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6 Endangerment
Ingestion of Plastic
Entanglement
Habitat Degradation
9 Conservation
10 Ecological Roles
The Green Sea Turtle and Sea Grass Beds
The Hawksbill Turtle and Coral Reefs
Nutrient Cycling and Habitat Provision
Beach Dune Benefits
The Leatherback and Jellyfish
Symbiotic Relationships
14 Plastic in Oceans
Litter
Inadequate Waste Disposal
Microbeads
Lax Industries
3
16 How to Reduce Plastic Pollution
About Sea Turtles
There are seven species of sea return to the water (Allison, Griffin,
turtles recorded in the worlds Miller, & Rider, 2009). After 45-70
oceans: loggerhead, leatherback, days of incubation, the clutch of
flatback, green, Kemps ridley, olive approximately 100 eggs will hatch
ridley, and hawksbill. Sea turtles and crawl to the ocean (Shester,
belong to the family Cheloniidae, 2007). The sex of the hatchlings is
with the exception of the determined by the nest temperature,
leatherback in the family with more female sea turtles born at
Dermochelyidae. Several common higher temperatures (National
characteristics differentiate them Research Council, 1990). The young
from land turtles and allow them to will journey across ocean basins in
live in aquatic environments. This search of feeding grounds and as
includes their nonretractile limbs, they mature will migrate thousands
extensively roofed skulls, paddle-like of miles to feed in open-ocean pelagic
flippers with one or two claws, and waters (Shester, 2007). Most sea
large salt glands to excrete the turtles are limited in range to
excess salt ingested with seawater tropical and temperate waters
and food (National Research because they are ectothermic, so
Council, 1990). Diet varies among their internal body temperature is
species with all except green sea dependent on the surrounding
turtles being carnivores. Their prey environment (WAVE Foundation,
may include crabs, shrimp, 2007). After mating, adult females
mollusks, sponges, and jellyfish will swim with the guidance of the
(National Research Council, 1990). Earths magnetic field and other
cues back to their original nesting
Species of sea turtles all have beaches to lay their eggs and
similar reproductive behaviour continue the life cycle (Allison et al.,
patterns. The females nest at night 2009).
on sandy beaches and immediately
).
4
Loggerhead
Leatherback
Green
Hawksbill
Olive Ridley
Kemps Ridley
5
Flatback
Endangerment
All six U.S. species of sea turtles because they are highly
turtles are listed as either mobile and use many marine
endangered or threatened under habitats which exposes them to
the Endangered Species Act of harm from plastic pollutants
1973 (Allison et al., 2009). The through many different pathways
flatback turtle which only breeds (Duncan, 2015). Plastics are a
in Australia is classified as significant hazard for sea turtles,
vulnerable by the Environment reducing their abilities to forage,
Protection and Biodiversity grow, and survive (Allison et al.,
Conservation Act of 1999 2009). Researchers estimate that
(Commonwealth of Australia, only one in every thousand
2017). Both sea turtles species hatchlings will live to adulthood
found in Canadian waters, and reproduce (WAVE Foundation,
leatherback and loggerhead, are 2007). Marine turtle population
currently listed as endangered by sizes have been reduced to mere
the Committee on the Status of fractions of what they used to be.
Endangered Wildlife in Canada
and the Species At Risk Act. As for
the International Union for
Conservation of Natures Red List,
the seven species of sea turtles are
either listed as data deficient,
vulnerable, endangered or
critically endangered.
Ocean pollution is a
global-scale threat to sea turtles
and has contributed to their
decline because of the damaging
effects of debris ingestion and
entanglement, as well as the
destruction of their habitat
(Duncan, 2015). Plastics are a
major pollutant in marine and
coastal environments, and are
reported in many studies as the
main type of anthropogenic debris
in these habitats (Poli, Mesquita,
Saska, & Mascarenhas, 2015). This 6
poses a particular risk to sea
Ingestion of plastics
All species of sea turtles are consequently affecting growth and
prone to the ingestion of plastic when reproduction rates (Poli et al., 2015).
feeding. Leatherbacks are especially This can also lead to loss of buoyancy
known to ingest plastic debris because control due to the accumulation of gas
they commonly mistake plastic bags for in the intestine, as well as damage to
jellyfish, their primary food source the gastrointestinal tract such as
(Shester, 2007). One study found that necrosis and ulceration (Poli et al.,
37.2% of leatherback sea turtles 2015). Even in small quantities plastics
examined since 1968 indicated the can be lethal to sea turtles by
presence of plastic in their perforation of the bowel or obstruction
gastrointestinal tract (Mrosovsky, of the oesophagus resulting in
Ryan, & James, 2009). Although plastic starvation or in the absorption of toxic
bags are the most common, other forms by-products (Wabnitz & Nichols, 2010).
of plastic found to be ingested by sea A study conducted on young
turtles include balloons, plastic loggerheads found that 15% had
sheeting, packaging materials, and food ingested enough plastic to block their
wrappers. normal stomach functions (Allison et
al., 2009). Unfortunately, sea turtle
There are widely recognized carcasses that died of suffocation on
physical and chemical effects of plastic plastics and other marine debris are
ingestion on sea turtles. Physical often found washed up on beaches
impact is often related to interference (Shester, 2007).
with gut functioning and metabolism
(Khn, Bravo Rebolledo, van Franeker,
2015). Nutritional dilution occurs in
sea turtles when non-nutritious
material occupies the food space in the
gastrointestinal tract, reducing the
volume of space for food, thus causing 7
lower nutrient and energy uptake and
Entanglement
The abundance of pollution in the habitats of sea turtles puts
them at an increased risk of becoming entangled in debris. Plastics
are obstacles for marine turtles making their way onto beaches and
for hatchlings crawling to the sea, and they will often become
entrapped in litter (Khn et al., 2015). Entanglement can cause
starvation, drowning, restricted mobility, infection, and amputation
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2017). Wounds and restricted
movement will reduce their ability to forage and avoid predators so
they become exhausted and may starve or drown (Khn et al.,
2015). Entanglement is also known to cause skin infections, loss of
limbs, and septic processes in sea turtles (Khn et al., 2015).
Habitat Degradation
Plastic debris in oceans can lead to the degradation of important
habitats for sea turtles. Marine pollution frequently collects on nesting
beaches which causes difficulties for females coming to lay their eggs
and for emerging hatchlings. Plastic fragments can alter the
temperature and permeability of the seashore, impacting nest success
rates and sex ratios, which are influenced by nest conditions (Duncan,
2015). Sea turtles normally return to the same coast where they
hatched to lay their eggs, but if this habitat has changed or is perceived
as dangerous, the turtle will abort the eggs at sea (WAVE Foundation,
2007). By restricting the ability of sea turtles to reproduce and
repopulate, habitat degradation directly decreases their fitness and
further endangers them. The presence of plastics in open ocean also has
detrimental effects on sea turtle habitats which may limit food
availability. Marine debris can damage coral reefs by causing
suffocation, abrasion of polyp tissue, shading from light, and sediment
8
accumulation, so turtles must go elsewhere to forage (Duncan, 2015).
Conservation
As a result of their decline and minimize bycatch through fishing
status, strategies are now being gear modifications that reduce the
implemented to protect sea turtle probability of turtle interactions by
populations. Their large range of using Turtle Excluder Devices,
habitats requires a conservation plan changing to circular longline hooks,
that connects all parts of the ocean or using bait that is less preferred by
ecosystem and protects them on sea turtles (Shester, 2007).
many fronts (Shester, 2007). The Furthermore, collecting data on
Endangered Species Act makes it migratory patterns and foraging
illegal in the United States to hotspots has allowed researchers to
possess, sell, transport, kill, harass, predict where species are likely to be
harm, import or export listed sea based on oceanographic, climate, and
turtles or their eggs. It also requires animal tagging data, which could
the federal government to protect provide the scientific foundation for
important habitat needed for their management interventions (Shester,
survival and recovery (Allison et al., 2007). Awareness campaigns also play
2009). All species of sea turtles have an important role in reducing the
been covered under Appendix I of the effects of human activities on marine
Convention on International Trade in turtle populations by informing the
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna public of their impacts and the ways
and Flora since 1981 and receive they can modify their behaviours to
protection from international trade aid in species conservation.
by all countries that have signed the
treaty (Donnelly, 2011). In addition to
the numerous legal protections put on
sea turtle species, there are also
conservation projects that work to
reduce the major threats to their
recovery. Studies are being done to
9
Ecological Roles of Sea Turtles
The Green Sea Turtle and Sea Grass Beds
10
The Hawksbill Turtle and Coral Reefs
The critically endangered hawksbill turtle has an important
role in regards to maintaining healthy coral reefs. Sponges are a
competitive species and would dominate coral reefs if it werent for the
turtles. Because of their beak-like mouth, they can reduce the sponge
population and allow for a wide range of species, including the tourist
attracting corals, to survive in the reefs. Sponges also have chemical
defenses making it impossible for fish and other organisms to feed upon
them. When the hawksbill turtles rip the sponges while consuming
them, more sources of food are made available for the surrounding coral
reef organisms (Allison et al., 2010). Not only do sea turtles have a great
hand in the biodiversity of coral reefs, but they are also a form of
attraction for tourists and provide essential income for Coral Triangle
residents (WWF, 2012).
12
The Leatherback and Jelly Fish
Symbiotic Relationships
All sea turtles, especially olive
ridleys and flatbacks, have a symbiotic
relationship with seabirds and fish.
While basking in the sun, far from the
shoreline, sea turtles create a natural
resting platform for seabirds. This
allows them to safely rest, dry their
feathers and have a cover from marine
predators like sharks. Small fish use
sea turtles for means of protection as
well. The presence of these fish can
serve as a food supply for the birds
while they are resting. They can also
feed off of tiny animal and plant
organisms living on the turtles shell
(Allison et al., 2010)
13
How does plastic end up in the
oceans?
A major issue with plastic is that it is not easily biodegradable.
Products that we use daily can take more than a lifetime to break down. For
instance, plastic bags take 20 years, while plastic bottles can take up to 450
years to fully decompose into the environment (U.S National Park Service,
2017). According to a recent study by scientists at the National Center for
Ecological Analysis and Synthesis at the University of California, 17 billion
pounds of plastic flow into our oceans each year (Leonard, 2015). Whether it is
intentional or accidental, plastic that finds its way into our oceans is mostly due
to human activity and can be sorted into 4 categories:
Litter
Litter is a big factor in marine debris since it comes from all types of
milieus. If plastic that litters a citys street is not picked up and recycled, it
has to go somewhere. With rain and wind, that somewhere ends up being
drains and rivers, and as a result, the plastic is displaced into the oceans.
Litter and beach gear carelessly left behind on the shores by tourists easily
make their way into the ocean. Inattentive waste disposal, such as
throwing recyclable materials in the garbage or overflowing bins add to the
ocean pollution problem. Even though a great majority of marine debris
comes from terrestrial activities, some of it also originates from the ocean.
Fishermen can accidentally lose their equipment due to the heavy currents
and winds or intentionally throw their litter overboard.
14
Microbeads
Microbeads are minuscule
manufactured particles of plastic,
nearly invisible to the human eye,
which can be found in products
such as beauty cosmetics, shampoo
and toothpaste. These hygienic
necessities all go down the drain
and in turn, contribute to plastic
pollution since they are too tiny to
get properly filtered out. On a high
note, due to the pressure applied by
consumers, brands and
manufacturers are working on
eliminating microbeads from
products. Many governments,
including those of Canada and the
United States, have banned the
importation of commercial products
carrying microbeads (Casson,
2017).
Lax Industries
When it comes to the
environment, big industries often
have flexible and carefree rules to
follow. It is no different in regards to
plastic pollution. Some industries do
not properly dispose of products
made of plastic, and their
transportation processes can result
in big plastic outbreaks (Casson,
2017). An example of this type of
incident happened during a storm in
1992 when cargo ship containers
transporting more than 29 000
rubber ducks fell into the ocean. 25
years later, these toys are still
present, travelling with the ocean 15
currents (Winberg, 2017).
How to reduce plastic pollution
Human activity is at the center of marine debris, most of
which is plastic, and humans are the only ones able to put a stop to it.
By executing small but impactful changes in our daily routines, we are
one step closer to reducing plastic pollution. For instance, using
alternative materials such as reusable shopping bags and reusable
bottles decreases the impact of plastic pollution. Taking small and
relatively simple matters, such as properly recycling and joining
volunteer groups to remove plastic litter from the shores, help as well.
All actions, whether they are big or small, contribute to diminish the
amplification of the problem.
16
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