designed to reflect the unique needs, strengths, interests, and preferences of each student.
Although we focus in this article on a group of students who share a common label and similar
social-related challenges, the manner in which their employment preparation is addressed should be
individually tailored to reflect each students personal profiles. Although definitional criteria typically
emphasize deficits, youth with HFASDslike all studentsalso possess considerable strengths and
positive qualities that can be drawn on and strengthened to promote successful career preparation.
Moreover, many defining characteristics associated with ASDs can actually be considered strengths
in particular employment contexts. For example, the National Autistic Society (2004) noted that
some individuals with HFASDs may be particularly attentive to details; be meticulous about rules,
accuracy, and routines; be highly reliable, conscientious, persistent, and technically savvy; retain
detailed factual knowledge; and evidence excellent long-term memory. Such qualities, if channeled
correctly, could allow young people to be successful in jobs that require such skills (e.g., program-
ming, engineering, accounting, library science, mathematics, drafting, journalism, and lab technical
tasks; Grandin, 1999). Other professions enhanced by these strengths might, in some cases, include
electricians, architects, musicians, bankers, plumbers, and lawyers (e.g., see Baron-Cohen, Richler,
Bisarya, Gurunathan, & Wheelwright, 2003). Such examples are not listed here to put boundaries
on career options, but rather to emphasize the breadth of possibilities that families and educators
should consider for youth with HFASDs.
The transition planning process offers an important context for delineating the specific services
and supports youth with HFASDs will need to prepare for the world of work. According to the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2004), transition planning must begin
no later than the first Individualized Education Program (IEP) in effect when a student turns 16
(or younger if determined appropriate by the IEP team) and should be reviewed and updated
annually. Youth must be invited to planning meetings, and recommended practices contend that
students should have meaningful opportunities and preparation to assume leadership roles (Martin
& Williams-Diehm, in press). Despite this mandate, however, studies suggest that many students
with autism often have limited involvement in or are altogether absent from their own transition
planning meetings (Shogren & Plotner, 2012). For example, in their analyses of the NLTS-2, Cameto,
Levine, and Wagner (2004) found that 22.6% of high school students with autism did not attend their
IEP meetings. Among those who attended, 44.8% reported their participation was minimally active,
30.0% reported their participation was moderately active, and only 2.6% reported their participation
was quite active in that they led the planning of their IEP meetings.

Positive Career Development and Early Work Experiences

Preparing transition-age youth for the world of work has long been a prominent focus of
transition education. Access to a combination of career development experiences during middle and

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992 Lee and Carter

high school can provide adolescents with authentic opportunities to acquire important work skills
and values, inform their vocational decision making, and shape their career aspirations for the future
(Vondracek & Porfeli, 2006). For example, activities related to career assessment and planning
(e.g., career or job counseling, career interest assessments, written career plans, career aptitude
assessments), exploration (e.g., tours of local businesses or industries, job-shadowing programs,
tours of colleges or technical schools, college fairs or college days, speakers brought in from
local businesses), instruction (e.g., career exploration courses, tech-prep programs, interviewing
or resume-writing practice), and connecting (e.g., job fairs or career days, job placement services
for students, career or job resource center, mentorship programs with employers) have all been
advocated as avenues for increasing the employability of all youth, including students with HFASDs
(Carter, Trainor, Cakiroglu, Swedeen, & Owns, 2010; Van Wierren, Reid, & McMahon, 2008). For
these students, such activities can raise awareness of their career-related strengths, interests, needs,
and goals; expand their knowledge and understanding of occupational options; and provide them
with meaningful opportunities to practice and to improve general employment skills (Chappel &
Somers, 2010; Higgins et al., 2008)all contributing to a higher quality of life and better career
prospects (Patton, Creed, & Muller, 2003). Absent such experiences, students may have restricted
career options, develop unrealistic vocational aspirations, make poor vocational decisions, or lack
important resume-building experiences.
Particularly important for youth with HFASDs may be the accruing of early, hands-on vocational
experiences through after-school and summertime jobs, paid or unpaid internships, or school-
sponsored work experiences. Although prior follow-up studies have not focused specifically on
youth with HFASDs, holding a paid job during high school has emerged as a consistent and
powerful predictor of post-school employment outcomes for young people with a range of disability
labels (e.g., Carter, Austin, & Trainor, 2012; Test et al., 2009). It is not surprising, therefore, that
some transition frameworks emphasize the value of ensuring that every student with a disability is
connected to a job prior to leaving high school (Rusch, Hughes, Agran, Martin, & Johnson, 2009).
Career interest assessments, vocational evaluations, and person-centered future planning efforts
can all be employed to help youth and their transition planning teams identify promising work
experiences aligned with students individualized needs.
Despite the importance of early work experiences, available data suggest that access to these
formative experiences may be limited for students with ASDs. Findings from the NLTS-2 indicate
that only 15% of youth with autism held a paid job at any time during the previous year, 50%
had some form of school-sponsored work experiences, and 1% had an internship or apprenticeship
(Wagner, Cadwallader et al., 2003). A number of potential barriers may coalesce to limit such
involvement, including the attitudes and expectations of general and vocational educators, concerns
about students social-related challenges, the availability of needed adaptations and supports, and
the preferences of youth themselves. Such barriers should be identified and addressed as part of
programmatic reflection efforts.

Meaningful Collaboration and Interagency Involvement

Ongoing and effective collaboration among formal and informal service and support systems
provide for more efficient and effective service delivery, and can be essential to the success of
transition-age youth in accessing and maintaining meaningful work (Noonan, Morningstar, & Er-
ickson, 2008). Cultivating strong linkages between students and needed servicesas well as among
various service providers themselves in a given communitycan ensure that the needs and oppor-
tunities identified during transition planning are adequately addressed and delivered in coordinated
ways. For example, the individual and collaborative work of vocational counselors, job coaches,

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 School-to-Work Transition for Students With HFASD 993

and/or special educators can help connect students and their families to relevant employment-related
support services, such as vocational assessments; career counseling; benefits counseling; transporta-
tion; and an array of other guidance, resources, and referrals (Chappel & Somers, 2010). When
designed thoughtfully, such linkages may also promote greater continuity in services and supports
as young people and their families transition across service systems. Yet, studies suggest that a sharp
decline in access to services takes place for many young adults with ASDs in the years after exiting
high school (Shattuck, Wagner, Narendorf, Sterzing, & Hensley, 2011). In addition, transition plan-
ning teams should explore avenues for deepening connections between students and more informal,
natural supports available within most communities (e.g., workplace mentors, job clubs) that can
deepen the social capital of students and their families (Carter, Swedeen, Cooney, Walter, & Moss,
2012; Trainor, 2008). Such collaborations may produce more durable sources of support for students
that transcend eligibility requirements and funding availability.

Family Supports and Expectations

Families often represent a prominent and enduring source of support in the lives of transition-age
youth with HFASDs. From an early age, parents can play an important role in shaping their childrens
career identities, conversing about potential educational and career pathways, and encouraging early
engagement in volunteer and other work experiences. As their children approach adolescence, the
emotional and instrumental supports they offer related to employment can be especially important
in helping youth access and maintain work experiences in the community. For example, parents may
offer advice, help youth develop and learn about personal strengths and interests, assist youth to
complete applications or locate job openings, provide transportation to the job site, and offer encour-
agement and problem-solving support. Moreover, research affirms the strong contributions parents
can make toward career development and improved employment outcomes for their transition-age
children. For example, Carter et al. (2012) found that parents work-related expectations were a
significant predictor of whether young adults with disabilities found paid community jobs in the
first 2 years after leaving high school. Thus, supporting meaningful collaboration among families,
schools, and service agencies should be a central component of effective transition programming.

Fostering Self-Determination and Independence

Efforts to foster student self-determination and independence are increasingly emphasized
within transition policy, research, and recommended practices (Cobb, Lehmann, Newman-Gonchar,
& Alwell, 2009). Constructs such as empowerment, self-advocacy, and self-efficacy all contribute to
greater self-determination and can ultimately enhance students long-term career success. Although
defined differently across disciplines, self-determination generally refers to having the skills, atti-
tudes, and supports to steer ones own life in ways and directions that enhance valued outcomes
(Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, & Wehmeyer, 1998). Correlational research strongly associates indi-
cators of self-determination with an array of positive employment- and transition-related outcomes
(Cobb et al., 2009; Test et al., 2009; Wehmeyer et al., 2011). For example, Wehmeyer and Palmer
(2003) found that young adults with intellectual disabilities who were more self-determined were
more likely to be employed and experience financial independence in the early years after high
school. Yet, adolescents with HFASDslike many youth with disabilitiesmay experience diffi-
culties acquiring or fluently performing the skills often associated with self-determination, such as
self-awareness, self-knowledge, and skills in choice making, decision making, goal setting, prob-
lem solving, self-advocacy and leadership, and self-management and self-regulation (Carter et al.,
in press; Wehmeyer, Shogren, Zager, Smith, & Simpson, 2010). Moreover, self-determination is
often demonstrated within social contexts, which may introduce added challenges for students with

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994 Lee and Carter

HFASDs. For example, communicating ones strengths, preferences, and interests; setting future
goals; advocating for needed supports and resources; and demonstrating leadership all typically
occur as part of interpersonal interactions.
An increasing array of instructional and curricular self-determination interventions have
emerged over the last 2 decades (Cobb et al., 2009; Carter, Lane, Crnobori, Bruhn, & Oakes,
2011; Fullerton & Coyne, 1999). Although relatively few of these studies have involved adoles-
cents with HFASDs, the following components are likely to be beneficial when incorporated into
school-based efforts to promote self-determination. First, the self-determination capacities of stu-
dents, along with school-based opportunities, should be assessed in an ongoing manner as part of the
transition planning process. Second, skill- and support-based needs identified and prioritized during
the assessment process should receive instructional attention within the classroom and on the job.
Third, self-determination skills that promote student involvement should be taught in advance of
and supported during person-centered transition planning meetings. Fourth, students with HFASDs
should be given supportive opportunities to practice and deepen self-determination skills within
the settings in which they will ultimately need them. Finally, given the developmental nature of
becoming self-determined, attention should be given to fostering self-determination much earlier
than high school and across school, home, and community environments (Carter et al., in press).
Self-advocacy skills may be especially important to emphasize for youth with HFASDs. Because
they leave an entitlement system when exiting high school, requests for access to needed services,
supports, and accommodations in the workplace and post-secondary educational settings must be
initiated by young adults with disabilities themselves (Chappel & Sommers, 2010; Hendricks,
2010). For example, educators might teach students their legal rights and equip them to make
appropriate requests for reasonable work accommodations that would facilitate success on the job
(Hawkins, 2004). Similarly, leadership skills may be particularly beneficial in helping young people
with disabilities advance in their careers and move beyond entry-level positions (Carter, Swedeen,
Walter, Moss, & Hsin, 2011). Unfortunately, these students infrequently receive opportunities to
develop their leadership capacities during secondary school.

Social- and Employment-Related Skill Instruction

Numerous studies have explored the breadth of employability and occupation-specific skills
identified by employers as critical for success on the job (e.g., Bricout & Bentley, 2000; Carter &
Wehby, 2003). For example, Ju, Zhang, and Pacha (2012) recently documented an array of general
and nontechnical competencies that employers prioritize among their entry-level employees (e.g.,
demonstrating personal integrity/honesty in work, following instructions, showing respect for others,
being on time). Technical skills specific to carrying out the primary functions of a particular position
are also essential for young people with HFASDs to acquire and demonstrate fluently. Similarly,
several collateral skills may be instrumental to finding and keeping a job, such as possessing
effective job search and interview skills, transportation-related skills, time management skills, and
problem-solving skills. Young adults with HFASDs are likely to vary widely in the degree to which
they possess the skills necessary to meet their employers expectations and needs in each of these
areas (Hendricks, 2010; Muller et al., 2003). Thus, it is important to connect students to vocational
coursework, volunteer activities, internships, and hands-on work experiences within which such
skills can be developed over time.
Possessing strong social-related work skills, however, appears to be critical to the success of
youth with HFASDs in finding, maintaining, and advancing within a job (Dew & Alan, 2007; Holmes,
2007). As noted earlier, employees with HFASDs often evidence substantial social-related challenges
that may make it more difficult to navigate interpersonal interactions with coworkers, supervisors,

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 School-to-Work Transition for Students With HFASD 995

and customers; adapt to fluctuating social expectations across settings and persons; or develop
enduring and enjoyable relationships with their coworkers. For example, youth with HFASDs might
evidence difficulties with reciprocal conversation, pragmatic language, making small talk, or general
social awareness (e.g., dressing inappropriately, professional mannerisms, respecting personal space;
Hawkins, 2004; Higgins et al., 2008; Hurlbutt & Chalmers, 2004). When a poor fit exists between
the skills these young adults with HFASDs possess and the expectations employers hold, problems
in the workplace are more likely to emerge, and frustration, lack of promotion, or termination may
result.
Although a fairly extensive literature has addressed the design and delivery of social skill in-
terventions within school-based settings, far less attention has focused on the application of these
interventions to teaching work-related social and interpersonal skills. Drawing on this available lit-
erature, several factors should be considered when designing interventions addressing this domain.
First, social- and work-related instruction should be a prominent focus of instruction and support
within the secondary curriculum. Second, instructional efforts should be driven by a careful assess-
ment of the nature of students skill deficits (i.e., acquisition, fluency, maintenance, and motivation)
and a clear understanding of the skills valued most within a particular place of employment or poten-
tial career path. The impact of instruction on students is likely to be greatest when evidence-based
instructional strategies address priority skills. Third, critical skills are contextually determined. The
skills valued most in one place of business may differ widely from those required by another em-
ployer or in a different business sector. Fourth, whenever possible, skills should be taught within the
settings in which students will ultimately be expected to use them. In other words, some youth may
have difficulty applying what they learned in the classroom to the workplace. Fifth, job coaches and
vocational counselors can play an important role in observing and discussing specific workplace
challenges with youth with HFASDs. They might work individually with a student or young adult
with an HFASD to model appropriate skills and provide feedback on performance (Hawkins, 2004;
Howlin, 2003).

Establishing Job-Related Supports

For many young people with HFASDs, difficulties related to keeping and advancing in a job
may be more prominent than challenges associated with initially finding that job (e.g., Higgins
et al., 2008; Holmes, 2007; Hurlbutt & Chalmers, 2004). Therefore, finding a strong job match
and establishing needed on-the-job supports from the very outset take on elevated importance. For
example, close alignment between key features of the workplace, core job responsibilities, and the
strengths, interests, and needs of youth are likely to increase their job satisfaction and diminish
their need for additional supports. Similarly, finding a receptive employer who already recognizes
the diverse assets someone with HFASDs might bring to the workplace is likely to lead to a more
supportive work environment (Higgins et al., 2008).
Students with HFASDs should also be taught about disability disclosure, workplace self-
advocacy, and how to request reasonable accommodations (National Collaborative on Workforce
and Disability for Youth, 2005). To equip youth to recruit their own supports, educators and job
coaches should teach students and young adults with HFASDs their rights under the Americans
with Disabilities Act and show them how to effectively request reasonable work accommodations
likely to facilitate their success on the job. For example, professionals might assist youth with
HFASDs to weigh the pros and cons of disclosing their disability and address when and how to share
information with supervisors and/or coworkers (Hawkins, 2004). Through scripting, practicing, and
role-playing of such conversations, youth with HFASDs can better learn the process of sharing
this information and experience less anxiety about having such conversations. As noted previously,

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996 Lee and Carter

instruction focused on self-management and self-advocacy strategies may better equip students to
identify and address their own support needs.
Finally, the avenues through which on-the-job supports will be provided should be carefully
considered. Coworker supports should comprise the first tier of assistance youth are encouraged to
draw on. Although such support is considered natural to the setting, many coworkers are still likely to
need explicit guidance from job coaches on how best to interact with and assist their coworker with
a disability (Hagner & Cooney, 2005). Similarly, supervisors might benefit from learning strategies
related to providing clear and consistent instructions, schedules, and consequences; building in time
to enable youth to learn new skills; providing effective reminders and reassurances; incorporating
organizational tactics (e.g., use of organizers, instruction sheets, checklists); reducing unstructured
time; and avoiding sensory and stimulation overloads (e.g., Hagner & Cooney, 2005; Hendricks,
2010; Howlin, 2003). When designed well, cultivating such natural supports may be more sustainable
long-term, less stigmatizing, and more likely to enhance generalization (Hagner & Cooney, 2005;
Hendricks, 2010).
At the same time, to flourish in the workplace, many employees with HFASDs will benefit
from initial and/or ongoing support from vocational professionals. Mawhood and Howlin (1999)
found that adults with HFASDs had a substantively greater employment rate when provided vo-
cational support compared with those who lacked such support. Similarly, Howlin, Alcock, and
Burkin (2005) reported that employees with HFASDs who received supported employment services
were more likely to maintain employment, successfully secure employment in administrative or
technical/computing work, and experience a rise in their salary over time. Job coaches, vocational
counselors, or other professionals can provide an array of individualized direct or indirect supports
to youth on the job that promote their success and inclusion. For example, Schall (2010) discussed
the ways in which a positive behavior support plan can help workers and employers to minimize the
likelihood of challenging behaviors by identifying antecedent strategies and ecological modifications
that reduce their occurrence, reinforcing appropriate behaviors, and teaching alternative replacement
behaviors.

I MPLICATIONS FOR R ESEARCH AND P RACTICE

Implications for Practice
By virtue of their relative cognitive, language, and academic strengths, students with HFASDs
appear to possess considerable potential for occupational success. However, their autistic symptoms
(e.g., social deficits, repetitive behaviors, need for routines) often pose major barriers to finding
and maintaining employment. Ironically, many such students with HFASDs are underserved where
social and vocational support services are concerned due to the misperception that their cognitive and
academic strengths somehow render such supports unnecessary. This article presented and reviewed
critical elements for transition planning that school and vocational personnel, students with HFASDs,
their families, and potential employers can put into collaborative practice to maximize the long-term
vocational success of such students.
Working together, educational and agency-based vocational professionals can take the lead in
different phases of the transition (e.g., school personnel prior to graduation and agency personnel
following graduation), making the transition from school to work occur more smoothly. School-
based professionals, such as school psychologists, special education teachers, school counselors,
vocational counselors, and school social workers, are well positioned to coordinate, assist in, and
evaluate the vocational transition planning of youth with HFASDs, especially prior to graduation.
Vocational transition planning is an important aspect of IEP development for older students, and
school-based meetings (regarding IEP development and review) are excellent opportunities for

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 School-to-Work Transition for Students With HFASD 997

collaboration and coordination between school-based professionals, community agency members,

family members, and the student.
School personnel can provide formal support for students with HFASDs in their career de-
velopment. Early in the vocational transition process, educational professionals may utilize both
standardized and nonstandardized career assessments to help students to explore and expand their
interests and strengths. Assessment and vocational exploration would be ongoing efforts, but addi-
tional supports would evolve with changes in the students needs as part of preparation for eventual
graduation. Examples of such supports include using assessment results to guide students concern-
ing career exploration; assisting students in obtaining vocational-related information; assisting them
with developing job search skills; mentoring and coaching students in work-related social skills;
and helping them with resume writing, impression management, and developing interviewing skills.
Professionals can also promote and provide internship and/or volunteer work to help students to
establish appropriate work experience, work skills, and develop confidence. As students are ready
to seek a job after graduation, practitioners in vocational agencies can further assist young adults in
specific job-seeking, job-coaching, and job-maintenance skills and in developing effective problem-
solving and coping skills for dealing effectively with work-related and nonwork stressors that can
impact success. Critically, vocational practitioners can provide consultative and supportive services
for employers who hire talented young adults with HFASDs.

Future Research Implications

Given the paucity of studies focusing on the needs of transition-age youth with HFASDs, the
need for additional research focused on improving employment outcomes for these youth remains
ever pressing. We offer several recommendations for future research. First, several compelling
frameworks have been advocated to guide the design and delivery of transition education for youth
with disabilities defined broadly (e.g., Hughes & Carter, 2011; Kohler & Field, 2003; National
Collaborative on Workforce and Disability for Youth, 2009). Additional research is needed to
explore whether and how key components of these models might be relevant toor specifically
adapted foryouth with HFASDs. Second, the current literature addressing employment for young
people with HFASDs is composed almost exclusively of discussion papers and descriptive studies.
For example, in their meta-analysis examining the effectiveness of adult employment interventions
in securing and maintaining employment for adults with ASDs, Westbrook et al. (2012) identified
only two studies designed to enable causal interpretations. The paucity of rigorous intervention
evaluations makes the identification of evidence-based practices difficult. Additional intervention
research is needed to more deeply address each of the seven elements identified in this article. Third,
relatively little is known about factors contributing to the long-term career success of young people
with HFASDs. Compelling longitudinal research is needed to increase the fields understanding of
how service and support needs may shift over time.

S UMMARY
Students and young adults with HFASDs possess a number of potential strengths (e.g., in-
tact cognitive and language abilities, capacity for intense focus) that are clear assets for pursuing
vocational success. Ironically, these very strengths often lead to the popular misperception that
they are unlikely to require support services to be successful. However, their social and pragmatic
interaction deficits, unusual and intense interests, repetitive behaviors, sensory issues, and other
autism-related symptoms can create significant barriers to finding and maintaining employment
and otherwise restrict their opportunities to excel vocationally. Ample evidence-based interventions
are documented concerning transition services for students with emotional disabilities, behavior

Psychology in the Schools DOI: 10.1002/pits

998 Lee and Carter

problems, and disabilities involving greater cognitive impairment (e.g. Downs syndrome, mental
retardation, low-functioning autism), as well as vocational services for adults with persistent physical
and mental illnesses. However, few evidence-based interventions have been established specifically
for students with HFASDs. Drawing on relevant support from the broader transition literature, as
well as from the descriptive literature concerning both vocational rehabilitation and HFASDs, we
propose a conceptual framework of critical elements that is broadly applicable, flexible, collabora-
tive, and longitudinal in nature. This framework encompasses seven important elements for guiding
interventions that provide critically needed support for students with HFASDs from the period prior
to post-secondary graduation through later successful job maintenance by nurturing positive career
development; emphasizing collaboration among school professionals, adult vocational agencies, and
families; and providing vocational support for those who employ people with HFASDs.

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