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Transistor Bipolar de Juno - BJT
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Transistor Bipolar de Juno - BJT
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Transistor Bipolar de Juno - BJT
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Transistor Bipolar de Juno - BJT
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Transistor Bipolar de Juno - BJT
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Transistor Bipolar de Juno - BJT
Aplicaes:
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Estrutura fsica do dispositivo e operao
Transistor NPN
MODO J BE J BC
Corte Reversa Reversa OFF
9
Figure 5.1 A simplified structure of the npn transistor.
Estrutura fsica do dispositivo e operao
Transistor PNP
10
Figure 5.2 A simplified structure of the pnp transistor.
Operao do transistor npn modo ativo: amplificador
Correntes de difuso
Regio de emissor
muito dopada
Diretamente polarizada Reversamente polarizada
Regio de base
pouco dopada
Figure 5.3 Current flow in an npn transistor biased to operate in the active mode. (Reverse current components due to drift of thermally 11
generated minority carriers are not shown.)
Operao do transistor npn modo ativo: amplificador
12
Operao do transistor npn modo ativo: amplificador
v BE / VT
n p ( 0) n p 0 e dn p ( x)
I n AE qDn
dx
n p (0)
np0 valor de equilbrio trmico da concentrao de AE qDn
portadores minoritrios na regio de base W
13
Figure 5.4 Profiles of minority-carrier concentrations in the base and in the emitter of an npn transistor operating in the active mode: vBE > 0 and vCB 0.
Operao do transistor npn modo ativo: amplificador
Corrente de coletor
14
Operao do transistor npn modo ativo: amplificador
Corrente de coletor
v BE / VT AE qDn n po
n p ( 0) n p 0 e Onde: IS
W
dn p ( x ) n p ( 0)
I n AE qDn AE qDn
dx W Substituindo npo em IS
ni2
n p0 Eq. 3.47
v BE NA
vT
iC I S e
AE qDn ni2
IS
WN A
IB1, devido as lagunas injetadas: corrente de difuso de lagunas da base para emissor
v BE
AE qD p ni2 N D - Concentrao de impurezas no emissor
iB1 e VT
IB2, devido s lagunas da base fornecidas pelo circuito externo para repor as lagunas
perdidas na base pelo processo de recombinao na base
16
Operao do transistor npn modo ativo: amplificador
Corrente da base:
v BE
Qn vT
iB2
Lembrando que: iC I S e
b
vBE
1 AE qWni2 VT
Qn AEW n p (0)q e
2 2N A
v BE
iC IS
1 AE qWn2 v BE
iB e VT
iB 2 i
e VT
2 bNA
o ganho de corrente em EC
iB iB1 iB 2 Onde:
1
Dp N A W 1 W 2
D p N A W 1 W 2 vVBE iC Dn N D L p 2 Dn b
iB I S e T
D N L
n D p 2 Dn b
17
Operao do transistor npn modo ativo: amplificador
Corrente de emissor:
1 1
vBE vBE
iC IS
i E iC i B iC iC iE ISe vT
e vT
1
iC iE iC i B
18
Operao do transistor npn modo ativo: amplificador
19
Operao do transistor npn modo ativo: amplificador
Modelos equivalentes:
v BE
I VT
i E S e
20
Figure 5.5 Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of the npn BJT operating in the forward active mode.
Estrutura dos transistores reais
21
Figure 5.6 Cross-section of an npn BJT.
Estrutura dos transistores reais
22
Figure 5.7 Model for the npn transistor when operated in the reverse active mode (i.e., with the CBJ forward biased and the EBJ reverse biased).
O modelo de Ebers-Moll
iC i DC F i DE
i B (1 F )i DE (1 R )i DC
i E i DE R i DC
23
Figure 5.8 The Ebers-Moll (EM) model of the npn transistor.
O modelo de Ebers-Moll
v BE
i DE I SE (e VT
1) iC i DC F i DE
v BC i B (1 F )i DE (1 R )i DC
VT
i DC I SC (e 1) i E i DE R i DC
v BE v BC
IS F
iC I S (e VT
1) (e VT
1) F
R 1F
v BE v BC
I R
i E S (e VT
1) I S (e VT
1) R
F 1R
v BE v BC
IS IS
i B (e VT
1) (e VT
1)
F R
24
O modelo de Ebers-Moll
IS
v BE
1
iE e VT
I S (1 )
F F
1
v BE
iC I S e VT
I S 1
R
1 1
v BE
IS
iB e VT
I S
F F R
25
O modelo de Ebers-Moll
26 for
Figure 5.9 The iC vCB characteristic of an npn transistor fed with a constant emitter current IE. The transistor enters the saturation mode of operation
vCB < 0.4 V, and the collector current diminishes.
Operao no modo saturao equivale a regio de triodo MOSFET
I S vBC
iC I S e vBE VT
e VT
27
Figure 5.10 Concentration profile of the minority carriers (electrons) in the base of an npn transistor operating in the saturation mode.
O transistor pnp
Figure 5.11 Current flow in a pnp transistor biased to operate in the active mode. 28
Caractersticas tenso-corrente
Smbolos do BJT
29
Figure 5.13 Circuit symbols for BJTs.
Caractersticas tenso-corrente
Convenes de sinais BJT
30
Figure 5.14 Voltage polarities and current flow in transistors biased in the active mode.
Caractersticas tenso-corrente
31
Caractersticas tenso-corrente
IMPORTANTE!!
32
Exemplo 5.1
Projete para o amplificador para: IC = 2 mA; VC = 5V. = 100; vBE = 0,7 V para IC = 1 mA.
33
Figure 5.15 Circuit for Example 5.1.
Exemplo 5.1
34
Exerccio 5.10
Para: VE = -0,7V e = 50. Determine: IE , IB , IC e VC
35
Figure E5.10
Exerccio 5.11
Para: VB = 1 V e VE = 1,7 V. Determine: , e VC.
36
Figure E5.11
Operao de um TBJ
37
Caractersticas grficas do TJB
iC I S e vBE VT
38
Figure 5.16 The iC vBE characteristic for an npn transistor.
Efeito da temperatura sobre a caracterstica iC x vBE
-2,2 mV/oC
39
Figure 5.17 Effect of temperature on the iCvBE characteristic. At a constant emitter current (broken line), vBE changes by 2 mV/C.
Caracterstica iC x vCB para vrios valores de iE
40
Figure 5.18 The iCvCB characteristics of an npn transistor.
Efeito Early - dependncia de iC da tenso de coletor
iC I S evBE vT
V
ro A
IC
42
Figure 5.20 Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of an npn BJT operating in the active mode in the common-emitter configuration.
Caracterstica iC x vCE em funo de iB
Ganho de corrente emissor comum
I CQ
cc hFE
iBQ
Grandes sinais
iC
ac h fe ac e cc diferem de 10% a 20%
iB VCE cte
Incremental ou ca.
43
Figure 5.21 Common-emitter characteristics.
Dependncia de com IC e com a temperatura
Figure 5.22 Typical dependence of on IC and on temperature in a modern integrated-circuit npn silicon transistor intended for operation 44
around 1 mA.
Zoom da regio de saturao - VCEsat
I Csat
forado
IB
forado < F
45
Figure 5.23 An expanded view of the common-emitter characteristics in the saturation region.
Regio de saturao - VCEsat
vCE
RCEsat
iC iC I Csat / iB I B
46
Figure 5.24 (a) An npn transistor operated in saturation mode with a constant base current IB. (b) The iCvCE characteristic curve corresponding to
iB = IB. The curve can be approximated by a straight line of slope 1/RCEsat.
Regio de saturao - VCEsat
47
Figure 5.24. (c) Equivalent-circuit representation of the saturated transistor. (d) A simplified equivalent-circuit model of the saturated transistor.
Regio de saturao - VCEsat
F
VCEsat VT ln
R
Figure 5.25 Plot of the normalized iC versus vCE for an npn transistor with F = 100 and R = 0.1. This is a plot of Eq. (5.47), which is derived 48
using the Ebers-Moll model.
Exerccio 5.18
Qual a tenso de sada Vo se o transistor tem BVBCO = 70 V?
Figure E5.18
49
Resumo do formulrio
50
Simbolos e convenes
51
Table 5.3
Resumo
52
Resumo
Modelo equivalente do transistor - circuito para grandes sinais
53
Resumo
Modelo de Ebers-Moll
54
Table 5.3 (Continued)
Resumo: Operao no modo saturao
55
Resumo: Operao no modo saturao
56
O TBJ como amplificador e como chave
57
O TBJ como amplificador
58
O TBJ como amplificador
Caracterstica de Transferncia
vi
vo VCC RC I S e VT
vo vCE VCC RC iC
iC I S evBE vT
59
Figure 5.26
O TBJ como amplificador
Ganho do amplificador
No ponto Q:
VBE
IC I S e VT
VCE VCC RC I C
dv 1 VBE
Av o I S e VT RC
dvI v I VBE
VT
I C RC VCC VCE
Av
VT VT
60
O TBJ como amplificador e como chave: anlise grfica
vCE VCC RC I C
VCC 1
iC vCE
RC RC
61
Figure 5.27 Circuit whose operation is to be analyzed graphically.
O TBJ como amplificador: anlise grfica
62
Figure 5.28 Graphical construction for the determination of the dc base current in the circuit of Fig. 5.27.
O TBJ como amplificador: anlise grfica
63
Figure 5.29 Graphical construction for determining the dc collector current IC and the collector-to-emitter voltage VCE in the circuit of Fig. 5.27.
O TBJ como amplificador: anlise grfica
64
Figure 5.30 Graphical determination of the signal components vbe, ib, ic, and vce when a signal component vi is superimposed on the dc voltage VBB
(see Fig. 5.27).
O TBJ como amplificador: anlise grfica
Excurso do sinal
Figure 5.31 Effect of bias-point location on allowable signal swing: Load-line A results in bias point QA with a corresponding VCE which is too
close to VCC and thus limits the positive swing of vCE. At the other extreme, load-line B results in an operating point too close to the saturation 65
region, thus limiting the negative swing of vCE.
O TBJ como chave
VCC 0,3
I C ( EOS )
RC
I C ( EOS )
I B ( EOS )
Figure 5.32 A simple circuit used to illustrate the different modes of operation of the BJT. 66
O TBJ como chave
Fator forado de 10
67
Figure 5.33 Circuit for Example 5.3.
Circuitos com TBJ em CC
Exemplo 5.4
Figure 5.34 Analysis of the circuit for Example 5.4: (a) circuit; (b) circuit redrawn to remind the reader of the convention used in this book to 68
show connections to the power supply; (c) analysis with the steps numbered.
Exemplo 5.5
IE=IC+IB
69
Figure 5.35 Analysis of the circuit for Example 5.5. Note that the circled numbers indicate the order of the analysis steps.
Exemplo 5.6
70
Figure 5.36 Example 5.6: (a) circuit; (b) analysis with the order of the analysis steps indicated by circled numbers.
Exemplo 5.7
Figure 5.37 Example 5.7: (a) circuit; (b) analysis with the steps indicated by circled numbers. 71
Exemplo 5.8
=100
IE=IC+IB
72
Figure 5.38 Example 5.8: (a) circuit; (b) analysis with the steps indicated by the circled numbers.
Exemplo 5.9
73
Figure 5.39 Example 5.9: (a) circuit; (b) analysis with steps numbered.
Exemplo 5.10
75
Figure 5.41 Circuits for Example 5.11.
Ex. 5.30
76
Figure E5.30
Exemplo 5.12
77
Figure 5.42 Example 5.12: (a) circuit; (b) analysis with the steps numbered.
Polarizao de circuitos amp. TJB
I C I B
V VBE I E I B ( 1)
I B BB
RB
Figure 5.43 Two obvious schemes for biasing the BJT: (a) by fixing VBE; (b) by fixing IB. Both result in wide variations in 78
IC and hence in VCE and therefore are considered to be bad. Neither scheme is recommended.
Polarizao de circuitos amp. TJB
Figure 5.44 Classical biasing for BJTs using a single power supply: (a) circuit; (b) circuit with the voltage divider 79
supplying the base replaced with its Thvenin equivalent.
Polarizao de circuitos amp. TJB: duas fontes de alimentao
Figure 5.45 Biasing the BJT using two power supplies. Resistor RB is needed only if the signal is to be capacitively
coupled to the base. Otherwise, the base can be connected directly to ground, or to a grounded signal source, resulting in 80
almost total -independence of the bias current.
Polarizao de circuitos amp. TJB: com resistncia de realimentao
81
Figure 5.46 (a) A common-emitter transistor amplifier biased by a feedback resistor RB. (b) Analysis of the circuit in (a).
Polarizao de circuitos amp. TJB: com corrente constante
IC I S e VBE vT
82
Figure 5.47 (a) A BJT biased using a constant-current source I. (b) Circuit for implementing the current source I.
Operao em pequenos sinais e modelos do TBJ
X X2
eX 1 ...
1! 2!
Figure 5.48 (a) Conceptual circuit to illustrate the operation of the transistor as an amplifier. (b) The circuit of (a) with the 83
signal source vbe eliminated for dc (bias) analysis.
Operao em pequenos sinais e modelos do TBJ
iC I S evBE vT
Figure 5.49 Linear operation of the transistor under the small-signal condition: A small signal vbe with a triangular
waveform is superimposed on the dc voltage VBE. It gives rise to a collector signal current ic, also of triangular waveform, 84
superimposed on the dc current IC. Here, ic = gmvbe, where gm is the slope of the iCvBE curve at the bias point Q.
Corrente de base e resistncia de base vista pela base
Figure 5.50 The amplifier circuit of Fig. 5.48(a) with the dc sources (VBE and VCC) eliminated (short circuited). Thus only the signal 85
components are present. Note that this is a representation of the signal operation of the BJT and not an actual amplifier circuit.
Corrente de emissor e resistncia de base vista pelo emissor
86
Ganho de tenso
87
Modelo hibrido -
iC iB
iC iB
iC iB
Figure 5.51 Two slightly different versions of the simplified hybrid- model for the small-signal operation of the BJT. The equivalent circuit
in (a) represents the BJT as a voltage-controlled current source (a transconductance amplifier), and that in (b) represents the BJT as a current- 88
controlled current source (a current amplifier).
Modelo T
IE=IC+IB
Figure 5.52 Two slightly different versions of what is known as the T model of the BJT. The circuit in (a) is a voltage-controlled
current source representation and that in (b) is a current-controlled current source representation. These models explicitly show 89
the emitter resistance re rather than the base resistance r featured in the hybrid- model.
Aplicao do circuito em pequenos sinais
90
Aplicao do circuito em pequenos sinais: Exemplo 5.14
91
Figure 5.53 Example 5.14: (a) circuit; (b) dc analysis; (c) small-signal model.
Aplicao do circuito em pequenos sinais: Exemplo 5.15
92
Figure 5.54 Signal waveforms in the circuit of Fig. 5.53.
Aplicao do circuito em pequenos sinais: Exemplo 5.16
93
Figure 5.55 Example 5.16: (a) circuit; (b) dc analysis; (c) small-signal model; (d) small-signal analysis performed directly on the circuit.
Aplicao do circuito em pequenos sinais: Exemplo 5.16
Figure 5.56 Distortion in output signal due to transistor cutoff. Note that it is assumed that no distortion due to the transistor
nonlinear characteristics is occurring.
94
Aplicao do circuito em pequenos sinais: Exemplo 5.16
Figure 5.57 Input and output waveforms for the circuit of Fig. 5.55. Observe that this amplifier is noninverting, a property of
the common-base configuration.
95
Modelo hibrido - ; considerando o efeito de Early
96
Figure 5.58 The hybrid- small-signal model, in its two versions, with the resistance ro included.
Ex. 5.40
97
Figure E5.40
Modelos em pequenos sinais
98
Table 5.4
Modelos em pequenos sinais
99
Amplificadores de um estgio
100
Figure 5.59 Basic structure of the circuit used to realize single-stage, discrete-circuit BJT amplifier configurations.
Amplificadores de um estgio: Exerccio 5.41
Figure E5.41
101
Parmetros caractersticos de um amplificador
O circuito
102
Table 5.5
Parmetros caractersticos de um amplificador: definies
103
Parmetros caractersticos de um amplificador: Circuitos equivalentes
104
Parmetros caractersticos de um amplificador: relaes
105
Amplificador Emissor comum
Figure 5.60 (a) A common-emitter amplifier using the structure of Fig. 5.59. (b) Equivalent circuit obtained by replacing the transistor 106
with its hybrid- model.
Amplificador Emissor comum: anlise
107
Amplificador Emissor comum com resistncia Re
108
Figure 5.61 (a) A common-emitter amplifier with an emitter resistance Re. (b) Equivalent circuit obtained by replacing the transistor with its T model.
Amplificador Emissor comum com resistncia Re
109
Amplificador Base comum
110
Figure 5.62 (a) A common-base amplifier of Fig. 5.59. (b) Equivalent circuit obtained by replacing the transistor with its T model.
Amplificador Base comum: anlise
111
Amplificador Coletor comum ou seguidor de emissor
Figure 5.63 (a) An emitter-follower circuit based on the structure of Fig. 5.59. (b) Small-signal equivalent circuit of the emitter follower with the
transistor replaced by its T model augmented with ro. (c) The circuit in (b) redrawn to emphasize that ro is in parallel with RL. This simplifies the112
analysis considerably.
Amplificador Coletor comum ou seguidor de emissor: anlise 1
Rib re ro RL ( 1)
Rin RB Rib
Rin RB re ro RL ( 1)
113
Figure 5.64 (a) An equivalent circuit of the emitter follower obtained from the circuit in Fig. 5.63(c) by reflecting all resistances in the emitter to
the base side. (b) The circuit in (a) after application of Thvenin theorem to the input circuit composed of vsig, Rsig, and RB.
Amplificador Coletor comum ou seguidor de emissor: anlise 2
114
Figure 5.65 (a) An alternate equivalent circuit of the emitter follower obtained by reflecting all base-circuit resistances to the emitter side. (b) The
circuit in (a) after application of Thvenin theorem to the input circuit composed of vsig, Rsig / ( 1 1), and RB / ( 1 1).
Amplificador Coletor comum ou seguidor de emissor: anlise 3
RL
Figure 5.66 Thvenin equivalent circuit of the output of the emitter follower of Fig. 5.63(a). This circuit can be used to find vo and hence the 115
overall voltage gain vo/vsig for any desired RL.
Resumo das caractersticas dos amplificadores com BJT - 1
116
Resumo das caractersticas dos amplificadores com BJT - 2
117
Resumo das caractersticas dos amplificadores com BJT - 3
118
Resumo das caractersticas dos amplificadores com BJT - 4
119
Capacitncias de juno e modelo em altas frequncias de um BJT - 1
120
Modelo -hibrido para altas frequncias
C Cde C je
C 0
C m
VCB
1 IMPORTANTE!!
V0c
121
Figure 5.67 The high-frequency hybrid- model.
Modelo -hibrido para altas frequncias frequncia de corte
I C g mV sC V
1
I C ( g m sC )V
(C C )r
Ib
V I b (r C C )
1 r sC sC T 0
gm
Ic g m sC T
h fe C C IMPORTANTE!!
I b 1 s (C C )r
0
gm
h fe fT
1 s (C C )r 2 (C C )
122
Figure 5.68 Circuit for deriving an expression for hfe(s) ; Ic/Ib.
Modelo -hibrido para altas frequncias frequncia de corte
gm
T
C C
gm
fT
2 (C C )
I C VT
fT
2 (C C )
124
Table 5.7
Resposta em frequncia do amplificador EC
Figure 5.71 (a) Capacitively coupled common-emitter amplifier. (b) Sketch of the magnitude of the gain of the CE amplifier versus frequency. 125
The graph delineates the three frequency bands relevant to frequency-response determination.
Resposta em alta frequncia do amplificador EC
126
Resposta em alta frequncia do amplificador EC
127
Resposta em alta frequncia do amplificador EC
128
Resposta em alta frequncia do amplificador EC: EXERCCIO
Encontrar o ganho em frequncias mdias e a frequencia de corte superior do amp. EC para: Vcc=Vee=10V;
I=1mA; RB= 100k ; Rsig=8k ; RL=5k ; 0=100; VA=100V; C=1pF; fT=800mHz, rx=50
129
130
Mtodo das constantes de tempo de curto circuito
baixa freqncia
Resposta em Freqncia de amplificadores
s d1s .......
nL nL1
FL ( s) nL
s e1s nL1 .......
nL
1
e1
i 1 Ci RiS nL
1
L
i 1 Ci RiS
131
Resposta em Freqncia de amplificadores Aplicando o mtodo para um amplificador com MOSFET baixas freqncias
nL
1
L
i 1 Ci RiS
132
Resposta em baixa frequncia do amplificador EC
Considerar anlise em
pequenos sinais
C1 para o cap. CC1:
Resistncia equivalente nos
terminais de CC1Vsig=0; CE
= CC2= curto circuito;
C1 =RC1.CC1
Figure 5.73 Analysis of the low-frequency response of the CE amplifier: (a) amplifier circuit with dc sources removed; (b) the effect of CC1 is 133
determined with CE and CC2 assumed to be acting as perfect short circuits;
Resposta em baixa frequncia do amplificador EC
Considerar anlise em
pequenos sinais
CE para o cap. CC1:
Resistncia equivalente nos
terminais de CCEVsig=0; C1
= CC2= curto circuito;
CE =RCE.CE
Figure 5.73 (Continued) (c) the effect of CE is determined with CC1 and CC2 assumed to be acting as perfect short circuits; (d) the effect of CC2 134
is
determined with CC1 and CE assumed to be acting as perfect short circuits;
Resposta em baixa frequncia do amplificador EC
Considerar anlise em
pequenos sinais
CE para o cap. CC2:
Resistncia equivalente nos
terminais de CC2Vsig=0; C1
= CE= curto circuito;
C2 =RC2.CC2
135
Resposta em baixa frequncia do amplificador EC
nL
1
L
i 1 Ci RiS
136
Figure 5.73 (Continued) (e) sketch of the low-frequency gain under the assumptions that CC1, CE, and CC2 do not interact and that their break (or
pole) frequencies are widely separated.
Inversor Lgico: caractersticas de transferncia de tenso
IB
IC
VCC VCEsat RC
forado
VCC VCEsat RC
VOH VBE RB
137
Figure 5.74 Basic BJT digital logic inverter.
Inversor Lgico
Figure 5.75 Sketch of the voltage transfer characteristic of the inverter circuit of Fig. 5.74 for the case RB 5 10 k, RC 5 1 k, 5 50, and VCC 5 138
5 V. For the calculation of the coordinates of X and Y, refer to the text.
Concentrao de portadores minoritrios na base de um transistor npn
Modo ativo
139
Figure 5.76 The minority-carrier charge stored in the base of a saturated transistor can be divided into two components: That in blue produces the
gradient that gives rise to the diffusion current across the base, and that in gray results from driving the transistor deeper into saturation.
Concentrao de portadores minoritrios na base de um saturado
Corrente de difuso
140
Figure E5.53
141
Configurao Ebers-Moll para um TBJ npn
Figure 5.77 The transport form of the Ebers-Moll model for an npn BJT.
142
Configurao Ebers-Moll para um TBJ npn SPICE
143
Figure 5.78 The SPICE large-signal Ebers-Moll model for an npn BJT.
Exerccios e Problemas do Cap. 5
144
Figure 5.79 The PSpice testbench used to demonstrate the dependence of dc on the collector bias current IC for the Q2N3904 discrete BJT
(Example 5.20).
145
Figure 5.80 Dependence of dc on IC (at VCE 5 2 V) in the Q2N3904 discrete BJT (Example 5.20).
146
Figure 5.81 Capture schematic of the CE amplifier in Example 5.21.
147
Figure 5.82 Frequency response of the CE amplifier in Example 5.21 with Rce = 0 and Rce = 130 .
148
Figure P5.20
149
Figure P5.21
150
Figure P5.24
151
Figure P5.26
152
Figure P5.36
153
Figure P5.44
154
Figure P5.53
155
Figure P5.57
156
Figure P5.58
157
Figure P5.65
158
Figure P5.66
159
Figure P5.67
160
Figure P5.68
161
Figure P5.69
162
Figure P5.71
163
Figure P5.72
164
Figure P5.74
165
Figure P5.76
166
Figure P5.78
167
Figure P5.79
168
Figure P5.81
169
Figure P5.82
170
Figure P5.83
171
Figure P5.84
172
Figure P5.85
173
Figure P5.86
174
Figure P5.87
175
Figure P5.96
176
Figure P5.97
177
Figure P5.98
178
Figure P5.99
179
Figure P5.100
180
Figure P5.101
181
Figure P5.112
182
Figure P5.115
183
Figure P5.116
184
Figure P5.124
185
Figure P5.126
186
Figure P5.130
187
Figure P5.134
188
Figure P5.135
189
Figure P5.136
190
Figure P5.137
191
Figure P5.141
192
Figure P5.143
193
Figure P5.144
194
Figure P5.147
195
Figure P5.148
196
Figure P5.159
197
Figure P5.161
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Figure P5.162
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Figure P5.166
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Figure P5.167
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Figure P5.171
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